proofreading team the art of interior decoration plate i there is something unusually exquisite about this composition. you will discover at a glance perfect balance, repose--line, everywhere, yet with it infinite grace and a winning charm. one can imagine a tea tray brought in, a table placed and those two attractive chairs drawn together so that my lady and a friend may chat over the tea cups. the mirror is an italian louis xvi. the sconces, table and chairs, french. the vases, italian, all antiques. a becoming mellow light comes through the shade of deep cream italian parchment paper with louis xvi decorations. it should be said that the vases are italian medicine jars--literally that. they were once used by the italian chemists, for their drugs, and some are of astonishing workmanship and have great intrinsic value, as well as the added value of age and uniqueness. the colour scheme is as attractive as the lines. the walls are grey, curtains of green and grey, antique taffeta being used, while the chairs have green silk on their seats and the table is of green and faded gold. the green used is a wonderfully beautiful shade. [illustration: _portion of a drawing room, perfect in composition and detail_] the art of interior decoration by grace wood and emily burbank _illustrated_ new york dodd, mead and company dedicated to a.m.m. _at the age of eighty, an inspiration to all who meet her, because she is the embodiment of what this book stands for; namely, fidelity to the principles of classic art and watchfulness for the vital new note struck in the cause of the beautiful._ foreword if you would have your rooms interesting as well as beautiful, make them say something, give them a spinal column by keeping all ornamentation subservient to line. before you buy anything, try to imagine how you want each room to look when completed; get the picture well in your mind, as a painter would; think out the main features, for the details all depend upon these and will quickly suggest themselves. this is, in the long run, the quickest and the most economical method of furnishing. there is a theory that no room can be created all at once, that it must grow gradually. in a sense this is a fact, so far as it refers to the amateur. the professional is always occupied with creating and recreating rooms and can instantly summon to mind complete schemes of decoration. the amateur can also learn to mentally furnish rooms. it is a fascinating pastime when one gets the knack of it. beautiful things can be obtained anywhere and for the minimum price, if one has a feeling for line and colour, or for either. if the lover of the beautiful was not born with this art instinct, it may be quickly acquired. a decorator creates or rearranges one room; the owner does the next, alone, or with assistance, and in a season or two has spread his or her own wings and worked out legitimate schemes, teeming with individuality. one observes, is pleased with results and asks oneself why. this is the birth of _good taste_. next, one experiments, makes mistakes, rights them, masters a period, outgrows or wearies of it, and takes up another. progress is rapid and certain in this fascinating amusement,--study--call it what you will, if a few of the laws underlying all successful interior decoration are kept in mind. these are: harmony in line and colour scheme; simplicity in decoration and number of objects in room, which is to be dictated by usefulness of said objects; and insistence upon spaces which, like rests in music, have as much value as the objects dispersed about the room. treat your rooms like "still life," see to it that each group, such as a table, sofa, and one or two chairs make a "composition," suggesting comfort as well as beauty. never have an isolated chair, unless it is placed against the wall, as part of the decorative scheme. in preparing this book the chief aim has been clearness and brevity, the slogan of our day! we give a broad outline of the historical periods in furnishing, with a view to quick reference work. the thirty-two illustrations will be analysed for the practical instruction of the reader who may want to furnish a house and is in search of definite ideas as to lines of furniture, colour schemes for upholstery and hangings, and the placing of furniture and ornaments in such a way as to make the composition of rooms appear harmonious from the artist's point of view. the index will render possible a quick reference to illustrations and explanatory text, so that the book may be a guide for those ambitious to try their hand at the art of interior decoration. the manner of presentation is consciously didactic, the authors believing that this is the simplest method by which such a book can offer clear, terse suggestions. they have aimed at keeping "near to the bone of fact" and when the brief statements of the fundamental laws of interior decoration give way to narrative, it is with the hope of opening up vistas of personal application to embryo collectors or students of periods. contents foreword chapter i. how to rearrange a room method of procedure.--inherited eyesores.--line.--colour.--treatment of small rooms and suites.--old ceilings.--old floors.--to paint brass bedsteads.--hangings.--owning two or three antique pieces of furniture, how proceed.--appropriateness to setting.--how to give your home a personal quality. chapter ii. how to create a room mere comfort.--period rooms.--starting a collection of antique furniture.--reproductions.--painted furniture.--order of procedure in creating a room.--how to decide upon colour scheme.--study values.--period ballroom.--a distinguished room.--each room a stage "set."--background.--flowers as decoration.--placing ornaments.--tapestry.--tendency to antique tempered by vivid bakst colours. chapter iii. how to determine character of hangings and furniture-covering for a given room silk, velvet, corduroy, rep, leather, use of antique silks, chintz.--when and how used. chapter iv. the story of textiles materials woven by hand and machine, embroidered, or the combination of the two known as tapestry.--painted tapestry.--art fostered by the church.--decorated walls and ceilings, th century, england. chapter v. candlesticks, lamps, fixtures for gas and electricity, and shades fixtures, as well as mantelpiece, must follow architect's scheme.--plan wall space for furniture.--shades for lights.--important as to line and colour. chapter vi. window shades and awnings coloured gauze sash-curtains.--window shades of glazed linen, with design in colours.--striped canvas awnings. chapter vii. treatment of pictures and picture frames selecting pictures.--pictures as pure decoration.--"staring" a picture.--restraint necessary in hanging pictures.--hanging miniatures. chapter viii. treatment of piano cases where interest centres abound piano.--where piano is part of ensemble. chapter ix. treatment of dining-room buffets and dressing-tables articles placed upon them. chapter x. treatment of work tables, bird cages, dog baskets, and fish globes value as colour notes. chapter xi. treatment of fireplaces proportions, tiles, andirons, grates. chapter xii. treatment of bathrooms a man's bathroom.--a woman's bathroom.--bathroom fixtures.--bathroom glassware. chapter xiii. period rooms chiselling of metals.--ormoulu.--chippendale.--colonial.--victorian.--the art of furniture making.--how to hang a mirror.--appropriate furniture.--a home must have human quality, a personal note.--mrs. john l. gardner's italian palace in boston.--the study of colour schemes.--tapestries.--a narrow hall. chapter xiv. periods in furniture the story of the evolution of periods.-- assyria.--egypt.--greece.--rome.--france. --england.--america.--epoch-making styles. chapter xv. continuation of periods in furniture greece.--rome.--byzantium.--dark ages.--middle ages.--gothic.--moorish.--spanish.--anglo-saxon.--cæsar's table.--charlemagne's chair.--venice. chapter xvi. the gothic period interior decoration of feudal castle.--tapestry.--hallmarks of gothic oak carving. chapter xvii. the renaissance italy.--the medici.--great architects, painters, designers, and workers in metals.--marvellous pottery.--furniture inlaying.--hallmarks of renaissance.--oak carving.--metal work.--renaissance in germany and spain. chapter xviii. french furniture renaissance of classic period.--francis i, henry ii, and the louis.--architecture, mural decoration, tapestry, furniture, wrought metals, ormoulu, silks, velvets, porcelains. chapter xix. the periods of the three louis how to distinguish them.--louis xiv.--louis xv.--louis xvi.--outline.--decoration.--colouring.--mural decoration.--tapestry. chapter xx. charts showing historical evolution of furniture french and english. chapter xxi. the mahogany period chippendale.--heppelwhite.--sheraton.--the adam brothers.--characteristics of these and the preceding english periods; gothic, elizabethan, jacobean, william and mary, queen anne.--william morris.--pre-raphaelites. chapter xxii. the colonial period furniture.--landscape paper.--the story of the evolution of wall decoration. chapter xxiii. the revival of directoire and empire furniture shown in modern painted furniture. chapter xxiv. the victorian period architecture and interior decoration become unrelated.--machine-made furniture.--victorian cross-stitch, beadwork, wax and linen flowers.--bristol glass.--value to-day as notes of variety. chapter xxv. painted furniture including "mission" furniture.--treatment of an unplastered cottage.--furniture, colour-scheme. chapter xxvi. treatment of an inexpensive bedroom factory furniture.--chintz.--the cheapest mirrors.--floors.--walls.--pictures.--treatment of old floors. chapter xxvii. treatment of a guest room where economy is not a matter of importance.--panelled walls.--louis xv painted furniture.--taffeta curtains and bed-cover.--chintz chair-covers.--cream net sash-curtains.--figured linen window-shades. chapter xxviii. a modern house in which genuine jacobean furniture is appropriately set traditional colour-scheme of crimson and gold. chapter xxix. unconventional breakfast-rooms and sports balconies porch-rooms.--appropriate furnishings.--colour schemes. chapter xxx. sun-rooms colour schemes according to climate and season.--a small, cheap, summer house converted into one of some pretentions by altering vital details. chapter xxxi. treatment of a woman's dressing-room solving problems of the toilet.--shoe cabinets.--jewel cabinets.--dressing tables. chapter xxxii. the treatment of closets variety of closets.--colour scheme.--chintz covered boxes. chapter xxxiii. treatment of a narrow hall furniture.--device for breaking length of hall. chapter xxxiv. treatment of a very shaded living-room in a warm climate.--in a cool climate.--warm and cold colours. chapter xxxv. servants' rooms practical and suitable attractiveness. chapter xxxvi. table decoration appropriateness the keynote.--tableware.--linen, lace, and flowers.--japanese simplicity.--background. chapter xxxvii. what to avoid in interior decoration: rules for beginners appropriateness.--intelligent elimination.--furnishings.--colour scheme.--small suites.--background.--placing rugs and hangings.--treatment of long wall-space.--men's rooms.--table decoration.--tea table.--how to train the taste, eye, and judgment. chapter xxxviii. fads in collecting a panier fleuri collection.--a typical experience in collecting.--a "find" in an obscure american junk-shop.--getting on the track of some italian pottery.--collections used as decoration.--a "find" in spain. chapter xxxix. wedgwood pottery, old and modern the history of wedgwood.--josiah wedgwood, the founder. chapter xl. italian pottery statuettes. chapter xli. venetian glass, old and modern murano museum collection.--table-gardens in venetian glass. in conclusion four fundamental principles of interior decoration re-stated. illustrations plate i portion of a drawing-room, perfect in composition and detail. plate ii bedroom in country house. modern painted furniture. plate iii suggestion for treatment of a very small bedroom. plate iv a man's office in wall street. plate v a corner of the same office. plate vi another view of the same office. plate vii corner of a room, showing painted furniture, antique and modern. plate viii example of a perfect mantel, ornaments and mirror. plate ix dining-room in country house, showing modern painted furniture. plate x dining-room furniture, italian renaissance, antique. plate xi corner of dining-room in new york apartment, showing section of italian refectory table and italian chairs, both antique and renaissance in style. plate xii an italian louis xvi salon in a new york apartment. plate xiii another side of the same italian louis xvi salon. plate xiv a narrow hall where effect of width is attained by use of tapestry with vista. plate xv venetian glass, antique and modern. plate xvi corner of a room in a small empire suite. plate xvii an example of perfect balance and beauty in mantel arrangement. plate xviii corner of a drawing-room, furniture showing directoire influence. plate xix entrance hall in new york duplex apartment. italian furniture. plate xx combination of studio and living-room in new york duplex apartment. plate xxi part of a victorian parlour in one of the few remaining new york victorian mansions. plate xxii two styles of day-beds, modern painted. plate xxiii boudoir in new york apartment. painted furniture, antique and reproductions. plate xxiv example of lack of balance in mantel arrangement. plate xxv treatment of ground lying between house and much travelled country road. plate xxvi an extension roof in new york converted into a balcony. plate xxvii a common-place barn made interesting. plate xxviii narrow entrance hall of a new york antique shop. plate xxix example of a charming hall spoiled by too pronounced a rug. plate xxx a man's library. plate xxxi a collection of empire furniture, ornaments, and china. plate xxxii italian reproductions in pottery after classic models. "those who duly consider the influence of the _fine-arts_ on the _human mind_, will not think it a small benefit to the world, to diffuse their productions as wide, and preserve them as long as possible. the multiplying of copies of fine work, in beautiful and durable materials, must obviously have the same effect in respect to the arts as the invention of printing has upon literature and the sciences: by their means the principal productions of both kinds will be forever preserved, and will effectually prevent the return of ignorant and barbarous ages." josiah wedgwood: catalogue of . one of the most joyful obligations in life should be the planning and executing of beautiful homes, keeping ever in mind that distinction is not a matter of scale, since a vast palace may find its rival in the smallest group of rooms, provided the latter obeys the law of _good line, correct proportions, harmonious colour scheme and appropriateness_: a law insisting that all useful things be beautiful things. the art of interior decoration chapter i how to rearrange a room lucky is the man or woman of taste who has no inherited eyesores which, because of association, must not be banished! when these exist in large numbers one thing only remains to be done: look them over, see to what period the majority belong, and proceed as if you _wanted_ a mid-victorian, late colonial or brass-bedstead room. to rearrange a room successfully, begin by taking everything out of it (in reality or in your mind), then decide how you want it to look, or how, owing to what you own and must retain, you are obliged to have it look. design and colour of wall decorations, hangings, carpets, lighting fixtures, lamps and ornaments on mantel, depend upon the character of your furniture. it is the mantel and its arrangement of ornaments that sound the keynote upon first entering a room. conventional simplicity in number and arrangement of ornaments gives balance and repose, hence dignity. dignity once established, one can afford to be individual, and introduce a riot of colours, provided they are all in the same key. luxurious cushions, soft rugs and a hundred and one feminine touches will create atmosphere and knit together the austere scheme of line--the anatomy of your room. colour and textiles are the flesh of interior decoration. in furnishing a small room you can add greatly to its apparent size by using plain paper and making the woodwork the same colour, or slightly darker in tone. if you cannot find wall paper of exactly the colour and shade you wish, it is often possible to use the wrong side of a paper and produce exactly the desired effect. in repapering old rooms with imperfect ceilings it is easy to disguise this by using a paper with a small design in the same tone. a perfectly plain ceiling paper will show every defect in the surface of the ceiling. if your house or flat is small you can gain a great effect of space by keeping the same colour scheme throughout--that is, the same colour or related colours. to make a small hall and each of several small rooms on the same floor different in any pronounced way, is to cut up your home into a restless, unmeaning checkerboard, where one feels conscious of the walls and all limitations. the effect of restful spaciousness may be obtained by taking the same small suite and treating its walls, floors and draperies, as has been suggested, in the same colour scheme or a scheme of related keys in colour. that is, wood browns, beiges and yellows; violets, mauves and pinks; different tones of greys; different tones of yellows, greens and blues. now having established your suite and hall all in one key, so that there is absolutely no jarring note as one passes from room to room, you may be sure of having achieved that most desirable of all qualities in interior decoration--repose. we have seen the idea here suggested carried out in small summer homes with most successful results; the same colour used on walls and furniture, while exactly the same chintz was employed in every bedroom, opening out of one hall. by this means it was possible to give to a small, unimportant cottage, a note of distinction otherwise quite impossible. here, however, let us say that, if the same chintz is to be used in every room, it must be neutral in colour--a chintz in which the colour scheme is, say, yellows in different tones, browns in different tones, or greens or greys. to vary the character of each room, introduce different colours in the furniture covers, the sofa-cushions and lamp-shades. our point is to urge the repetition of a main background in a small group of rooms; but to escape monotony by planning that the accessories in each room shall strike individual notes of decorative, contrasting colour. plate ii a room with modern painted furniture is shown here. lines and decorations empire. note the lyre backs of chairs and head board in day-bed. treatment of this bed is that suggested where twin beds are used and room affords wall space for but one of them. [illustration: _bedroom in country house. modern painted furniture._] * * * * * what to do with old floors is a question many of us have faced. if your house has been built with floors of wide, common boards which have become rough and separated by age, in some cases allowing dust to sift through from the cellar, and you do not wish to go to the expense of all-over carpets, you have the choice of several methods. the simplest and least expensive is to paint or stain the floors. in this case employ a floor painter and begin by removing all old paint. paint removers come for the purpose. then have the floors planed to make them even. next, fill the cracks with putty. the most practical method is to stain the floors some dark colour; mahogany, walnut, weathered oak, black, green or any colour you may prefer, and then wax them. this protects the colour. in a room where daintiness is desired, and economy is not important, as for instance in a room with white painted furniture, you may have white floors and a square carpet rug of some plain dark toned velvet; or, if preferred, the painted border may be in come delicate colour to match the wall paper. to resume, if you like a dull finish, have the wax rubbed in at intervals, but if you like a glossy background for rugs, use a heavy varnish after the floors are coloured. this treatment we suggest for more or less formal rooms. in bedrooms, put down an inexpensive filling as a background for rugs, or should yours be a summer home, use straw matting. for halls and dining-rooms a plain dark-coloured linoleum, costing not less than two dollars a yard makes and inexpensive floor covering. if it is waxed it becomes not only very durable but, also, extremely effective, suggesting the dark tiles in italian houses. we do not advise the purchase of the linoleums which represent inlaid floors, as they are invariably unsuccessful imitations. if it is necessary to economise and your brass bedstead must be used even though you dislike it, you can have it painted the colour of your walls. it requires a number of coats. a soft pearl grey is good. then use a colour, or colours, in your silk or chintz bedspread. sun-proof material in a solid colour makes an attractive cover, with a narrow fringe in several colours straight around the edges and also, forming a circle or square on the top of the bed-cover. * * * * * if your gas or electric fixtures are ugly and you cannot afford more attractive ones, buy very cheap, perfectly plain, ones and paint them to match the walls, giving decorative value to them with coloured silk shades. plate iii shows one end of a very small bedroom with modern painted furniture, so simple in line and decoration that it would be equally appropriate either for a young man or for a young woman. we say "young," because there is something charmingly fresh and youthful about this type of furniture. the colour is pale pistache green, with mulberry lines, the same combination of colours being repeated in painting the walls which have a grey background lined with mulberry--the broad stripe--and a narrow green line. the bed cover is mulberry, the lamp shade is green with mulberry and grey in the fringe. on the walls are delightful old prints framed in black glass with gold lines, and a narrow moulding of gilded oak, an old style revived. a square of antique silk covers the night table, and the floor is polished hard wood. here is your hall bedroom, the wee guest room in a flat, or the extra guest room under the eaves of your country house, made equally beguiling. the result of this artistic simplicity is a restful sense of space. [illustration: _suggestion for treatment of a very small bedroom_] if you wish to use twin beds and have not wall space for them, treat one like a couch or day-bed. see plate ii. your cabinet-maker can remove the footboard, then draw the bed out into the room, place in a position convenient to the light either by day or night, after which put a cover of cretonne or silk over it and cushions of the same. never put a spotted material on a spotted material. if your couch or sofa is done in a figured material of different colours, make your sofa cushions of plain material to tone down the sofa. if the sofa is a plain colour, then tone it up--make it more decorative by using cushions of several colours. if you like your room, but find it cold in atmosphere, try deep cream gauze for sash curtains. they are wonderful atmosphere producers. the advantage of two tiers of sash curtains (see plate ix) is that one can part and push back one tier for air, light or looking out, and still use the other tier to modify the light in the room. another way to produce atmosphere in a cold room is to use a tone-on-tone paper. that is, a paper striped in two depths of the same colour. in choosing any wall paper it is imperative that you try a large sample of it in the room for which it is intended, as the reflection from a nearby building or brick wall can entirely change a beautiful yellow into a thick mustard colour. how a wall paper looks in the shop is no criterion. as stated sometimes the _wrong side_ of wall paper gives you the tone you desire. when rearranging your room do not desecrate the few good antiques you happen to own by the use of a too modern colour scheme. have the necessary modern pieces you have bought to supplement your treasures stained or painted in a dull, dark colour in harmony with the antiques, and then use subdued colours in the floor coverings, curtains and cushions. if you own no good old ornaments, try to get a few good shapes and colours in inexpensive reproductions of the desired period. if your room is small, and the bathroom opens out of it, add to the size of the room by using the same colour scheme in the bathroom, and conceal the plumbing and fixtures by a low screen. if the connecting door is kept open, the effect is to enlarge greatly the appearance of the small bedroom, whereas if the bedroom decorations are dark and the bathroom has a light floor and walls, it abruptly cuts itself off and emphasises the smallness of the bedroom. everything depends upon the appropriateness of the furniture to its setting. we recall some much admired dining-room chairs in the home of the maclaines of lochbuie in argyleshire, west coast of scotland. the chairs in question are covered with sealskin from the seals caught off that rugged coast. they are quite delightful in a remote country house; but they would not be tolerated in london. the question of placing photographs is not one to be treated lightly. remember, intimate photographs should be placed in intimate rooms, while photographs of artists and all celebrities are appropriate for the living room or library. it is extremely seldom that a photograph unless of public interest is not out of place in a formal room. to repeat, never forget that your house or flat is _your_ home, and, that to have any charm whatever of a personal sort, it must suggest _you_--not simply the taste of a professional decorator. so work with your decorator (if you prefer to employ one) by giving your personal attention to styles and colours, and selecting those most sympathetic to your own nature. your architect will be grateful if you will show the same interest in the details of building your home, rather than assuming the attitude that you have engaged him in order to rid yourself of such bother. if you are building a pretentious house and decide upon some clearly defined period of architecture, let us say, georgian (english eighteenth century) we would advise keeping your first floor mainly in that period as to furniture and hangings, but upstairs let yourself go, that is, make your rooms any style you like. go in for a gay riot of colour, such combinations as are known as bakst colouring,--if that happens to be your fancy. this russian painter and designer was fortunate in having the theatre in which to demonstrate his experiments in vivid colour combinations, and sometimes we quite forget that he was but one of many who have used sunset palettes. plate iv here we have a man's office in wall street, new york, showing how a lawyer with large interests surrounds himself with necessities which contribute to his comfort, sense of beauty and art instincts. the desk is big, solid and commodious, yet artistically unusual. [illustration: _a man's office in wall street_] recently the fair butterfly daughters of a mother whose taste has grown sophisticated, complained--"but, mother, we dislike _periods_, and here you are building a tudor house!" forgetting, by the way, that the so-called bakst interiors, adored by them, are equally a _period_. this home, a very wonderful one, is being worked out on the plan suggested, that is, the first floor is decorated in the period of the exterior of the house, while the personal rooms on the upper floors reflect, to a certain extent, the personality of their occupants. remember there must always be a certain relationship between all the rooms in one suite, the relationship indicated by lines and a background of the same, or a harmonising colour-scheme. chapter ii how to create a room one so often hears the complaint, "i could not possibly set out alone to furnish a room! i don't know anything about _periods_. why, a louis xvi chair and an empire chair are quite the same to me. then the question of antiques and reproductions--why any one could mislead me!" if you have absolutely no interest in the arranging or rearranging of your rooms, house or houses, of course, leave it to a decorator and give your attention to whatever does interest you. on the other hand, as with bridge, if you really want to play the game, you can learn it. the first rule is to determine the actual use to which you intend putting the room. is it to be a bedroom merely, or a combination of bedroom and boudoir? is it to be a formal reception-room, or a living-room? is it to be a family library, or a man's study? if it is a small flat, do you aim at absolute comfort, artistically achieved, or do you aim at formality at the expense of comfort? if you lean toward both comfort and formality, and own a country house and a city abode, there will be no difficulty in solving the problem. formality may be left to the town house or flat, while during week-ends, holidays and summers you can revel in supreme comfort. every man or woman is capable of creating comfort. it is a question of those deep chairs with wide seats and backs, soft springs, thick, downy cushions, of tables and bookcases conveniently placed, lights where you want them, beds to the individual taste,--double, single, or twins! the getting together of a period room, one period or periods in combination, is difficult, especially if you are entirely ignorant of the subject. however, here is your cue. let us suppose you need, or want, a desk--an antique desk. go about from one dealer to the other until you find the very piece you have dreamed of; one that gives pleasure to you, as well as to the dealer. then take an experienced friend to look at it. if you have every reason to suppose that the desk is genuine, buy it. next, read up on the furniture of the particular period to which your desk belongs, in as serious a manner as you do when you buy a prize dog at the show. now you have made an intelligent beginning as a collector. reading informs you, but you must buy old furniture to be educated on that subject. be eternally on the lookout; the really good pieces, veritable antiques, are rare; most of them are in museums, in private collections or in the hands of the most expensive dealers. i refer to those unique pieces, many of them signed by the maker and in perfect condition because during all their existence they have been jealously preserved, often by the very family and in the very house for which they were made. our chances for picking up antiques are reduced to pieces which on account of reversed circumstances have been turned out of house and home, and, as with human wanderers, much jolting about has told upon them. most of these are fortified in various directions, but they are treasures all the same, and have a beauty value in line colour and workmanship and a wonderful fitness for the purposes for which they were intended. "surely we are many men of many minds!" plate v the sofa large, strong and luxuriously comfortable; the curtains simple, durable and masculine in gender. the tapestry and architectural picture, decorative and appropriately impersonal, as the wall decorations should be in a room used merely for transacting business. [illustration: _a corner of the same office_] some prefer antiques a bit dilapidated; a missing detail serving as a hallmark to calm doubts; others insist upon completeness to the eye and solidity for use; while the connoisseur, with unlimited means, recognises nothing less than signed sofas and chairs, and other _objets d'art_. to repeat:--be always on the lookout, remembering that it is the man who knows the points of a good dog, horse or car who can pick a winner. wonderful reproductions are made in new york city and other cities, and thousands bought every day. they are beautiful and desirable pieces of furniture, ornaments or silks; but the lover of the _vrai antique_ learns to detect, almost at a glance, the lack of that quality which a fine _old_ piece has. it is not alone that the materials must be old. there is a certain quality gained from the long association of its parts. one knows when a piece has "found itself," as kipling would put it. time gives an inimitable finish to any surface. if you are young in years, immature in taste, and limited as to bank account, you will doubtless go in for a frankly modern room, with cheerful painted furniture, gay or soft-toned chintzes, and inexpensive smart floor coverings. to begin this way and gradually to collect what you want, piece by piece, is to get the most amusement possible out of furnishing. when you have the essential pieces for any one room, you can undertake an _ensemble_. some of the rarest collections have been got together in this way, and, if one's fortune expands instead of contracting, old pieces may be always replaced by those still more desirable, more rare, more in keeping with your original scheme. to buy expensive furnishings in haste and without knowledge, and within a year or two discover everything to be in bad taste, is a tragedy to a person with an instinctive aversion to waste. antique or modern, every beautiful thing bought is a cherished heirloom in embryo. remember, we may inherit a good antique or _objet d'art_, buy one, or bequeath one. let us never be guilty of the reverse,--a bar-sinister piece of furniture! sympathy with unborn posterity should make us careful. it is always excusable to retain an ugly, inartistic thing--if it is _useful_; but an ornament must be beautiful in line or in colour, or it belies its name. practise that genuine, obvious loyalty which hides away on a safe, but invisible shelf, the bad taste of our ancestors and friends. having settled upon a type of furniture, turn your attention to the walls. always let the location of your room decide the colour of its walls. the room with a sunny exposure may have any colour you like, warm or cold, but your north room or any room more or less sunless, requires the warm, sun-producing yellows, pinks, apple-greens, beige and wood-colours, never the cold colours, such as greys, mauves, violets and blues, unless in combination with the warm tones. if it is your intention to hang pictures on the walls, use plain papers. remember you must never put a spot on a spot! the colour of your walls once established, keep in mind two things: that to be agreeable to the artistic eye your ceilings must be lighter than your sidewalls, and your floors darker. broadly speaking, it is nature's own arrangement, green trees and hillsides, the sky above, and the dark earth beneath our feet. a ceiling, if lighter in tone than the walls, gives a sense of airiness to a room. floors, whether of exposed wood, completely carpeted, or covered by rugs, must be enough darker than your sidewalls to "hold down your room," as the decorators say. if colour is to play a conspicuous part, brightly figured silks and cretonnes being used for hangings and upholstery, the floor covering should be indefinite both as to colour and design. on the other hand, when rugs or carpets are of a definite design in pronounced colours, particularly if you are arranging a living-room, make your walls, draperies and chair-covers plain, and observe great restraint in the use of colour. those who work with them know that there is no such thing as an ugly colour, for all colours are beautiful. whether a colour makes a beautiful or an ugly effect depends entirely upon its juxtaposition to other tones. how well french milliners and dressmakers understand this! to make the point quite clear, let us take magenta. used alone, nothing has more style, more beautiful distinction, but in wrong combination magenta can be amazingly, depressingly ugly. magenta with blue is ravishing, beautiful in the subtle way old tapestries are: it touches the imagination whenever that combination is found. plate vi the table is modern, but made on the lines of a refectory table, well suited in length, width and solidity for board meetings, etc. the chairs are italian in style. [illustration: _another view of the same office_] we grow up to, into, and out of colour schemes. each of the seven ages of man has its appropriate setting in colour as in line. one learns the dexterous manipulation of colour from furnishing, as an artist learns from painting. refuse to accept a colour scheme, unless it appeals to your individual taste--no matter who suggests it. to one not very sensitive to colour here is a valuable suggestion. find a bit of beautiful old silk brocade, or a cretonne you especially like, and use its colour combinations for your room--a usual device of decorators. let us suppose your silk or cretonne to have a deep-cream background, and scattered on it green foliage, faded salmon-pink roses and little, fine blue flowers. use its prevailing colour, the deep cream, for walls and possibly woodwork; make the draperies of taffeta or rep in soft apple-greens; use the same colour for upholstery, make shades for lamp and electric lights of salmon-pink, then bring in a touch of blue in a sofa cushion, a footstool or small chair, or in a beautiful vase which charms by its shape as well by reproducing the exact tone of blue you desire. there are some who insist no room is complete without its note of blue. many a room has been built up around some highly prized treasure,--lovely vase or an old japanese print. a thing always to be avoided is monotony in colour. who can not recall barren rooms, without a spark of attraction despite priceless treasures, dispersed in a meaningless way? that sort of setting puts a blight on any gathering. "well," you will ask, "given the task of converting such a sterile stretch of monotony into a blooming joy, how should one begin?" it is quite simple. picture to yourself how the room would look if you scattered flowers about it, roses, tulips, mignonette, flowers of yellow and blue, in the pell-mell confusion of a blooming garden. now imitate the flower colours by _objets d'art_ so judiciously placed that in a trice you will admire what you once found cold. as if by magic, a white, cream, beige or grey room may be transformed into a smiling bower, teeming with personality, a room where wit and wisdom are spontaneously let loose. if your taste be for chintzes and figured silks, take it as a safe rule, that given a material with a light background, it should be the same in tone as your walls; the idea being that by this method you get the full decorative value of the pattern on chintz or silk. figured materials can increase or diminish the size of a room, open up vistas, push back your walls, or block the vision. for this reason it is unsafe to buy material before trying the effect of it in its destined abode. remember that the matter of _background_ is of the greatest importance when arranging your furniture and ornaments. see that your piano is so placed that the pianist has an unbroken background, of wall, tapestry, a large piece of rare old sills, or a mirror. clyde fitch, past-master at interior decoration, placed his piano in front of broad windows, across which at night were drawn crimson damask curtains. some of us will never forget geraldine farrar, as she sat against that background wearing a dull, clinging blue-green gown, going over the score,--from memory,--of "salomé." the aim is to make the performer at the piano the object of interest, therefore place no diverting objects, such as pictures or ornaments, on a line with the listener's eye, except as a vague background. there can be no more becoming setting for a group of people dining by candle or electric light, than walls panelled with dark wood to the ceiling, or a high wainscoting. a beautiful sitting-room, not to be forgotten, had light violet walls, dull-gold frames on the furniture which was covered in deep-cream brocades, bits of old purple velvets and violet silks on the tables, under large bowls of benares bronze filled with violets. the grand piano was protected by a piece of old brocade in faded yellows, and our hostess, a well-known singer, usually wore a simple florentine tea-gown of soft violet velvet, which together with the lighter violet walls, set off her fair skin and black hair to beautiful advantage. put a figured, many-coloured sofa cushion behind the head of a pretty woman, and if the dominating colour is becoming to her, she is still pretty, but change it to a solid black, purple or dull-gold and see how instantly the degree of her beauty is enhanced by being thrown into relief. plate vii gives attractive corner by a window, the heavy silk brocade curtains of which are drawn. a standard electric lamp lights the desk, both modern-painted pieces, and the beautiful old flower picture, black background with a profusion of colours in lovely soft tones, is framed by a dull-gold moulding and gives immense distinction. the chair is venetian louis xv, the same period as desk in style. not to be ignored in this picture is a tin scrap basket beautifully proportioned and painted a vivid emerald green; a valuable addition a note of cheerful colour. the desk and wooden standard of lamp are painted a deep blue-plum colour, touched with gold, and the silk curtains are soft mulberry, in two tones. [illustration: _corner of room, showing painted furniture, antique and modern_] study values--just why and how much any decorative article decorates, and remember in furnishing a room, decorating a wall or dining-room table, it is not the intrinsic value or individual beauty of any one article which counts. each picture on the wall, each piece of furniture, each bit of silver, glass, china, linen or lace, each yard of chintz or silk, every carpet or rug must be beautiful and effective _in relation to the others used_, for the _art_ of interior decoration lies in this subtle, or obvious, relationship of furnishings. we acknowledge as legitimate all schemes of interior decoration and insist that what makes any scheme good or bad, successful, or unsuccessful presuming a knowledge of the fundamentals of the art, is the fact that it is planned in reference to the type of man or woman who is to live in it. a new note has been struck of late in the arranging of bizarre, delightful rooms which on entering we pronounce "very amusing." original they certainly are, in colour combinations, tropical in the impression they make,--or should we say oriental? they have come to us via russia, bakst, munich and martine of paris. like rheinhardt's staging of "sumurun," because these blazing interiors strike us at an unaccustomed angle, some are merely astonished, others charmed as well. there are temperaments ideally set in these interiors, and there are houses where they are in place. we cannot regard them as epoch-making, but granted that there is no attempt to conform to two of the rules for furnishing,--_appropriateness_ and _practicality_, the results are refreshingly new and entertaining. this is one of the instances where exaggeration has served as a healthy antidote to the tendency toward extreme dinginess rampant about ten years ago, resulting from an obsession to antique everything. the reaction from this, a flaming rainbow of colours, struck a blow to the artistic sense, drew attention back to the value of colour and started the creative impulse along the line of a happy medium. whether it be a furnished porch, personal suite (as bedroom, boudoir and bath), a family living-room, dining-room, formal reception-room, or period ballroom, never allow members of your household or servants to destroy the effect you have achieved with careful thought and outlay of money, by ruthlessly moving chairs and tables from one room to another. keep your wicker furniture on the porch, for which it was intended. if it strays into the adjacent living-room, done in quite another scheme, it will absolutely thwart your efforts at harmony, while your porch-room done in wicker and gay chintzes, striped awnings and geranium rail-boxes, cries out against the intrusion of a chair dragged out from the house. remember that should you intend using your period ballroom from time to time as an audience room for concerts and lectures, you must provide a complete equipment of small, very light (so as to be quickly moved) chairs, in your "period," as a necessary part of your decoration. the current idea that a distinguished room remains distinguished because costly tapestries and old masters hang on its walls, even when the floor is strewn with vulgar, hired chairs, is an absurd mistake. each room from kitchen to ballroom is a stage "set,"--a harmonious background for certain scenes in life's drama. it is the man or woman who grasps this principle of a distinguished home who can create an interior which endures, one which will hold its own despite the ebb and flow of fashion. imposing dimensions and great outlay of money do not necessarily imply distinction, a quality depending upon unerring good taste in the minutest details, one which may be achieved equally in a stately mansion, in a city flat, or in a cottage by the sea. the question of background is absorbingly interesting. a vase, with or without flowers, to add to the composition of your room, that is, to make "a good picture," must be placed so that its background sets it off. let the venetian glass vase holding one rose stand in such a position that your green curtain is its background, and not a photograph or other picture. one flower, carefully placed in a room, will have more real decorative value than dozens of costly roses strewn about in the wrong vases, against mottled, line-destroying backgrounds. flowers are always more beautiful in a plain vase, whether of glass, pottery, porcelain or silver. if a vase chances to have a decoration in colour, then make a point of having the flowers it holds accord in colour, if not in shade, with the colour or colours in the vase. there is a general rule that no ornament should ever be placed in front of a picture. the exception to this rule occurs when the picture is one of the large, architectural variety, whose purpose is primarily mural decoration,--an intentional background, as tapestries often are, serving its purpose as nature does when a vase or statue is placed in a park or garden. one sees in portraits by some of the old masters this idea of landscape used as background. bear in mind, however, that if there is a central design--a definite composition in the picture, or tapestry, no ornament should ever be so placed as to interfere with it. if you happen to own a tapestry which is not large enough for your space by one, two or three feet, frame it with a plain border of velvet or velveteen, to match the dominating colour, and a shade darker than it appears in the tapestry. this expedient heightens the decorative effect of the tapestry. chapter iii how to determine character of hangings and furniture-covering for a given room in a measure, the materials for hangings and furniture-coverings are determined more or less by the amount one wishes to spend in this direction. for choice, one would say silk or velvet for formal rooms; velvets, corduroys or chintz for living-rooms; leather and corduroy with rep hangings for a man's study or smoking-room; thin silks and chintz for bedrooms; chintz for nurseries, breakfast-rooms and porches. in england, slip-covers of chintz (glazed cretonne) appear, also, in formal rooms; but are removed when the owner is entertaining. if the permanent upholstery is of chintz, then at once your room becomes informal. if you are planning the living-room for a small house or apartment, which must serve as reception-room during the winter months, far more dignity, and some elegance can be obtained for the same expenditure, by using plain velveteen, modern silk brocades in one colour, or some of the modern reps to be had in very smart shades of all colours. if your furniture is choice, rarely beautiful in quality, line and colour, hangings and covers must accord. genuine antiques demand antique silks for hangings and table covers; but no decorator, if at all practical, will cover a chair or sofa in the frail old silks, for they go to pieces almost in the mounting. waive sentiment in this case, for the modern reproductions are satisfactory to the eye and improve in tone with age. if you own only a small piece of antique silk, make a square of it for the centre of the table, or cleverly combine several small bits, if these are all you have, into an interesting cover or cushion. nothing in the world gives such a note of distinction to a room as the use of rare, old silks, properly placed. the fashion for cretonne and chintz has led to their indiscriminate use by professionals as well as amateurs, and this craze has caused a prejudice against them. chintz used with judgment can be most attractive. in america the term chintz includes cretonne and stamped linen. if you are planning for them, put together, for consideration, all your bright coloured chintz, and in quite another part of your room, or decorator's shop, the chintz of dull, faded colours, as they require different treatment. a general rule for this material--bright or dull--is that if you would have your chintz _decorate_, be careful not to use it too lavishly. if it is intended for curtains, then cover only one chair with it and cover the rest in a solid colour. if you want chintz for all of your chairs and sofa, make your curtains, sofa cushions and lamp shades of a solid colour, and be sure that you take one of the leading colours in the chintz. next indicate your intention at harmony, by "bringing together" the plain curtains or chairs, and your chintz, with a narrow fringe or border of still another colour, which figures in the chintz. let us suppose chintz to be black with a design in greens, mulberry and buff. make your curtains plain mulberry, edged with narrow pale green fringe with black and buff in it, or should your chintz be grey with a design in faded blues and violets and a touch of black, make curtains of the chintz, and cover one large chair, keeping the sofa and the remaining chairs grey, with the bordering fringe, or gimp, in one or two of the other shades, sofa cushions and the lamp shades in blues and violets (lining lamp shades with thin pink silk), and use a little black in the bordering fringe. plate viii shows an ideal mantel arrangement, faultless as a composition and beautiful and rare in detail. the exquisite white marble mantel is italian, not french, of the time of louis xvi. though the designs of this period are almost identical, one quickly learns to detect the difference in feeling between the work of the two countries. the italians are freer, broader in their treatment, show more movement and in a way more grace, where the french work is more detailed and precise, hence at times, by contrast, seems stilted and rigid. enchantingly graceful are the two candelabra, also louis xvi, while the central ornament is ideally chosen for size and design. the dull gold frame of the mirror is very beautiful, and the painting above the glass interesting and unusual as to subject and execution. the chair is a good example of italian louis xv. [illustration: _example of a perfect mantel, ornaments and mirror_] if you decide upon a very brilliant chintz use it only in one chair, a screen, or in a valance over plain curtains with straps to hold them back, or perhaps a sofa cushion. whether a chintz is bright or dull, its pattern is important. as with silks, brocaded in different colours, therefore never use chintz where a chair or sofa calls for tufting. a tufted piece of furniture always looks best done in plain materials. in using a chintz in which both colour and design are indefinite, the kind which gives more or less an impression of faded tapestry, you will find that the very indefiniteness of the pattern makes it possible to use the chintz with more freedom, being always sure of a harmonious background. the one thing to guard against is that on entering a room you must not be conscious either of several colours, or of any set design. chapter iv the story of textiles the story of the evolution of textiles (any woven material) is fascinating, and like the history of every art, runs parallel with the history of culture and progress in the art of living,--physical, mental and spiritual. to those who feel they would enjoy an exhaustive history of textiles we recommend a descriptive catalogue relating to the collection of textiles in the south kensington museum, prepared by the very rev. daniel rock, d.d. ( ). in the introduction to that catalogue one gets the story of woven linens, cottons, silks, paper, gold and silver threads, interspersed with precious jewels and glass beads--all materials woven by hand or machine. the story of textiles includes: st, woven materials; nd, embroidered materials; rd, a combination of the two, known as "tapestry." if one reads their wonderful story, starting in assyria, then progressing to egypt, the orient, greece, rome and western europe, in any history of textiles, one may obtain quickly and easily a clear idea of this department of interior decoration from the very earliest times. the first european silk is said to have been in the form of transparent gauze, dyed lovely tones for women of the greek islands, a form of costume later condemned by greek philosophers. we know that embroidery was an art three thousand years ago, in fact the figured garments seen on the assyrian and egyptian bas-reliefs are supposed to represent materials with embroidered figures--not woven patterns--whereas in the bible, when we read of embroidery, according to the translators, this sometimes means woven stripes. plate ix an ideal dining-room of its kind, modern painted furniture, empire in design. in this case yellow with decoration in white. curtains, thin yellow silk. note the empire electric light fixtures in hand-carved gilded wood, reproductions of an antique silver applique. even the steam radiators are here cleverly concealed by wooden cases made after empire designs. the walls are white and panelled in wood also white. [illustration: _dining-room in country house, showing modern painted furniture. style directoire._] the earliest garments of egypt were of cotton and hemp, or mallow, resembling flax. the older egyptians never knew silks in any form, nor did the israelites, nor any of the ancients. the earliest account of this material is given by aristotle (fourth century). it was brought into western europe from china, via india, the red sea and persia, and the first to weave it outside the orient was a maiden on the isle of cos, off the coast of asia minor, producing a thin gauze-like tissue worn by herself and companions, the material resembling the seven veils of salome. to-day those tiny bits of gauze one sees laid in between the leaves of old manuscript to protect the illuminations, as our publishers use sheets of tissue paper, are said to be examples of this earliest form of woven silk. the romans used silk at first only for their women, as it was considered not a masculine material, but gradually they adopted it for the festival robes of men, titus and vespasian being among those said to have worn it. the first silk looms were set up in the royal palaces of the roman kings in the year a.d. the raw material was brought from the east for a long time but in the sixth century two greek monks, while in china, studied the method of rearing silk worms and obtaining the silk, and on their departure are said to have concealed the eggs of silk worms in their staves. they are accredited with introducing the manufacture of silk into greece and hence into western europe. after that greece, persia and asia minor made this material, and byzantium was famed for its silks, the actual making of which got into the hands of the jews and was for a long time controlled by them. metals (gold, silver and copper) were flattened out and cut into narrow strips for winding around cotton twists. these were the gold and silver threads used in weaving. the moors and spaniards instead of metals used strips of gilded parchment for weaving with the silk. we know that england was weaving silk in the thirteenth century, and velvets seem to have been used at a very early date. the introduction of silk and velvet into different countries had an immediate and much-needed influence in civilising the manners of society. it is hard to realise that in the thirteenth century when edward i married eleanor of castile, the highest nobles of england when resting at their ease, stretched at full length on the straw-covered floors of baronial halls, and jeered at the spanish courtiers who hung the walls and stretched the floors of edward's castle with silks in preparation for his spanish bride. the progress of art and culture was always from the east and moved slowly. do not go so far back as the thirteenth century. james i of england owned no stockings when he was james vi of scotland, and had to borrow a pair in which to receive the english ambassador. in the eleventh century italy manufactured her own silks, and into them were woven precious stones, corals, seed pearls and coloured glass beads which were made in greece and venice, as well as gold and silver spangles (twelfth and thirteenth centuries). here is an item on interior decorations from proverbs vii, ; "i have woven my bed with cords, i have covered it with painted tapestry brought from egypt." there were painted tapestries made in western europe at a very early date, and collectors eagerly seek them (see plate xiv). in the fourteenth century these painted tapestries were referred to as "stained cloth." embroidery as an art, as we have already seen, antedates silk weaving. the youngest of the three arts is tapestry. the oldest embroidery stitches are: "the feather stitch," so called because they all took one direction, the stitches over-lapping, like the feathers of a bird; and "cross-stitch" or "cushion" style, because used on church cushions, made for kneeling when at prayer or to hold the mass book. hand-woven tapestries are called "comb-wrought" because the instrument used in weaving was comb-like. "cut-work" is embroidery that is cut out and appliqued, or sewed on another material. carpets which were used in western europe in the middle ages are seldom seen. the kensington museum owns two specimens, both of them spanish, one of the fourteenth and one of the fifteenth century. in speaking of gothic art we called attention to the fostering of art by the church during the dark ages. this continued, and we find that in henry viii's time those who visited monasteries and afterward wrote accounts of them call attention to the fact that each monk was occupied either with painting, carving, modelling, embroidering or writing. they worked primarily for the church, decorating it for the glory of god, but the homes of the rich and powerful laity, even so early as the reign of henry iii ( - ), boasted some very beautiful interior decorations, tapestries, painted ceilings and stained glass, as well as carved panelling. bostwick castle, scotland, had its vaulted ceiling painted with towers, battlements and pinnacles, a style of mural decoration which one sees in the oldest castles of germany. it recalls the illumination in old manuscripts. chapter v candlesticks, lamps, fixtures for gas and electricity, and shades candlesticks, lamps, and fixtures for gas and electricity must accord with the lines of your architecture and furniture. the mantelpiece is the connecting link between the architecture and the furnishing of a room. it is the architect's contribution to the furnishing, and for this reason the keynote for the decorator. in the same way lighting fixtures are links between the construction and decoration of a room, and can contribute to, or seriously divert from, the decorator's design. it is important that fixtures be so placed as to appear a part of the decoration and not merely to illuminate conveniently a corner of the room, a writing-desk, table or piano. plate x the dining-room of this apartment is italian renaissance--oak, almost black from age, and carved. the seat pads and lambrequin over window are of deep red velvet. the walls are stretched with dull red _brocotello_ (a combination of silk and linen), very old and valuable. the chandelier is italian carved wood, gilded. attention is called to the treatment of the windows. no curtains are used, instead, boxes are planted with ivy which is trained to climb the green lattice and helps to temper the light, while the window shades themselves are of a fascinating glazed linen, having a soft yellow background and design of fruit and vines in brilliant colours. [illustration: _dining-room furniture, italian renaissance_] in planning your house after arranging for proper wall space for your various articles of furniture, keep in mind always that lights will be needed and must be at the same time conveniently placed and distinctly decorative. one is astonished to see how often the actual balance of a room is upset by the careless placing of electric fixtures. therefore keep in mind when deciding upon the lighting of a room the following points: first, fixtures must follow in line style of architecture and furniture; second, the position of fixtures on walls must carry out the architect's scheme of proportion, line and balance; third, the material used in fixtures--brass, gilded wood, glass or wrought iron--must contribute to the decorator's scheme of line and colour; fourth, as a contribution to colour scheme the fixtures must be in harmony with the colour of the side walls, so as not to cut them up, and the shade should be a _light_ note of colour, not one of the _dark_ notes when illuminated. this brings us to the question of shades. the selecting of shapes and colours for shading the lights in your rooms is of the greatest importance, for the shades are one of the harmonics for striking important colour notes, and their value must be equal by day and by night; that is, equally great, _even if different_. some shades, beautiful and decorative by daylight, when illuminated, lose their colour and become meaningless blots in a room. we have in mind a large silk lamp shade of faded sage green, mauve, faun and a dull blue, the same combination appearing in the fringe--a combination not only beautiful, but harmonising perfectly with the old gothic tapestry on the nearby wall. nothing could be more decorative in this particular room during the day than the shade described; but were it not for the shell-pink lining, gleaming through the silk of the shade when lighted, it would have no decorative value at all at night. in ordering or making shades, be sure that you select colours and materials which produce a diffused light. a soft thin pink silk as a lining for a silk or cretonne shade is always successful, and if a delicate pink, never clashes with the colours on the outside. a white silk lining is cold and unbecoming. a dark shade unlined, or a light coloured shade unlined, even if pink, unless the silk is shirred very full, will not give a diffused, yellow light. it is because italian parchment-paper produces the desired _glow_ of light that it has become so popular for making shades, and, coming as it does in deep soft cream, it gives a lovely background for decorations which in line and colour can carry out the style of your room. figured italian papers are equally popular for shades, but their characteristic is to decorate the room by daylight only, and to impart no _quality_ to the light which they shade. unless in pale colours, they stop the light, absolutely, throwing it down, if on a lamp, and back against the wall, if on side brackets. therefore decorators now cut out the lovely designs on these figured papers and use them as appliques on a deep cream parchment background. when you decide upon the shape of your shades do not forget that successful results depend upon absolutely correct proportions. almost any shape, if well proportioned as to height and width, can be made beautiful, and the variety and effect desired, may be secured by varying the colours, the design of decoration, if any, or the texture or the length of fringe. the "umbrella" shades with long chiffon curtains reaching to the table, not unlike a woman's hat with loose-hanging veil, make a charming and practical lamp shade for a boudoir or a woman's summer sitting-room, especially if furnished in lacquer or wicker. it is a light to rest or talk by, not for reading nor writing. the greatest care is required in selecting shades for side-wall lights, because they quickly catch the eye upon entering a room and materially contribute to its appearance or detract from it. chapter vi window shades and awnings the first thing to consider in selecting window shades when furnishing a _house_, is whether their colour harmonises with the exterior. keeping this point in mind, further limit your selection to those colours and tones which harmonise with your colour schemes for the interior. if you use white net or scrim, your shades must be white, and if ecru net, your shades must be ecru. if the outside of your house calls for one colour in shades and the interior calls for another, use two sets. your dark-green sun shades never interfere, as they can always be covered by the inner set. sometimes the dark green harmonises with the colouring of the rooms. a room often needs, for sake of balance, to be weighted by colour on the window sides more than your heavy curtains (silk or cretonne) contribute when drawn back; in such a case decorators use coloured gauze for sash curtains in one, two or three shades and layers, which are so filmy and delicate both in texture and colouring that they allow air and light to pass through them, the effect being charming. another way to obtain the required colour value at your windows is the revival of glazed linens, with beautiful coloured designs, made up into shades. these are very attractive in a sunny room where the strong light brings out the design of flowers, fruits or foliage. plate x shows a room in which this style of shade is used with great success. it is to be especially commended in such a case as plate x, where no curtains are used at windows. here the figured linen shade is a deliberate contribution to the decorative scheme of the room and completes it as no other material could. awnings can make or mar a house, give it style or keep it in the class of the commonplace. so choose carefully with reference to the colour of your house. the fact that awnings show up at a great distance and never "in the hand," as it were, argues in favour of clear stripes, in two colours and of even size, with as few extra threads of other colours as possible. plate xi shows a part of a fine, old italian refectory table, and one of the chairs, also antiques, which are beautifully proportioned and made comfortable with cushions of dark red velvet, in colour like curtains at window, which are of silk brocade. the standard electric lamps throw the light _up_ only. there are four, one in each corner of the room, and candles light the table. the wall decoration here is a flower picture. [illustration: _corner of dining-room in new york apartment, showing section of italian refectory table and italian chairs, both antique and renaissance_] _all awnings fade_, even in one season; green is, perhaps, the least durable in the sun, yellows and browns look well the longest. fortunately an awning, a discouraging sight when taken down and in a collapsed mass of faded canvas, will often look well when up and stretched, because the strong light brings out the fresh colour of the inside. hence one finds these rather expensive necessities of summer homes may be used for several seasons. chapter vii treatment of pictures and picture frames strive to have the subject of your pictures appropriate to the room in which they are to be hung. it is impossible to state a rule for this, however, because while there are many styles of pictures which all are able to classify, such as old paintings which are antique in colouring, method and subject, portraits, figure pictures, architectural pictures, flower and fruit pictures, modern oil paintings of various subjects (modern in subject, method and colouring), water colours, etchings, sporting prints, fashion prints, etc., there is, also, a subtle relationship between them seen and felt only by the connoisseur, which leads him to hang in the same room, portraits, architectural pictures and flower pictures, with beautiful and successful results. often the relationship hangs on similarity in period, style of painting or colour scheme. your expert will see decorative value in a painting which has no individual beauty nor intrinsic worth when taken out of a particular setting. the selecting of pictures for a room hinges first on their decorative value. that is, their colour and size, and whether the subjects are appropriate and sympathetic. always avoid heavy gold frames on paintings, for, unless they are real objects of art, one gets far more distinction by using a narrow black moulding. when in doubt always err on the side of simplicity. if your object is economy as well as simplicity, and you are by chance just beginning to furnish your house and own no pictures, we would suggest good photographs of your favourite old masters, framed close, without a margin, in the passepartout method (glass with a narrow black paper tape binding). old coloured prints need narrow black passepartout, while broad passepartout in pink, blue or pale green to match the leading tone in wall paper makes your quaint, old black-and-white prints very decorative. never use white margins on any pictures unless your walls are white. the decorative value of any picture when hung, is dependent upon its background, the height at which it is hung, its position with regard to the light, its juxtaposition to other pictures, and the character of those other pictures--that is, their subjects, colour and line. if you are buying pictures to hang in a picture gallery, there is nothing to consider beyond the attraction of the individual picture in mind. but if you are buying a picture to hang on the walls of a room which you are furnishing, you have first to consider it as pure _decoration_; that is, to ask yourself if in colour, period and subject it carries out the idea of your room. a modern picture is usually out of place in a room furnished with antiques. in the same way a strictly modern room is not a good setting for an old picture, if toned by time. if you own or would own a modern portrait or landscape and it is the work of an artist, and beautiful in colour, why not "star" it,--build your room up to it? if you decide to do this, see that everything else representing _colour_ is either subservient to the picture, or if of equal value as to colour, that they harmonise perfectly with the picture in mind. plate xii from a studio one enters a smaller room, one side of which is shown here, a veritable italian louis xvi salon. [illustration: _an italian louis xvi salon in a new york apartment_] we were recently shown a painting giving a view of central park from the plaza hotel, new york, under a heavy fall of snow, in the late afternoon, when the daylight still lingered, although the electric lights had begun to spangle the scene. the prevailing tone was a delicate, opalescent white, shading from blue to mauve, and we were told that one of our leading decorators intended to hang it in a blue room which he was furnishing for a new york client. etchings are at their best with other etchings, engravings or water colours, and should be hung in rooms flooded with light and delicately furnished. the crowding of walls with pictures is always bad; hang only as many as _furnish_ the walls, and have these on a line with the eye and when the pictures vary but slightly in size make a point of having either the tops of the frames or the bottoms on the same line,--that is, an equal distance from floor or ceiling. if this rule is observed a sense of order and restfulness is communicated to the observer. if one picture is hung over the other uniformity and balance must be preserved. one large picture may be balanced by two smaller ones. hang your miniatures in a straight line across your wall, under a large picture or in a straight line--one under the other, down a narrow wall panel. chapter viii treatment of piano cases a professional pianist invariably prefers the case of his or her piano left in its simple ebony or mahogany, and would not approve of its being relegated to the furniture department and decorated accordingly, any more than your violinist, or harpist, would hand over his violin, or harp, for decoration. when a piano, however, is not the centre of interest in a house, and the artistic ensemble of decorative line and colour is, the piano case is often ordered at the piano factory to be made to accord in line with the period of the room for which it is intended, after which it is decorated so as to harmonise with the colours in the room. this can be done through the piano factory; but in the case of redecorating a room, one can easily get some independent artist to do this work, a man who has made a study of the decorations on old spinets in palaces, private mansions and museums. some artists have been very successful in converting what was an inartistic piece of furniture as to size, outline and colour, into an object which became a pleasing portion of the colour scheme because in proper relation to the whole. you can always make an ebony or mahogany piano case more in harmony with its setting by covering it, when not in use, with a piece of beautiful old brocade, or a modern reproduction. plate xiii another side of same italian louis xvi salon. the tea-table is a modern painted convenience, the two vases are italian pharmacy jars and the standard for electric lights is a modern-painted piece. [illustration: _another side of same italian louis xvi salon_] chapter ix treatment of dining-room buffets and dressing-tables a dining-room buffet requires the same dignity of treatment demanded by a mantelpiece whether the silver articles kept on it be of great or small intrinsic value. here, as in every case, appropriateness dictates the variety of articles, and the observance of the rule that there shall be no crowding nor disorder in the placing of articles insures that they contribute decorative value; in a word, the size of your buffet limits the amount of silver, glass, etc., to be placed upon it. the variety and number of articles on a dressing-table are subject to the same two laws: that is, every article must be useful and in line and colour accord with the deliberate scheme of your room, and there must be no crowding nor disorder, no matter how rare or beautiful the toilet articles are. chapter x treatment of work tables, bird cages, dog baskets and fish globes every bedroom planned for a woman, young or old, calls for a work table, work basket or work bag, or all three, and these furnish opportunities for additional "flowers" in your room; for we insist upon regarding accessories as opportunities for extra colour notes which harmonise with the main colour scheme and enliven your interior quite as flowers would, cheering it up--and, incidentally, its inmates! apropos of this, it was only the other day that some one remarked in our hearing, "this room is so blooming with lovely bits of colour in lamp shades, pillows, and _objets d'art_, that i no longer spend money on cut flowers." there we have it! precisely the idea we are trying to express. so make your work-table, if you own the sort with a silk work-bag suspended from the lower part, your work-basket or work-bag, represent one, two or three of the colours in your room. if some one gives you an inharmonious work-bag, either build a room up to it, or give it away, but never hang it out in a room done in an altogether different colour scheme. bird-cages, dog-baskets and fish-globes may become harmonious instead of jarring colour notes, if one will give a little thought to the matter. in fact some of the black iron wrought cages when occupied by a wonderful parrot with feathers of blue and orange, red and grey, or red, blue and yellow, can be the making of certain rooms. and there are canaries with deep orange feathers which look most decorative in cages painted dark green, as well as the many-coloured paroquet, lovely behind golden bars. many a woman when selecting a dog has bought one which harmonised with her costume, or got a costume to set off her dog! certainly a dark or light brindle bull is a perfect addition to a room done in browns, as is a red chow or a tortoise-shell cat. see to it that cage and basket set off your bird, dog or cat; but don't let them become too conspicuous notes of colour in your room or on your porch; let it be the bird, the dog or the cat which has a colour value. the fish-globe can be of white or any colour glass you prefer, and your fish vivid or pale in tone; whichever it is, be sure that they furnish a needed--not a superfluous--tone of colour in a room or on a porch. plate xiv shows narrow hall in an old country house, thought impossible as to appearance, but made charming by "pushing out" the wall with an antique painted tapestry and keeping all woodwork and carpets the same delicate dove grey. [illustration: _a narrow hall where effect of width is attained by use of tapestry with vista_] chapter xi treatment of fireplaces nothing is ever more attractive than the big open fireplace, piled with blazing logs, and with fire-dogs or andirons of brass or black iron, as may accord with the character of your room. if yours is a _period_ room it is possible to get andirons to match, veritable old ones, by paying for them. the attractiveness of a fireplace depends largely upon its proportions. to look well it should always be wider than high, and deep enough to insure that the smoke goes up the chimney, and not out into your room. if your fireplace smokes you may need a special flue, leading from fireplace to proper chimney top, or a brass hood put on front of the fireplace. many otherwise attractive fireplaces are spoiled by using the wrong kind of tiles to frame them. shiny, enamelled tiles in any colour, are bad, and pressed red brick of the usual sort equally bad, so if you are planning the fireplace of an informal room, choose tiles with a dull finish or brick with a simple rough finish. in period rooms often beautiful light or heavy mouldings entirely frame the three sides of the fireplace when it is of wood. _well designed_ marble mantels are always desirable. this feature of decoration is distinctly within the province of your architect, one reason more why he and the interior decorator, whether professional or amateur, should continually confer while building or rebuilding a house. for coal fires we have a variety of low, broad grates; as well as reproductions of colonial grates, which are small and swung high between brass uprights, framing the fireplace, with an ash drawer, the front of which is brass. if you prefer the _old_, one can find this variety of grate in antique shops as well as "franklin stoves" (portable open fireplaces). if your rooms are heated with steam, cover the radiators with wooden frames in line with the period of your room cut in open designs to allow heat to come through, and painted to match the woodwork of the room. see plate xix. let the fireplace be the centre of attraction in your room and draw about it comfortable chairs, sofas and settles,--make it easy to enjoy its hospitable blaze. chapter xii treatment of bathrooms sumptuous bathrooms are not modern inventions, on the contrary the bath was a religion with the ancient greeks, and a luxury to the early italians. what we have to say here is in regard to the bath as a necessity for all classes. the treatment of bathrooms has become an interesting branch of interior decoration, whereas once it was left entirely to the architect and plumber. first, one has to decide whether the bathroom is to be finished in conventional white enamel, which cannot be surpassed for dainty appearance and sanitary cleanliness. equally dainty to look at and offering the same degree of sanitary cleanliness, is a bathroom enamelled in some delicate tone to accord in colour with the bedroom with which it connects. plate xv this illustration speaks for itself--fruit dishes and fruit, candlesticks, covered jars for dried rose leaves, finger bowls, powder boxes, flower vase, and scent bottles--all of venetian glass in exquisite shades. [illustration: _venetian glass, antique and modern_] some go so far as to make the bathroom the same colour as the bedroom, even when this is dark. we have in mind a bath opening out of a man's bedroom. the bedroom is decorated in dull blues, taupe and mulberry. the bathroom has the walls painted in broad stripes of dull blue and taupe, the stripes being quite six inches wide. the floor is tiled in large squares of the same blue and taupe; the tub and other furnishings are in dull blue enamel, and the wall-cabinets (one for shaving brushes, tooth brushes, etc., another for shaving cups, medicine glasses, drinking glasses, etc., and the third for medicines, soaps, etc.) are painted a dull mulberry. built into the front of each cabinet door is an old coloured print covered with glass and framed with dull blue moulding and on the inside of each cabinet door is a mirror. one small closet in the bathroom is large enough to hang bath robe, pajamas, etc., while another is arranged for drying towels and holds a soiled clothes basket. on the inside of both doors are full-length mirrors. the criticism that mirrors in men's bathrooms are necessarily an effeminate touch, can be refuted by the statement that so sturdy a soldier as the great napoleon had his dressing room at fontainebleau lined with them! this fact reminds us that we have recently seen a most fascinating bathroom, planned for a woman, in which the walls and ceiling are of glass, cut in squares and fitted together in the old french way. over the glass was a dull-gold trellis and twined in and out of this, ivy, absolutely natural in appearance, but made of painted tin. the floor tiles, and fixtures were white enamel, and a soft moss-green velvet carpet was laid down when the bath was not used. bathroom fixtures are to-day so elaborate in number and quality, that the conveniences one gets are limited only by one's purse. the leading manufacturers have anticipated the dreams of the most luxurious. window-curtains for bathrooms should be made of some material which will neither fade nor pull out of shape when washed. we would suggest scrim, swiss, or china silk of a good quality. when buying bath-mats, bath-robes, bath-slippers, bath-towels, wash-cloths and hand-towels, it is easy to keep in mind the colour-scheme of your rooms, and by following it out, the general appearance of your suite is immensely improved. for a woman's bathroom, venetian glass bottles, covered jars and bowls of every size, come in opalescent pale greens and other delicate tints. see plate xi. then there are the white glass bottles, jars, bowls, and trays with bunches of dashing pink roses, to be obtained at any good department store. glass toilet articles come in considerable variety and at all prices, and to match any colour scheme; so use them as notes of colour on the glass shelves in your bathrooms. here, too, is an opportunity to use your old bristol or bohemian glass, once regarded as inherited eyesores, but now unearthed, and which, when used to contribute to a colour scheme, have a distinct value and real beauty. plate xvi part of a room in a small suite where the furniture is all old and the majority of it empire in style. however, the small piano at once declares itself american empire. the beautifully decorative nameplate on its front reads, "geib & walker, maiden lane, n.y." the date of piano is about . the brown mahogany commode on the right has the lion's claw-feet, and pilasters are topped by women's heads in bronze. this piece was bought in france. it has the original marble top, dark pink veined with white. the knobs on drawers are bronze lions' heads, holding rings in their mouths. chairs are italian and between directoire and empire. the table, a good specimen, was also found in france. on the table is a french vanity mirror, louis xvi in time, very greek in design. the mirror is on both sides and turns on a gold arrow which pierces it. the bronze frame of mirror has a design so intricate in detail that it resembles lace work. the vase on the piano is empire and antique, decoration of green and gold. the flowers on table are artificial, a quaint victorian contrast. through the doorway one sees the end of an empire bed which came from an old château in brittany. note the same pilasters as on bureau, only that in this case the woman's head is gilded wood and two little feet of gilded wood appear at base of mahogany pilaster. a gilded urn rests on a mahogany post of bed against the wall, the only position possible for beds of this style. the head and foot board are of equal height and alike. few empire beds are now on the market. this one is used with a roll at each end and is covered with genuine empire satin in six-inch stripes of canary yellow and sage green divided by two narrow black stripes and a narrow white stripe between them. [illustration: _corner of a room in a small empire suite_] to-day a bathroom is considered the necessary supplement to every bedroom in an apartment or house, where the space allows, and no house is regarded as a good investment if built with less than one bath to communicate with every two rooms. yet among the advertisements in the new york city directory of we read the following naïve statement concerning warm baths, which is meant in all seriousness. it refers to the "arcade bath" at chambers street, new york city. * * * * * "the warm bath is more conducive to health than any luxury which can be employed in a populous city; its beneficial effects are partially described as follows: "the celebrated count rumford has paid particular attention to the subject of warm bathing; he has examined it by the test of experiments, long and frequently repeated, and bears testimony to its excellent effects. 'it is not merely on account of the advantages,' says the count, 'which i happen to see from warm bathing, which renders me so much an advocate of the practice; exclusive of the wholesomeness of the warm bath, the luxury of bathing is so great, and the tranquil state of the mind and body which follows, is so exquisitely delightful, that i think it quite impossible to recommend it too highly, if we consider it merely as a rational and elegant refinement. the manner in which the warm bath operates, in producing the salutary consequences, seems very evident. the genial warmth which is so applied to the skin in the place of the cold air of the atmosphere, by which we are commonly surrounded, expands all those very small vessels, where the extremities of the arteries and veins unite, and by gently stimulating the whole frame, produces a full and free circulation, which if continued for a certain time, removes all obstructions in the vascular system, and puts all the organs into that state of regular, free, and full motion which is essential to health, and also to that delightful repose, accompanied by a consciousness of the power of exertion, which constitutes the highest animal enjoyment of which we are capable.' "n.b.: as the bath is generally occupied on saturday evenings and sunday mornings, it is recommended to those who would wish to enjoy the bath and avoid the crowded moment, to call at other times. the support of the public will be gratefully received and every exertion made to deserve it. for the proprietor, g. wright. "strangers will recognise the bathing house from the front being extended over two lots of ground, and the centre basement being of free-stone." * * * * * the bathtub then was the simple tin sort, on the order of the round english tub. to-day the variety of bathtubs as to size, shape, material and appointments is bewildering; tubs there are on feet and tubs without feet, tubs sunken in the floor so that one goes down steps into them, tubs of large dimensions and tubs of small, and all with or without "showers," as the purchaser may prefer. truly the warm baths so highly recommended in count rumford's rhapsody are to be had for the turning of one's own faucet at any moment of the day or night! the count rumford in question is that romantic figure, born of simple english parents, in new england (woburn, mass., ), who went abroad when very young and by the great force of his personality and genius, became the power behind the throne in bavaria, where he was made minister of war and field marshal by the elector, and later knighted in recognition of his scientific attainments and innumerable civic reforms. there is a large monument erected to the memory of count rumford in munich. he died at auteuil, france, in . chapter xiii period rooms we use the term "period rooms" with full knowledge of the difficulties involved, in defining louis xiv, louis xv, louis xvi, directoire, jacobean, empire, georgian, victorian and colonial decorations. each period certainly has its distinctive earmarks in line and typical decoration, but you must realise that a period gradually evolves, at first exhibiting characteristics of its ancestors, then as it matures, showing a definite _new_ type, and, later, when the elation of success has worn off, yielding to various foreign influences. by way of example, note the chinese decoration on some of the painted furniture of the louis xvi type, the dutch influence on chippendale in line, and the egyptian on empire. one fascinating way of becoming familiar with history, is to delve into the origin and development of periods in furniture. the story of napoleon is recorded in the unpretentious directoire, the ornate empire of fontainebleau, while the conversion of round columns into obelisk-like pilasters surmounted by heads, the bronze and gilded-wood ornaments in the form of the sphynx, are frank souvenirs of egypt. every period, whether ascribed to england, france, italy or holland, has found expression in all adjacent countries. an italian louis xvi chair, mirror or applique is frequently sold in paris or london as french and empire furniture was "made in germany." periods have no restricted nationality; but nationality often declares itself in periods. that is to say, lines may be copied; but workmanship is another thing. apropos of this take the french empire furniture, massive as much of it is, built squarely and solidly to the floor, but showing most extraordinary grace on account of the amazing delicacy of intricate designs, done by the greatest french sculptors of the time and worked out in metal by the trained hands of men who had a special genius for this art. at no other time, nor in any other country, has an equal degree of perfection in the fine chiselling of metals so much as approached the standard attained during the louis[ ] and the empire periods. if in your wandering, you happen upon a genuine bit of this work in silver or ormoulu, buy it. the writer once found in a new jersey antique shop, a rare empire bronze vase, urn-shaped, a specimen of the very finest kind of this metal engraving. the price asked for it (in ignorance, of course) was $ . ! the piece would have brought $ in paris. but the quest of the antique is another story. when one realises the eternal borrowing of one country from another, the ever-recurring renaissance of past periods and the legitimate and illegitimate mixing of styles, it is no wonder that the amateur feels nervously uncertain, or frankly ignorant. many a professional decorator hesitates to give a final judgment. to take one case in point, we glibly speak of "colonial" furniture, that term which covers such a multitude of sins, and inspiring virtues, too! we have the colonial which closely resembles the empire, and we have what is sometimes styled the chippendale colonial, following the chippendale of england. our colonial cabinet-makers used as models, beautiful pieces imported from england, holland and france by the wealthier members of our communities. also a chinese and japanese influence crept in, on account of the lacquer and carved teak wood, brought home by our seafaring ancestors. it is quite possible that the carved teak wood stimulated the clever maker of some of the most beautiful victorian furniture made in america, which is gradually finding its way into the hands of collectors. some of these cabinet-makers glued together and put under heavy pressure seven to nine layers of rosewood with the grain running at every angle, so as to produce strength. when the layers had been crushed into a solid block, they carved their open designs, using one continuous piece of wood for the ornamental rim of even large sofas. the best of the victorian period is attractive, but how can we express our opinion of those american monstrosities of the sixties or seventies, beds in rosewood and walnut, the head-boards covering the side of a room, bureaus proportionately huge, following out the idea that a piece of furniture to be beautiful must be very large and very expensive! it is to be hoped that the lovely rosewood and walnut wasted at that time are to-day being rescued by wary cabinet-makers. the art of furniture making, like every other art, came into being to serve a clearly defined purpose. this must not be forgotten. a chair and a sofa are to sit on; a mirror, to _reflect_. remember this last fact when hanging one. it is important that your mirror reflect one of the most attractive parts of your room, and thus contribute its quota to your scheme of decoration. it is interesting to note that chairs were made with solid wooden seats when men wore armour, velvet cushions followed more fragile raiment, and tapestries while always mural decorations were first used in place of doors and partitions, in feudal castles, before there were interior doors and partitions. any piece of furniture is artistically bad when it does not satisfactorily serve its purpose. the equally fundamental law that everything useful should at the same time be beautiful cannot be repeated too often. period rooms which slavishly repeat, in every piece of furniture and ornament, only one type, have but a museum interest. if your rooms are to serve as a home, give them a winning, human quality, keep before your mind's eye, not royal palaces which have become museums, but _homes_, built and furnished by men and women whose traditions and associations gave them standards of beauty, so that they bought the choicest furniture both at home and abroad. in such a home, whether it be an intimate palace in europe, a colonial mansion in new england, or a victorian interior of the best type, an extraneous period is often represented by some _objet d'art_ as a delightful, because harmonious note of contrast. for example, in a louis xvi salon, where the colour scheme is harmonious, one gradually realises that one of the dominant ornaments in the room is a rare old chinese vase, brought back from the orient by one of the family and given a place of honour on account of its uniqueness. every one understands and feels deeply the difference between the museum palace or the period rooms of the commonplace decorator, and such a marvellous, living, breathing, palatial home as that "italian palace" in boston, massachusetts, created, not inherited, by mrs. john l. gardner. here we have a splendid example to illustrate the point we are trying to make; namely, regardless of its dimensions, make your home _home-like_ and like _you_, its owner. never allow any one, professional or amateur, to persuade you to put anything in it which you do not like yourself; but if an expert advises against a thing, give careful consideration to the advice before rejecting it. mrs. gardner's house is unique among the great houses of america as having that quality of the intimate palaces abroad,--a subtle mellowness which in the old world took time and generations of cultivated lovers of the rare and beautiful, to create. adequate means, innate art appreciation, experience and the knowledge which comes from keeping in touch with experts, account for the intrinsic value of mrs. gardner's collection; but the subtle quality of harmony and vitality is her own personal touch. the colour scheme is so wisely chosen that it actually does unite all periods and countries. one is surprised to note how perfectly at home even the modern paintings appear in this version of an old italian palace. be sure that you aim at the same combination of beauty, usefulness, and harmony between colour scheme and _objets d'art_. it is in colour scheme that we feel the personality of our host or hostess, therefore give attention to this point. always have a colour scheme sympathetic to _you_. make your rooms take on the air of being your abode. it is really very simple. what has been done with vast wealth can be just as easily done by the man of one room and a bath. know what you want, and buy the best you can afford; by best, meaning useful things, indisputably beautiful in line and colour. use your colonial furniture; but if you find a wonderful empire desk, with beautiful brass mounts and like it, buy it. they are of the same period in point of date, as it happens, and your louis xvi bronze candlesticks will add a touch of grace. the writer recalls a simple room which was really a milestone in the development of taste, for it was so completely harmonious in colouring, arrangement of furniture, and placing of ornaments. built for a painter's studio, with top light, it was used, at the time of which we speak, for music, as a steinway grand indicated. the room was large, the floors painted black and covered with faded oriental rugs; woodwork and walls were dark-green, as were the long, low, open bookcases, above which a large foliage tapestry was hung. on the other walls were modern paintings with antique frames of dulled gold, while a louis xvi inlaid desk stood across one corner, and there was an old italian oval table of black wood, with great, gold birds, as pedestal and legs, at which we dined simply, using fine old silver, and foreign pottery. this room was responsible for starting more than one person on the pursuit of the antique, for pervading it was a magic atmosphere, that wizard touch which comes of _knowing, loving_ and _demanding beautiful things_, and then treating them very humanly. use your lovely vases for your flowers. hang your modern painting; but let its link with the faded tapestry be the dull, old frame. to be explicit, use lustreless frames and faded colours with old furniture and tapestry. your grandmother wears mauves and greys--not bright red. if your taste is for modern painted furniture and vivid bakst colours in cushions and hangings, take your lovely old tapestry away. speaking of tapestries, do not imagine that they can never be used in small rooms and narrow halls. plate xiv shows an illustration of a hall in an old-fashioned country house, that was so narrow that it aroused despair. we call attention to the fact that it gains greatly in width from the perspective shown in the tapestry, one of the rare, old, painted kind, which depicts distance, wide vistas and a scene flooded with light. (an architectural picture can often be used with equally good results.) to increase size of this hall, the woodwork, walls and carpets were kept the same shade of pale-grey. the landscape paper in our colonial houses of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, often large in design, pushed back the walls to the same amazing degree. footnotes: [footnote : louis xiv, xv, and xvi.] chapter xiv periods in furniture periods in furniture are amazingly interesting if one plunges into the story, not with tense nerves, but gaily, for mere amusement, and then floats gently, in a drifting mood. one gathers in this way many sparkling historical anecdotes, and much substantial data really not so cumbersome as some imagine! to know anything at all about a subject one must begin at the beginning, and to make the long run seems a mere spin in an auto, let us at once remind you that the whole fascinating tale lies between the covers of one delightful book, the "illustrated history of furniture," by frederick litchfield, published by truslove & hanson, london, and by john lane, new york. there are other books--many of them--but first exhaust litchfield and apply what he tells you as you wander through public and private collections of furniture. if you care for furniture at all, this book, which tells all that is known of its history, will prove highly instructive. one cannot speak of the gradual development of furniture and furnishing; it is more a case of _waves of types_, and the story begins on the crest of a wave in assyria, about years before christ! yes, seriously, interior decoration was an art back in that period and can be traced without any lost links in the chain of evidence. from assyria we turn to egypt and learn from the frescoes and bas-reliefs on walls of ruined tombs, that about that same time, b.c., rooms on the banks of the nile were decorated more or less as they are to-day. the cultured classes had beautiful ceilings, gilded furniture, cushions and mattresses of dyed linen and wools, stuffed with downy feathers taken from water fowl, curtains that were suspended between columns, and, what is still more interesting to the lover of furniture, we find that the style known as empire when revived by napoleon i was at that time in vogue. even more remarkable is the fact that parts of legs and rails of furniture were turned as perfectly (i quote litchfield) as if by a modern lathe. the variety of beautiful woods used by the egyptians for furniture included ebony, cedar, sycamore and acacia. marquetry was employed as well as wonderful inlaying with ivory, from both the elephant and hippopotamus. footstools had little feet made like lion's claws or bull's hoofs. according to austin leyard, the very earliest assyrian chairs, as well as those of egypt, had the legs terminating in the same lion's feet or bull's hoofs, which reappear in the greek, roman, empire and even sheraton furniture of england (eighteenth century). the first assyrian chairs were made without backs and of beautifully wrought gold and bronze, an art highly developed at that time. in egypt we find the heads of animals capping the backs of chairs in the way that we now see done on spanish chairs. the pilasters shown on the empire furniture, plate xvi, capped by women's heads with little gold feet at base, and caryatides of a kind, were souvenirs of the egyptian throne seats which rested on the backs of slaves--possibly prisoners of war. these chairs were wonderful works of art in gold or bronze. we fancy we can see those interiors, the chairs and beds covered with woven materials in rich colours and leopard skins thrown over chairs, the carpets of a woven palm-fibre and mats of the same, which were used as seats. early egyptian rooms were beautiful in line because simple; never crowded with superfluous furnishings. it is amusing to see on the very earliest bas-reliefs egyptian belles and beaux reclining against what we know to-day as empire rolls,--seen also on beds in old french prints of the fourteenth century. who knows, even with the egyptians this may have been a revived style! one talks of new notes in colour scheme. the bakst thing was being done in assyria, b.c.! sir george green proved it when he opened up six rooms of a king's palace and found the walls all done in horizontal stripes of red, yellow and green! also, he states that each entrance had the same number of pilasters. oh wise assyrian king and truly neutral, if as is supposed, those rooms were for his six wives! in furniture, the epoch-making styles have been those showing _line_, and if decorated, then only with such decorations as were subservient to line; pure greek and purest roman, gothic and early renaissance, the best of the louis, directoire and first empire, chippendale, adam, sheraton and heppelwhite. the bad styles are those where ornamentations envelop and conceal line as in late renaissance, the italian rococo, the portuguese barrocco (baroque), the curving and contorted degenerate forms of louis xiv and xv and the victorian--all examples of the same thing, _i.e._: perfect line achieved, acclaimed, flattered, losing its head and going to the bad in extravagant exuberance of over-ornamentation. there is a psychic connection between the _outline_ of furniture and the _inline_ of man. perfect line, chaste ornamentation, the elimination of the superfluous was the result of the greek idea of restraint--self-control in all things and in all expression. the immense authority of the law-makers enforced simple austerity as the right and only setting for the daily life of an athenian, worthy of the name. there were exceptions, but as a rule all citizens, regardless of their wealth and station, had impressed upon them the civic obligation to express their taste for the beautiful, in the erecting of public buildings in their city of athens, monuments of perfect art, by god-like artists, phidias, apelles, and praxiteles. chapter xv continuation of periods in furniture from greece, culture, borne on the wings of the arts, moved on to rome, and at first, roman architecture and decoration reproduced only the classic greek types; but, as rome grew, her arts took on another and very different outline, showing how the history of decorative art is to a fascinating degree the history of customs and manners. rome became prosperous, greedy, powerful and imperious, enslaving the civilised world, and, not having the restraining laws of greece, waxed luxurious and licentious, and chafed, in consequence, at the austere rigidity of the greek style of furnishing. we know that in the time of augustus cæsar the romans had wonderful furniture of the most costly kind, made from cedar, pine, elm, olive, ash, ilex, beach and maple, carved to represent the legs, feet, hoofs and heads of animals, as in earlier days was the fashion in assyria, egypt and greece, while intricate carvings in relief, showed greek subjects taken from mythology and legend. cæsar, it is related, owned a table costing a million sesterces ($ , ). but gradually the pure line swerved, ever more and more influenced by the orient, for rome, always successful in war, had established colonies in the east. soon byzantine art reached rome, bringing its arabesques and geometrical designs, its warm, glowing colours, soft cushions, gorgeous hangings, embroideries, and rich carpets. in fact all the glowing luxury that the _new_ roman craved. the effect of this _mésalliance_ upon all art, including interior decoration, was to cause its immediate decline. elaboration and _banal_ designs, too much splendour of gold and silver and ivory inlaid with gold, resulted in a decadent art which reflected a decadent race and rome fell! not all at once; it took five hundred years for the neighbouring races to crush her power, but continuous hectoring did it, in a.d. then began the dark ages merging into the middle ages (fifth to fifteenth centuries). dark they were, but what picturesque and productive darkness! rome fell, but the carlovingian family arose, and with it the great nations of western europe, to give us, especially in france, another supreme flowering of interior decoration. britain was torn from the grasp of rome by the saxons, danes and normans, and as a result the great anglo-saxon race was born to create art periods. mahomet appeared and scored as an epoch-maker, recording a remarkable life and a spiritual cycle. the moors conquered spain, but in so doing enriched her arts a thousandfold, leaving the alhambra as a beacon-light through the ages. finally the crusades united all warring races against the infidels. blood was shed, but at the same time routes were opened up, by which the arts, as well as the commerce, of the orient, reached europe. and so the byzantine continued to contend with gothic art--that art which preceded from the christian church and stretched like a canopy over western europe, all through the middle ages. it was in the churches and monasteries that christian art, driven from pillar to post by wars, was obliged to take refuge, and there produced that marvellous development known as the gothic style,--of the church, for the church, by the church, perfected in countless gothic cathedrals,--crystallised glorias lifting their manifold spires to heaven,--ethereal monuments of an intrepid faith which gave material form to its adoration, its fasting and prayer, in an unrivalled art. there is one early gothic chair which has come down to us, charlemagne's, made of gilt-bronze and preserved in the louvre, at paris. any knowledge beyond this one piece, as to what carlovingian furniture was like (the eighth century) we get only from old manuscripts which show it to have been the pseudo-classic, that is, the classic modified by byzantine influence, and very like the empire style of napoleon i. here is the reason for the type. constantinople was the capital of the eastern empire, when in a.d., emperor leo iii prohibited image worship, and the artists and artisans of his part of the world, in order to earn a livelihood, scattered over europe, settling in the various capitals, where they were eagerly welcomed and employed. even so late as the tenth to fourteenth centuries the knowledge we have of gothic furniture still comes from illustrated manuscripts and missals preserved in museums or in the national libraries. rome fell as an empire in the fifth century. in the eighth century, venice asserted herself, later becoming the great, wealthy, merchant city of eastern europe, the golden gate between byzantium and the west (eleventh to fifteenth centuries). her merchants visiting every country naturally carried home all art expressions, but, so far as we know, her own chief artistic output in very early days, was in the nature of richly carved wooden furniture, no specimens of which remain. chapter xvi the gothic period the gothic period is the pointed period, and dominated the art of europe from about the tenth to the fifteenth century. its origin was teutonic, its development and perfection french. at first, the house of a feudal lord meant one large hall with a raised dais, curtained off for him and his immediate family, and subdivided into sleeping apartments for the women. on this dais a table ran crossways, at which the lord and his family with their guests, ate, while a few steps lower, at a long table running lengthwise of the hall, sat the retainers. the hall was, also, the living-room for all within the walls of the castle. sand was strewn on the stone floor and the dogs of the knights ate what was thrown to them, gnawing the bones at their leisure. this rude scene was surrounded by wonderful tapestries hung from the walls:--woman's record of man's deeds. later, we read of stairs and of another room known as the _parloir_ or talking-room, and here begins the sub-division of homes, which in democratic america has arrived at a point where more than rooms are often sheltered under one private roof! oak chests figured prominently among the furnishings of a gothic home, because the possessions of those feudal lords, who were constantly at war with one another, often had to be moved in haste. as men's lives became more settled, their possessions gradually multiplied; but even at the end of the eleventh century bedsteads were provided only for the nobility, probably on account of expense, as they were very grand affairs, carved and draped. to that time and later belong the wonderfully carved presses or wardrobes. carved wood panelling was an important addition to interior decoration during the reign of henry iii ( - ). in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries england with flanders led in the production of mediæval art. hallmarks of the gothic period are animals and reptiles carved to ornament the structural parts of furniture and to ornament panels. favourite subjects with the wood carvers of that time were scenes from the lives of the saints (the church dominated the state) and from the romances, chanted by the minstrels. chapter xvii the renaissance following the gothic period came the renaissance of greek art which began in italy under the leadership of leonardo da vinci and raphael, who, rejecting the existing types of degraded decorative art, in italy a combination of the byzantine and gothic--turned to the antique, the purest greek styles of pericles' time. the result was another period of perfect line and proportion, called the italian renaissance, a great wave of art which swept over all europe, gaining impetus from the wise patronage of the ruling medicis. one of them (pope leo x with the co-operation of italy's reigning dukes and princes) employed and so developed the extraordinary powers of michael angelo, titian, raphael, andrea del sarto and correggio. by the end of the fifteenth century, classic greek art was engrossing the mind of western europe, classical literature was becoming the fashion and there was even an attempt to make latin the popular language. it was during the renaissance that palladio rebuilt the palaces of italy,--beautiful beyond words, and that benvenuto cellini designed in gold, silver and bronze in a manner never since equalled. from that same period dates the world-famous majolica of urbino, pesaro and gubbio, shown in our museums. so far as house-furnishing went, aside from palaces, there was but little that was appropriate for intimate domestic life. the early renaissance furniture was palatial, architectural in outline and, one might almost say, in proportions. the tables were impossibly high, the chairs were stiff, and the cabinets immense and formal in outline. it had, however, much stately beauty, and very lovely are certain old pieces of carved and gilded wood where the gilt, put on over a red preparation and highly burnished, has rubbed off with time, and shows a soft glow of colour through the gold. but as always, the curse of over-elaboration to please perverted minds, was resorted to by cabinet-makers who copied mosaics with their inlaying, and invented that form known as _pietra-dura_--polished bits of marble, agates, pebbles and lapis lazuli. ivory was carved and used as bas-reliefs and ivory and tortoise shell, brass and mother-of-pearl used as inlay. elaborate arabesque designs inlaid were souvenirs of the orient, and where the cabinetmaker's saw left a line, the cuts were filled in with black wood or stained glue, which brought out the design and so gave an added decorative effect. skilled artisans had other designs bitten into wood by acids, and shading was managed by pouring hot sand on the surface of the wood. hallmarks of the renaissance are designs which were taken from greek and roman mythology, and allegories representing the elements, seasons, months and virtues. also, battle scenes and triumphal marches. the insatiable love for decoration found still another expression in silver and gold plaques of the highest artistic quality, embossed and engraved for those princes of florence, urbino, ferrara, rome, venice and naples, who vied with one another in extravagance until the inevitable reaction came. plate xvii an example of good mantel decoration. the vases and clock are empire, the chairs directoire, and footstools louis xv. a low bowl of modern green venetian glass holds flowers. [illustration: _an example of perfect balance and beauty in mantel arrangement_] edmund bonneffé says that in the latter part of the renaissance, while the effort of the italians seems to have been to disguise wood, french cabinet-makers emphasised its value--an interesting point to bear in mind. * * * * * if we trace the renaissance movement in germany we find that it was albrecht dürer who led it. then, as always, the germans were foremost in wood carving; with holland and belgium they are responsible for much of the antique oak furniture on renaissance lines. the scandinavians have also done wonderful wood carving, which is easily confused with the early wood carving of the russians, for the reason that the swedes settled finland, and russia's ruric rulers (before the romanoff house,--sixteenth century) were from finland. in the sixteenth century metal work in steel, iron and brass reached its height in germany and italy. it is supposed that the elaborate mounts in furniture which were later perfected in france had their origin in iron corners and hinge-plates used, at first, merely to strengthen, but as the men who worked in metals became more and more skilful, the mounts were made with the intent of mere decoration and to draw attention to the beauty of the wood itself. before dürer turned germany's mind toward the greek revival of art, the craftsmen of his country had been following dutch models. this was natural enough, for charles v was king at that time, of holland, germany and spain, and the arts of the three countries, as well as their commerce were interchangeable. in fact it was the dutch painter, van eyck, who took the renaissance into spain when called thereto paint royalty. sculptors, tapestry weavers, books on art, etc., followed. that was the spanish awakening, but the art of spain during the sixteenth century shows that the two most powerful influences were moorish and italian. the most characteristically spanish furniture of that period are those cabinets,--"_vargueos_," made of wood ornamented on the outside with wrought iron, while inside are little columns made of fine bone, painted and gilded. much of the old spanish furniture reproduces german and italian styles. embossed leather put on with heavy nails has always been characteristic of spain, and in the seventeenth century very fine spanish mahogany and chestnut were decorated with tortoise-shell inlaid with ivory, so as to make elaborate pictures in the italian style. (see baron davillier on spanish furniture.). chapter xviii french furniture the classic periods in french furniture were those known as francis i, henry ii and the three louis,--xiv, xv, and xvi. one can get an idea of all french periods in furnishing by visiting the collection in paris belonging to the government, "mobilier national," in the new wing of the louvre. it is always necessary to consult political history in order to understand artistic invasions. turn to it now and you will find that charles viii of france held naples for two years ( - ), and when he went home took with him italian artists to decorate his palaces. read on and find that later henry ii married catherine de medici and loved diane de poitiers, and that, fortunately for france, both his queen and his mistress were patronesses of the arts. so france bloomed in the sunshine of royal favour and greek influence, as few countries ever had. fontainebleau (begun by francis i) was the first of a chain of french royal palaces, all monuments without and within, to a picturesque system of monarchy,--kings who could do no wrong, wafting sceptres over powerless subjects, whose toil produced art in the form of architecture, cabinetmaking, tapestry weaving, mural decoration, unrivalled porcelain, exquisitely wrought silver and gold plate, silks, lovely as flower gardens (showing the "pomegranate" and "vase" patterns) and velvets like the skies! and for what? did these things represent the wise planning of wise monarchs for dependent subjects? we know better, for it is only in modern times that simple living and small incomes have achieved surroundings of artistic beauty and comfort. the marvels of interior decoration during the classic french periods were created for kings and their queens, mistresses and favoured courtiers. diane de poitiers wished--perhaps only dreamed--and an epoch-making art project was born. madame du barry admired and made her own the since famous du barry rose colour, and the sèvres porcelain factories reproduced it for her. but how to produce this particular illusive shade of deep, purplish-pink became a forgotten art, when the seductive person of the king's mistress was no more. if you would learn all there is to know concerning the sixteenth century furnishings in france read edmund bonneffé's "sixteenth century furniture." it was the henry ii interior decoration and architecture which first showed the renaissance of pure line and classic proportion, followed by the never-failing reaction from the simple line to the undulating over-ornate when decoration repeated the elaboration of the most luxurious, licentious periods of the past. one has but to walk through the royal palaces of france to see french history beguilingly illustrated, in a series of volumes open to all, the pages of which are vibrant with the names and personalities of men and women who will always live in history as products of an age of great culture and art. plate xviii a delightful bit of a room. the furniture, in line, shows a directoire influence. the striped french satin sofa and one chair is blue, yellow and faun, the brussels tapestry in faded blues, fauns and greys. over a charmingly painted table is a louis xv gilt applique, the screen is dark in tone and has painted panels. the rug, done in cross-stitch, black ground and design colours, was discovered in a forgotten corner of a shop, its condition so dingy from the dust of ages that only an expert would have recognised its possibilities. [illustration: _corner of a drawing room, furniture showing directoire influence_] the louis xiv, xv and xvi periods in furniture are all related. rare brocades, flowered and in stripes, bronze mounts as garlands, bow-knots and rosettes, on intricate inlaying, mark their common relationship. the story of these periods is that gradually decoration becomes over-elaborated and in the end dominates the greek outline. the three louis mark a succession of great periods. louis xiv, though beautiful at its best, is of the three the most ornate and is characterised in its worst stage by the extremely bowed (cabriole) legs of the furniture, ludicrously suggestive of certain debauched courtiers who surrounded the _grande monarch_. louis xv legs show a curve, also, but no longer the stoggy, squat cabriole of the over-fed gallant. instead we are entranced by an ethereal grace and lightness of movement in every line and decoration. here cabriole means but a courtly knee swiftly bending to salute some beauty's hand. so subtly waving is the curving outline of this furniture that one scarcely knows where it begins or ends, and it is the same with the decorations--exquisitely delicate waving traceries of vines and flora, gold on gold, inlay, or paint in delicate tones. all this gives to the louis xv period supremacy over louis xvi, whose round, grooved, tapering straight legs, one tires of more quickly, although fine gold and lovely paint make this type winning and beloved. from louis xvi we pass to the directoire, when, following the revolution, the voice of the populace decried all ostentation and everything savouring of the superfluous. the great napoleon in his first period affected simplicity and there were no longer bronze mounts, in rosettes, garlands and bow-knots, elaborate inlaying, nor painted furniture with lovely flowering surfaces; in the most severe examples not even fluted legs! instead, simple but delicately proportioned furniture with slender, squarely cut, chastely tapering legs, arms and backs, was the fashion. in fact, the directoire type is one of ideal proportions, graceful outlines with a flowing movement and the decoration when present, kept well within bounds, entirely subservient to the main structural material. one feels an almost quaker-like quality about the directoire, whether of natural wood or plain painted surface. with napoleon's assumption of regal power and habits, we get the empire (he had been to rome and egypt), pseudo-classic in outline and richly ornamented with mounts in ormoulu characteristic of the louis. the empire period in furniture was dethroned by the succeeding régime. when we see old french chairs with leather seats and backs, sometimes embossed, in the portuguese style, with small regular design, put on with heavy nails and twisted or straight stretchers (pieces of wood extending between legs of chairs), we know that they belong to the time of henry iv or louis xiii. some of the large chairs show the shell design in their broad, elaborate stretchers. the beautiful small side tables of the louis and first empire called consoles, were made for the display of their marvellously wrought pieces of silver, hammered and chiselled by hand,--"museum pieces," indeed, and lucky is the collector who chances upon any specimen adrift. chapter xix the periods of the three louis the only way to learn how to distinguish the three _louis_ is to study these periods in collections of furniture and objects of art, or, where this is impossible, to go through books showing interiors of those periods. in this way one learns to visualise the salient features of any period and gradually to acquire a _feeling_ for them, that subtle sense which is not dependent wholly upon outline, decoration, nor colour, but upon the combined result. french writers who specialise along the lines of interior decoration often refer to the three types as follows: period of louis xiv--heavily, stolidly masculine; period of louis xv--coquettishly feminine; period of louis xvi--lightly, alertly masculine. one soon sees why, for louis xiv furniture does suggest masculinity by its weight and size. it is squarely made, straight (classic) in line, equally balanced, heavily ponderous and magnificent. over its surface, masses of decoration immobile as stone carving, are evenly dispersed, and contribute a grandiose air to all this furniture. there was impressive gallantry to the louis xiv style, a ceremonious masculine gallantry, while louis xv furniture--the period dominated by women when "poetry and sculpture sang of love" and life revolved about the boudoir--shows a type entirely _intime_, sinuously, lightly, gracefully, coquettishly feminine, bending and courtesying, with no fixed outline, no equal balance of proportions. louis xv was the period when outline and decoration were merged in one and the _shell_ which figured in louis xiv merely as an ornament, gave its form (in a curved outline) and its name "rococo" (italian for shell) to the style. as a reaction from this we get the louis xvi period, again masculine in its straight rigidity of line, its perfectly poised proportions, the directness of its appeal to the eye, a "reflection of the more serious mental attitude of the nation." louis xvi had an aristocratic sobriety and was masculine in a light, alert, mental way, if one can so express it, which stimulates the imagination, in direct contrast to the material and literal type of louis xiv which, as we have said, was masculine in its ponderous magnificence, and unyielding over-ornamentation. so much for _outline_. now for the _decoration_ of the three periods. remember that the louis xiv, xv and xvi periods took their ideas for decoration from the greeks, via italy, and the extreme orient. a national touch was added by means of their sèvres porcelain medallions set into furniture, and the finely chiselled bronzes known as ormoulu, a superior alloy of metals of a rich gold colour. the subjects for these chiselled bronzes were taken from greek and roman mythology; gods, goddesses, and cupids the insignia of which were torches, quivers, arrows, and tridents. there were, also, wreaths, garlands, festoons and draperies, as well as rosettes, ribbons, bow-knots, medallion heads, and the shell and acanthus leaf. one finds these in various combinations or as individual motives on the furniture of the louis. plate xix shows the red-tiled entrance hall of a duplex apartment in new york. on the walls are two italian mirrors (louis xvi), a side table (console) of the same epoch, and two italian carved chairs. [illustration: _entrance hall in new york duplex apartment. italian furniture_] the backgrounds for these mounts were the woods finely inlaid with ivory shell and brass in the style of the italian renaissance. oriental lacquer and painted furniture, at that time heavily gilded. the legs of chairs, sofas and tables of the louis xiv period were cabrioles (curved outward)--a development of the animal legs of carved wood, bronze or gold, used by the ancient assyrians, egyptians and greeks as supports for tables and chairs. square grooved legs also appeared in this type. the same grooves are found on round tapering legs of louis xvi's time. in fact that type of leg is far more typical of the louis xvi period than the cabriole or square legs grooved, but one sees all three styles. other hallmarks of the louis xvi period are the straight outlines, perfectly balanced proportions, the rosettes, ribbon and bow-knot with torch and arrows in chiselled bronze. that all "painting and sculpture sang of love" is as true of louis xvi as of louis xv. in both reigns the colouring was that of spring-tender greens, pale blossoms, the grey of mists, sky-blues, and yellows of sunshine. during louis xv's time soft cushions fitted into the sinuous lines of the furniture, and as some frenchman has put it, "a vague, discreet perfume pervaded the whole period, in contrast to the heavier odour of the first empire." the walls and ceilings of the three louis were richly decorated in accordance with a scheme, surpassing in magnificence any other period. an intricate system of mouldings (to master which, students at the École des beaux arts, paris, must devote years) encrusted sidewalls and ceilings, forming panels and medallions, over-doors and chimney-pieces, into which were let paintings by the great masters of the time, whose subjects reflected the moods and interests of each period. the louis xv and xvi paintings are tender and vague as to subject and the colours veiled in a greyish tone, full of sentiment. that was the great period of tapestry weaving--beauvais, arras and gobelin, and these filled panels or hung before doors. it may be said that the period of louis xvi profited by antiquity, but continued french traditions; it was a renaissance of line and decoration kept alive, while the first empire was classic form inanimate, because an abrupt innovation rather than an influence and a development. one may go farther and quote the french claim that the colour scheme of louis xvi was intensely suggestive and personal, while the empire colouring was literal and impersonal. under louis xvi furniture was all but lost in a crowd of other articles, tapestry, draperies of velvet, flowered silks, little objects of art in porcelain, more or less useless, silver and ormoulu, exquisitely decorated with a précieuse intricacy of chiselled designs. the louis xvi period was rigid in its aristocratic sobriety, for although torch and arrows figured, as did love-birds, in decoration--(souvenirs of the painter boucher), everything was set and decorous, even the arrow was often the warrior's not cupid's; in the same way the torch was that of the ancients, and when a medallion showed a pastoral subject, its frame of straight lines linked it to the period. even if cupid appeared, he was decorously framed or pedestaled. to be sure, marie antoinette and the ladies of her court played at farming in the park of the petite trainon, at versailles; but they wore silk gowns and powdered wigs. to be rustic was the fad of the day (there was a cult for gardening in england); but shepherdesses were confined to tapestries, and, while the aristocracy held the stage, it played the game of life in gloves. there was about the interior decoration of louis xvi, as about the lives of aristocratic society of that time, a "penetrating perfume of love and gallantry," to which all admirers of the beautiful must ever return for refreshment and standards of beauty and grace. speaking generally of the three louis one can say that on a background of a great variety of wonderful inlaid woods, ivory, shell, mother-of-pearl and brass, or woods painted and gilded, following the italian renaissance, or lacquered in the manner of the orient, were ormoulu wrought and finely chiselled, showing greek mythological subjects; gods, goddesses and their insignia, with garlands, wreaths, festoons, draperies, ribbons, bow-knots, rosettes and medallions of cameo, sèvres porcelain, or wedgwood paste. among the lost arts of that time are inlaying as done by boule and the finish known as vernis martin. plate xx this large studio is a marked example of comfort and interest where the laws of appropriateness, practicableness, proportion and balance are so observed as to communicate at once a sense of restfulness. here the comfortable antiques and beautifully proportioned modern furniture make an ideal combination of living-room and painter's studio. [illustration: _combination of studio and living room in a new york duplex apartment_] tapestries and mural paintings were framed by a marvellous system of mouldings which covered ceilings and sidewalls. the colour scheme was such as would naturally be dictated by the general mood of artificiality in an age when dreams were lived and the ruling classes obsessed by a passion for amusements, invented to divert the mind from actualities. this colour scheme was beautifully light in tone and harmoniously gay, whether in tapestries, draperies and upholstery of velvets, or flowered silks, frescoes or painted furniture. it had the appearance of being intended to act as a soporific upon society, whose aim it was to ignore those jarring contrasts which lay beneath the surface of every age. chapter xx charts showing historical evolution of furniture louis xiv, to {compressed regularity {straight, square, { giving way in { grooved and very key-note { reaction to a { squat cabriole the grand { ponderous ugliness. { legs. audience rooms { { the regency and {the reign of woman. {cabriole legs of a louis xv, to { { perfect lightness { { and grace. key-note { { the boudoir { { {the transition style {legs tapering { between the bourbon { straight, rounded { interior decoration { and grooved. a { and that of { few square-grooved { the "directorate" { legs and louis xvi, to { and "empire," { a few graceful, { characterised by a { slender cabriole key-note { return to the classic { legs. the salon _intime_ { line which reflects { { a more serious turn { { of mind on part of { { the nation in an age { { of great mental { { activity. { {classic lines. {classic decorations with subjects taken from { greek mythologies. {winged figures, emblems of liberty; antique { heads of helmeted warriors, made like { medallions, wreaths, lyres, torches, { rosettes, etc. {besides the wonderful mounts of ormoulu, { designed by the great sculptors and painters { of the period, there was a great deal { of fine brass inlaying. {antique vases taken from ancient tombs were the first empire, { placed in recesses in the walls of rooms napoleon i, { after the style of the ancient "columbaria." to {every effort was made to surround napoleon i { with the dignity and austere sumptuousness { of a great roman emperor. as we have said, { he had been in rome and he had been in egypt; { the art of the french empire was reminiscent { of both. napoleon would outstrip the other { conquerors of the world. {some empire furniture shows the same fine { turning which characterizes jacobean furniture { of both oak and walnut periods. we refer to { the round, not spiral, turning. see legs of { empire sofa on which madame récamier reclines { in the well-known portrait by david (louvre). english furniture {gothic, through th century. the oak period {renaissance, th century. (including early {elizabethan, th century. jacobean) {jacobean or stuart, th century; james i, { charles i and ii, and james ii, - . {late jacobean. the walnut period {william and mary, . {queen anne, . "mahogany" period {chippendale. { th century. (and other imported {heppelwhite. { woods), or {sheraton { chippendale period. {the adam brothers. { {almost no furniture exists of the th { century. we get the majority of our gothic period, { ideas from illustrated manuscripts of through th century. { that time. the furniture was carved { oak or plain oak ornamented with { iron scroll work, intended both for { strength and decoration. renaissance or {the characteristic, heavy, wide mouldings elizabethan, { and small panels, and heavy round th century. { carving. {panels large and mouldings very narrow and { flat, or no mouldings at all, and flat { carving. the classic influence shown during jacobean or { the period of the commonwealth in designs, stuart period, { pilastars and pediments was the result of a th century. { classic reaction, all elaboration being { resented. walnut period, {the restoration brought in elaborate late th century. { carving. dutch influence is exemplified { in the fashion for inlaying imported from { holland, as well as the tulip design. { turned legs, stretchers, borders and spiral { turnings, characterized jacobean style. in the gothic period (extending { through th century), as { the delightful irregularity in { line and decoration shows, {tables, chests, presses (wardrobes), there was no set type; each { chairs and benches or piece was an individual creation { settles. and showed the personality { of maker. { during renaissance or elizabethan { period ( th century) {table chests, presses, chairs, types begin to establish { benches, settles, and small and repeat themselves. { chests of drawers. {inlaying in ebony, ivory, { mother-of-pearl, and ebonised { oblong bosses of the jewel type { (last half of th century). in the jacobean ( th century) { the tulip design introduced there was already a set type, { from holland as decoration. pieces made all alike, turned {turned and carved frames and out by the hundreds. { stretchers; caned seats and { backs to chairs, velvet cushions, { velvet satin damask and { needlework upholstery, the { seats stuffed. henry viii made england _protestant_, it having been roman catholic for several hundred years before the coming of the anglo-saxons and for a thousand years after. {queen elizabeth. protestant. { {"the elizabethan period." stuart. {james i. . roman catholic. { "jacobean." {charles i. (puritan revolution), . {oliver cromwell. . puritan. { {commonwealth. stuart. {charles ii. ( ), restoration. roman catholic. { "jacobean." {james ii. ( ), deposition and flight. {william--prince of orange (holland), . protestant. { who had married the english princess { mary and was the only available _protestant_ { ( ). protestant. --queen anne ( - ). chapter xxi the mahogany period it is interesting to note that the great fire of london started the importation of foreign woods from across the baltic, as great quantities were needed at once for the purpose of rebuilding. these soft woods aroused the invention of the cabinet-makers, and were especially useful for inlaying; so we find in addition to oak, that mahogany, pear and lime woods were used in fine furniture, it being lime-wood that grinling gibbons carved when working with sir christopher wren, the famous architect (seventeenth century). during the early georgian period the oak carvings were merely poor imitations of elizabethan and stuart designs. there seemed to have been no artist wood-carvers with originality, which may have been partly due to a lack of stimulus, as the fashion in the decoration of furniture turned toward inlaying. the period of william iii and queen mary and early georgian are characterised by _turned_ work, giving way to _flattened forms_, and the disappearance of the elaborate front stretcher on charles ii chairs. the coming of mahogany into england and its great popularity there gives its name to that period when chippendale, heppelwhite, sheraton and the adam brothers were the great creative cabinet-makers. the entire period is often called chippendale, because chippendale's books on furniture, written to stimulate trade by arousing good taste and educating his public, are considered the best of that time. there were three editions: , , and . the work was entitled "the gentleman and cabinet-maker's director and useful designs of household furniture in the gothic, chinese and modern taste" (and there was still more to the title!). chippendale's genius lay in taking the best wherever he found it and blending the whole into a type so graceful, beautiful, perfectly proportioned, light in weight and appearance, and so singularly suited to the uses for which it was intended, that it amounted to creation. the "chinese craze" in england was partly due to a book so called, written by sir william chambers, architect, who went to china and not only studied, but sketched, the furniture, he saw there. thomas sheraton, we are assured, was the most cultivated of this group of cabinet-makers. the three men made both good and bad styles. the work of the three men can be distinguished one from the other and, also, it can be very easily confused. to read up a period helps; but to really know any type of furniture with certainty, one must become familiar with its various and varying characteristics. the houses and furniture designed and made by the adam brothers were an epoch in themselves. these creations were the result of the co-operation of a little band of artists, consisting of michael angelo pergolesi, who published in , "designs for various ornaments"; angelica kauffman and cipriani, two artist-painters who decorated the walls, ceilings, woodwork and furniture designed by the adam brothers; and another colleague, the great josiah wedgwood, whose medallions and plaques, cameo-like creations in his jasper paste, showed both classic form and spirit. the adam brothers' creations were rare exotics, with no forerunners and no imitators, like nothing the world had ever seen--yet reflecting the purest greek period in line and design. one of the characteristics of the mahogany period was the cabriole leg, which is, also, associated with italian and french furniture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. as a matter of fact this form of leg is as old as the romans and is really the same as the animal legs of wood or bronze, used as supports for tripods and tables by assyrians, egyptians and greeks. the cabriole leg may be defined as "a convex curve above a concave one, with the point of junction smoothed away. on italian console tables and french commodes we see the two simple curves disguised by terminal figures." the rocaille (shell) ornament on the chippendale as well as the cabriole leg copied from italy and france, and the dutch foot from holland, substantiate our claim that chippendale used what he found wherever he found it irrespective of the stigma of plagiarism. there is a beautiful book by f.s. robinson in which the entire subject of english furniture is treated in a most charming fashion. now let us return a moment to the jacobean period. it was under charles i that couches and settles became prominent pieces of furniture. some of the jacobean chairs are like those made in italy, in the seventeenth century, with crossed legs, backs and seats covered with red velvet. other jacobean chairs had scrollwork carved and pierced, with central panel in the back of embroidery, while the seat was of cane. some of the jacobean cabinets had panels of ebony, the other parts inlaid with mother-of-pearl and ivory. the silver jacobean furniture is interesting and the best examples of this type are said to be those belonging to lord sackville. they are of ebony with silver mountings. yorkshire is noted for its jacobean furniture, but some famous rooms done in this style are at langleys, in essex, the seat of col. tufnell, where the ceilings and mantels are especially fine and the library boasts interesting panelled walls, once enlivened by stained glass windows, when this room was used as a private chapel for the family. jacobean carving was never ornate. twenty years later came the queen anne period. queen anne chairs show a solid splat, sometimes vase-shaped, and strap-work arabesques. most of the legs were cabriole, instead of the twisted turnings (on stuart lines) which had been supports for chairs, cabinets and tables. the queen anne chair legs terminated when cabriole, in claws and balls or simple balls. settees for two were then called "love seats," and "pole-screens" belonged to this period, tall, slender poles with small, sliding screens. queen anne hangings were of rich damasks, silks and velvets, and the wainscot of rooms was painted some pale colour as an effective background to set off the dark, turned walnut or gorgeous lacquer made in red, green or black, and ornamented with gold. some of the queen anne pieces of this variety had hinges and lockplates of chased brass. another variety was of oak, veneered with walnut and inlaid. the very high ceilings of the queen anne period led to the use of "tall boys" or family bureaus, those many-storied conveniences which comprised a book-case above, writing desk in the middle, and drawers below. lockwood says in giving the history of chairs, in his "cabinet makers from to ": "extravagance of taste and fluctuation of fashion had reached high water mark due to increase of wealth in england and her colonies. from the plain, stately pieces of queen anne the public turned to the rococo french designs of early chippendale, then tiring of that, veered back to classic lines, as done by the adam brothers, and so on, from heavy chippendale to the overlight and perishable heppelwhite. then public taste turned to the gaudily painted sheraton and finally, took to copying the french empire." the american revolutionary war stopped the exportation of furniture to america, with the result that cabinet-makers in the united states copied chippendale and neglected all other later artists. when america began again to import models, sheraton was an established and not a transitional type. beautiful specimens are shown in the nichols house, at salem, mass., furnished in . the furniture used by george washington when president of the united states in , and now in the city hall, new york, is pure sheraton. (see colonial furniture, luke vincent lockwood.) sir christopher wren, architect, with grinling gibbons, designer and wood-carver, were chiefly responsible for the beautifully elaborate mouldings on ceilings and walls, carved from oak and used for forming large panels with wide bevels, into which were sometimes set tapestries. the italian stucco mouldings were also used at that time. the fashion for elaborate ceilings and sidewalls had come to england via italy and france. the most elaborate ones of those times were executed under charles ii and william iii, the ceilings rivalling those of louis xiv. william and mary ( - ) brought over with them from holland, dutch cabinet makers, which accounts for the marked dutch influence on the mahogany period, an influence which shows in a dutch style of inlaying, cabriole legs and the tulip design. a sure sign of the william and mary period is the presence of jasmine, as designed for inlaying in bone, ivory or hollywood. lacquer came to england via holland, the dutch having imported chinese workmen. the entire mahogany period, including the adam brothers, used the shell as a design and the backs of settees resembled several chair backs places side by side. a feature of the mahogany period were the knife-boxes and cases for bottles, made of mahogany and often inlaid, which stood upon pedestals constructed for the purpose, at each side of the sideboard. later the pedestals became a part of the sideboard. the urn-shaped knife-boxes were extremely graceful as made by adam, chippendale and heppelwhite. it is impossible to clearly define all of the work of the cabinet-makers of the mahogany or any other period, for reasons already stated. so one must be prepared to find chippendale sofas which show the shapes originated by him and, also, at times, show louis xvi legs and louis xv outline. chippendale's contemporaries were quite as apt to vary their types, and it is only by experience that one can learn to distinguish between the different artists, to appreciate the hall marks of creative individuality. the early chippendale was almost identical with queen anne furniture and continued the use of cabriole leg and claw and ball feet. the top of the chippendale chairs were bow-shaped with ends extending beyond the sides of the back and usually turned _up_. if turned down they never rounded into the sides, as in the case of queen anne chairs. the splats have an upward movement and were joined to chair seats, and not to a cross-rail. they were pierced and showed elaborate ribbon and other designs in carving. there were, also, "ladder backs," and the chinese chippendale chairs, with lattice work open carved and extending over entire backs. the characteristic chippendale leg is cabriole with claw and ball foot. the setting for chippendale furniture was a panelled dado, classic mantelpiece, architraves and frieze, and stretched over sidewalks, above dado, was silk or paper showing a large pattern harmonising with the furniture. the chinese craze brought about a fashion for chinese wall papers with chinese designs. this chinese fashion continued for fifty years. chippendale carved the posts of his bedsteads, and so the bed curtains were drawn back and only a short valance was used around the top, whereas in the time of william and mary bed curtains enveloped all the woodwork. still earlier in the elizabethan period bed posts were elaborately carved. in the eighteenth century it was the fashion to embroider the bed curtains. the chippendale china-cabinets with glass fronts, were the outcome of the fad for collecting chinese and french porcelain, and excellent taste was displayed in collecting these small articles within definite and appropriate limits. cabinets with glass doors were also used as receptacles for silverware. thomas sheraton ( - ), another great name in the mahogany period, admired louis xv and louis xvi and one can easily trace french influence in the "light, rhythmic style" he originated. sheraton's contribution to interior decoration was furniture. his rooms, walls, ceilings, over-doors, windows and chimney pieces, are considered very poor; which accounts for the fact that sheraton furniture as well as heppelwhite was used in adam rooms. sheraton made a specialty of pieces of furniture designed to serve several purposes, and therefore adapted for use in small rooms; such as dressing-tables with folding mirrors, library step-ladders convertible into tables, etc. the backs of sheraton chairs had straight tops and several small splats joined to a cross-rail, and not to the seat. the legs were straight. sheraton introduced the use of turned work on the legs and outer supports of the backs of chairs, and produced fine examples of painted furniture, especially painted satin-wood. he, also, did some very fine inlaying and used cane in the seats and backs of chairs which he painted black and gold. among those who decorated for him was angelica kauffman. heppelwhite chairs are unmistakable on account of their _shield_, _heart_ or _oval_ backs and open splats, which were not joined to the seat in the centre of backs. the most beautiful were those with carved prince of wales feathers, held together by a bow-knot delicately carved. they were sometimes painted. the legs of heppelwhite furniture were straight. we see in the book published by a. heppelwhite & co., a curious statement to the effect that cabriole chairs were those having stuffed backs. this idea must have arisen from the fact that many chairs of the eighteenth century with cabriole legs, did have stuffed backs. robert adam, born in , was an architect and decorative artist. the adam rooms, walls, ceilings, mantels, etc., are the most perfect of the period; beautiful classic mouldings encrust ceilings and sidewalls, forming panels into which were let paintings, while in drawing-rooms the side panels were either recessed so as to hold statuary in the antique style, or were covered with damask or tapestry. it is stated that damask and tapestry were never used on the walls of adam dining-rooms. james adam, a brother, worked with robert. every period had its own weak points, so we find the adam brothers at times making wall-brackets which were too heavy with ram's heads, garlands, etc., and the adam chairs were undoubtedly bad. they had backs with straight tops, rather like sheraton chairs, and several small splats joining top rail to seat. the bad chairs by adam, were improved upon by sheraton and heppelwhite. the legs of adam furniture were straight. the ideal eighteenth century interior in england was undoubtedly an adam room with heppelwhite or sheraton furniture. sir john soane, architect, had one of the last good house interiors, for the ugly georgian style came on the scene about . grinling gibbons' carvings of heavy fruits and flowers, festoons and masks made to be used architecturally we now see used on furniture, and often heavily gilded. william morris was an epoch maker in english interior decoration, for he stood out for the "great, simple note" in furnishings. the pre-raphaelites worked successfully to the same end, reviving classic simplicity and establishing _the value of elimination_. the good, modern furniture of to-day, designed with reference to meeting the demands of modern conditions, undoubtedly received a great impetus from that reaction to the simple and harmonious. chapter xxii the colonial period the furniture made in america during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was reproduced from english models and shows the influence of chippendale, sheraton, heppelwhite and the adam brothers. for those interested in these early types of american output, the sage and other collections in the metropolitan museum, new york, give a delightful object lesson, and there has been much written on the subject in case any data is desired. if some of our readers own heirlooms and plan reproducing colonial interiors of the finest type, we would advise making an effort to see some of the beautiful new england or virginia homes, which remain quite as they were in the old days; fine square rooms with hand-carved woodwork, painted white, their walls panelled in wood and painted the same white. into these panels were set hand-painted wall paper. the authors saw some made for a house in peabody, near salem, massachusetts, some time between and , and were amazed to find that the colours were as vivid as when first put on. here let us say that the study of interior decoration throws a strong light on the history of walls. in gothic days the stone or wood of the feudal hall was partially concealed by tapestries,--the needlework of the women of the household, a record of the gallant deeds of men used as interior decoration. later of course, the making of tapestries became a great industry in italy, france and belgium, an industry patronised by kings and the nobility, and subsidised by governments. next we have walls sheathed with wood panelling. then during the late renaissance, painted portraits were let into these panels and became a part of the walls. later, the upper half, or two-thirds of the panelling, was left off, and only a low panelling, or "dado," remained. this, too, disappeared in time. landscape paper was the bridge between the panelled walls with pictures built into them, and the painted or papered walls with pictures hung on them. the paper which we have already referred to, is one of the finest examples of its kind, and while there is only enough for one side of a room, it is valued at $ , . the design is eight feet high, each strip inches wide, and there are eighteen of the original twenty strips. two breaks occur, numbers and . the owner believes that the puritan attitude of her ancestors caused them to destroy the panels which showed nude figures engaged in battle. this paper is now the property of mrs. eliza brown of salem, massachusetts. it was found in her grandfather's attic in gloucester, and was given to mrs. brown by her grandmother. it was in an army chest belonging to judutham baldwin, a colonel of engineers in the revolutionary army, who laid out the forts in boston harbour. kate sanborn, in her book on "old wall papers" speaks of this particular paper. "paper from the ham house at peabody, massachusetts, now occupied by dr. worcester. shows tropical scenes. these scenes are quite similar to those of the pizarro paper and may have been the work of the same designer." (the so-called "pizarro in peru" paper is shown in plate and of the same book, and is in duxbury, mass.) pizarro's invasion of peru was in . the colouring of mrs. brown's paper is white background with foliage in vivid greens, while figures of peruvians wear costumes of brilliant blues and vermillion reds, a striking contrast to their soft, brown skins. this paper is now in the market, but let us hope it may finally rest in a museum. chapter xxiii the revival of directoire and empire furniture the revival of directoire and empire furniture within the past few years, is attributed by some, to that highly artistic, and altogether illuminating publication, the _gazette do bon ton_--arts, modes and frivolities--published in paris by the librarie centrale des beaux arts, rue lafayette and contributed to by the leading artists of paris--the ultra moderns. there was a time, fifteen or twenty years ago, when one could buy empire furniture at very low figures, for in those days there was many a chance to pick up such pieces. to-day, a genuine antique or a hand-made reproduction of an antique made sixty years ago, will command a large price, and even in paris one has difficulty in finding them in the shops at any price. empire furniture ceased to be admired in america when the public got "fed up" on this type by its indiscriminate use in hotels and other public buildings. the best designers of modern painted furniture are partly responsible for the revived interest in both empire and directoire. from their reproductions of the beautiful simple outlines, we, as a people, are once more beginning to _feel_ line and to recognise it as an intrinsic part of beauty. plate xxi a victorian group in a small portion of a very large parlour, x feet, one of the few remaining, if not the last, of the old victorian mansions in new york city, very interesting as a specimen of the most elegant style of furnishing in the first half of the nineteenth century. we would call attention to the heavy moulding of ceilings, the walls painted in panels (painted panels or wall paper to represent panels, is a victorian hallmark), beautifully hand-carved woodwork, elaboration of design and colon carpet, woven in one piece for the room; in fact the characteristic richness of elaboration everywhere: pictures in gilded carved frames, hung on double silk cords with tassels, heavily carved furniture made in england, showing fruits, flowers and medallion heads, and a similar elaboration and combination of flora and figures on bronze gas fixtures. heavy curtains of satin damask hung at the windows, held back by great cords and tassels, from enormous brass cornices in the form of gigantic flowers. also of the period is an immense glass case of stuffed birds, standing in the corner of the large dining-room. this interior was at the height of its glory at the time of the civil war, and one is told of wonderful parties when the uniforms of the northern officers decorated the stately rooms and large shaded gardens adjoining the house. as things go in new york it may be but a matter of months before this picturesque landmark is swept away by relentless progress. [illustration: _part of a victorian parlour in one of the few remaining new york victorian mansions_] chapter xxiv the victorian period gradually architecture and interior decoration drew apart, becoming two distinct professions, until during the victorian era the two were unrelated with the result that the period of victorian furniture is one of the worst on record. there were two reasons for this divorce of the arts, which for centuries had been one in origin and spirit; first, the application of steam to machinery ( ) leading to machine-made furniture, and second, the invention of wall-paper which gradually took the place of wood panelling and shut off the architects from all jurisdiction over the decoration of the home. with the advent of machine-made furniture came cheap imitations of antiques and the rapid decadence of this art. hand-made reproductions are quite another thing. sir richard wallace (of the wallace collection, london) is said to have given $ , for a reproduction of the _bureau du louvre_. fortunately, of late years a tide has set in which favours simple, well made furniture, designed with fine lines and having special reference to the purposes for which each piece is intended, and to-day our houses can be beautiful even if only very simple and inexpensive furniture is used. in the victorian prime, even the carved furniture, so much of which was made in england both for that country and the united states (see plate xxi), was not of the finest workmanship, compared with carvings of the same time in belgium, france, germany and austria. to-day victorian cross-stitch and bead work in chairs, screens, footstools and bell-pulls, artificial flowers of wax and linen, and stuffed birds, as well as bristol glass in blue, green and violet, are brought out from their hiding places and serve as touches of colour to give some of the notes of variety which good interior decoration demands. to be fascinating, a person must not be too rigidly one type. there must be moments of relaxation, of light and shade in mood, or one is not charmed even by great beauty. so your perfect room must not be kept too rigidly in one style. to have attraction it must have variety in both line and colour, and reflect the taste of generations of home lovers. the contents of dusty garrets may add piquancy to modern decorations, giving a touch of the unusual which is very charming. chapter xxv painted furniture painted furniture is, at present, the vogue, so if you own a piece made by the adam brothers of england, decorated by the hand of angelica kauffman, or pergolesi, from greek designs, now is the moment to "star" it. different in decoration, but equal in charm, is the seventeenth and eighteenth century painted lacquers of italy, france, china and japan. in those days great masters laboured at cabinetmaking and decorating, while distinguished artists carved the woodwork of rooms, and painted the ceilings and walls of even private dwellings. to-day we have reproductions (good and bad) of the veteran types, and some commendable inventions, more or less classic in line, and original in colouring and style of decoration. at times, one wishes there was less evident effort to be original. we long for the repose of classic colour schemes and classic line. in art, the line and the combination of colours which have continued most popular throughout the ages, are very apt to be those with which one can live longest and not tire. for this reason, a frank copy of an antique piece of painted furniture is generally more satisfactory than a modern original. if you are using dull coloured carpets and hangings, have your modern reproductions antiqued. if you prefer gay, cheering tones, let the painted furniture be bright. these schemes are equally interesting in different ways. it is stupid to decry new things, since every grey antique had its frivolous, vivid youth. one american decorator has succeeded in making the stolid, uncompromising squareness of mission furniture take on a certain lightness and charm by painting it black and discreetly lining it with yellow and red. yellow velour is used for the seat pads and heavy hangings, thin yellow silk curtains are hung at the windows, and the black woodwork is set off by japanese gold paper. in a large house, or in a summer home where there are young people coming and going, a room decorated in this fashion is both gay and charming and makes a pleasant contrast to darker rooms. then, too, yellow is a lovely setting for all flowers, the effect being to intensify their beauty, as when flooded by sunshine. another clever treatment of the mission type, which we include under the heading painted furniture, is to have it stained a rich dark brown, instead of the usual dark green. give your dealer time to order your furniture unfinished from the factory, and have stained to your own liking; or, should you by any chance be planning to use mission in one of those cottages so often built in maine, for summer occupancy, where the walls are of unplastered, unstained, dove-tailed boards, and the floors are unstained and covered with matting rugs, try using this furniture in its _natural_ colour--unfinished. the effect is delightfully harmonious and artistic and quite japanese in feeling. in such a cottage, the living-room has a raftered ceiling, the sidewalls, woodwork, settles by the fireplaces, open bookcases and floor, are all stained dark walnut. the floor colour is very dark, the sidewalls, woodwork and book shelves are a trifle lighter, and the ceiling boards still lighter between the almost black, heavy rafters. the mission furniture is dark brown, the hangings and cushions are of mahogany-coloured corduroy, and the floor is strewn with skins of animals. there are no pictures, the idea being to avoid jarring notes in another key. instead, copper and brass bowls contribute a note of variety, as well as large jars filled with great branches of flowers, gathered in the nearby woods. the chimney is exposed. it and the large open fireplace are of rough, dark mottled brick. a room of this character would be utterly spoiled by introducing white as ornaments, table covers, window curtains or picture-mats; it is a colour scheme of dull wood-browns, old reds and greens in various tones. if you want your friends' photographs about you in such a room, congregate them on one or two shelves above your books. chapter xxvi treatment of an inexpensive bedroom the experience of the author is that the most attractive, inexpensive furniture is that made by the leavens factory in boston. this furniture is so popular with all interior decorators that it needs no further advertising. order for each single iron bed two _foot boards_, instead of a head and a footboard. this the factory will supply upon demand. then have your bed painted one of the colours you have chosen as in the colour scheme for your room. say, the prevailing note of your chintz. have two rolls made, to use at the head and foot (which are now of equal height) and cover these and the bed with chintz, or, if preferred, with sun-proof material in one of the other colours in your chintz. by this treatment your cheap iron bed of ungainly proportions, has attained the quality of an interesting, as well as unique, "day-bed." plate xxii two designs for day-beds which are done in colours to suit the scheme of any room. these beds are fitted with box springs and a luxurious mattress of feathers or down, covered with silk or chintz, coverlet and cushions of similar material, in colours harmonising with beds. if desired, these lounges can be made higher from the floor. [illustration: _two styles of day-beds_] the most attractive cheap bureau is one ordered "in the plain" from the factory, and painted like the bed. if you would entirely remove the factory look, have the mirror taken off the bureau and hang it on the wall over what, by your operation, has become a chest of drawers. if you want a long mirror in your rooms, the cheapest variety is mirror glass, fastened to the back of doors with picture moulding to match woodwork. this is also the cheapest variety of over-mantel mirrors. we have seen it used with great success, let into walls of narrow halls and bedrooms and framed with a dull-gold moulding in the style of room. for chairs, use the straight wooden ones which are made to match the bureau, and paint them like the bed and bureau. for comfortable arm-chairs, wicker ones with chintz-covered pads for seat and back are best for the price, and these can also be painted. cheap tables, which match the bureau, when painted will do nicely as a small writing-table or a night-table for water, clock, book, etc. if the floors are new and of hard wood, wax them and use a square of plain velvet carpet in a dark tone of your dominant colour. or if economy is your aim, use attractive rag rugs which are very cheap and will wash. if your floors are old and you intend using a large velvet square, paint the edges of the floor white, or some pale shade to match the colour of the walls. or, use filling all over the floor. if you cannot afford either and must use small rugs, stain or paint your floors a dark colour, to be practical, and use only necessary rugs; that is, one before bed, bureau and fireplace. sofas are always expensive. that is one reason for advising that beds be treated like "day-beds." wall papers, at ten cents a roll, come in charming colours and designs, and with a few cheap french coloured prints, framed in passepartout, your room is attractive at once. if your prints are black and white use broad passepartout in same colour as the wall paper, only a tone deeper. if you use favourite photographs, suppress all margins and frame with narrow black passepartout. for curtains use one of the sixty-or seventy-cent chintzes which come in attractive designs and colours, or what is still cheaper, sun-proof material, fifty inches wide (from $ . to $ . a yard), and split it in half for curtains, edging them with a narrow fringe of a contrasting colour which appears in the chintz of chair-pads. another variety of cheap curtains is heavy cream scrim with straps (for looping back) and valance of chintz. these come cheaper than all chintz curtains and are very effective, suggesting the now popular and expensive combination of plain toned taffetas combined with chintz. use for sash curtains plain scrim or marquesette. let your lamps be made of inexpensive one-toned pottery vases, choosing for these still another colour which appears in the chintz. the lamp shades can be made of a pretty near-silk, in a plain colour, with a fringe made up of one, two or three of the colours in the chintz. if you happen to have your heart set on deep rose walls and your bedroom furniture is mahogany, find a chintz with rose and french blue, and then cover your arm-chair pads and bed with chintz, but make your curtains of blue sun-proof material, having a narrow fringe of rose, and use a deep rose carpet, or rugs, or if preferred, a dull brown carpet to harmonise with the furniture. a plain red wilton carpet will dye an artistic deep mulberry brown. they are often bought in the red and dyed to get this shade of brown. for attractive cheap dining-room furniture, buy simple shapes, unfinished, and have the table, sideboard and chairs painted dark or light, as you prefer. in your dining-room and halls, if the house is old and floors bad, and economy necessary, use a solid dark linoleum, either deep blue or red, and have it _waxed_, as an economical measure as well as to improve its appearance. in a small home, where no great formality is observed, well chosen doilies may be used on all occasions, instead of table cloths. by this expedient you suppress one large item on the laundry bill, the care of the doilies in such cases falling to the waitress. to make comfortable, convenient and therefore livable, a part of a house, formerly an attic, or an extension with small rooms and low ceilings, seems to be the special province of a certain type of mind, which works best when there is a tax on the imagination. when reclaiming attic rooms, one of the problems is how to get wall space, especially if there are dormer windows and very slanting ceilings. one way, is to place a dressing table _in_ the dormer, under windows, covering the sides of the dormer recess with mirror glass, edged with narrow moulding. the dressing-table is not stationary, therefore it can be easily moved by a maid, when the rooms are cleaned. chapter xxvii treatment of a guest room (where economy is not an item of importance) here we can indulge our tastes for beautiful quality of materials and fine workmanship, as well as good line and colour, so we describe a room which has elegant distinction and atmosphere, yet is not a so-called period room--rather a modern room, in the sense that it combines beautiful lines and exquisite colouring with every modern development for genuine comfort and convenience. the walls are panelled and painted a soft taupe--there are no pictures; simply one very beautiful mirror in a dull-gold frame, a louis xvi reproduction. plate xxiii in another suite we have a boudoir done in sage greens and soft browns. the curtains of taffeta, in stripes of the two colours. two tiers of creme net form sash curtains. the carpet is a rich mulberry brown, day-bed a reproduction of an antique, painted in faded greens with _panier fleuri_ design on back, in lovely faded colours, taffeta cushions of sage green and an occasional note about the room of mulberry and dull blue. electric light shades are of decorated parchment paper. really an enchanting nest, and as it is in a new york apartment, and occasionally used as a bedroom, a piece of furniture has been designed for it similar to the wardrobe shown in picture, only not so high. the glass door, when open, disclose a toilet table, completely fitted out, the presence of which one would never suspect. [illustration: _boudoir in new york apartment. painted furniture, antique and reproductions._] the carpet made of dark taupe velvet covers the entire floor. the furniture is louis xv, of the wonderful painted sort, the beautiful bed with its low head and foot boards exactly the same height, curving backward; the edges a waved line, the ground-colour a lovely pistache green, and the decoration gay old-fashioned garden flowers in every possible shade. the bureau has three or four drawers and a bowed front with clambering flowers. these two pieces, and a delightful night-table are exact copies of the clyde fitch set in the cooper hewitt museum, at new york; the originals are genuine antiques, and their colour soft from age. a graceful dressing-table, with winged mirrors, has been designed to go with this set, and is painted like the bureau. the glass is a modern reproduction of the lovely old eighteenth century mirror glass which has designs cut into it, forming a frame. for chairs, all-over upholstered ones are used, of good lines and proportions; two or three for comfort, and a low slipper-chair for convenience. these are covered in a chintz with a light green ground, like the furniture, and flowered in roses and violets, green foliage and lovely blue sprays. the window curtains are of soft, apple-green taffeta, trimmed with a broad puffing of the same silk, edged on each side by black moss-trimming, two inches wide. these curtains hang from dull-gold cornices of wood, with open carving, through which one gets glimpses of the green taffeta of the curtains. the sash-curtains are of the very finest cream net, and the window shades are of glazed linen, a deep cream ground, with a pattern showing a green lattice over which climb pink roses. the shades are edged at the bottom with a narrow pink fringe. the bed has a cover of green taffeta exactly like curtains, with the same trimming of puffed taffeta, edged with a black moss-trimming. the mantelpiece is true to artistic standards and realises the responsibility of its position as keynote to the room. placed upon it are a beautiful old clock and two vases, correct as to line and colour. always be careful not to spoil a beautiful mantel or beautiful ornaments by having them out of proportion one with the other. plate xxiv shows a mantel which fails as a composition because the bust, an original by behnes, beautiful in itself, is too heavy for the mantel it stands on and too large for the mirror which reflects it and serves as its background. keep everything in correct proportion to the whole. we have in mind the instance of some rarely beautiful walls taken from an ancient monastery in parma, italy. they were ideal in their original setting, but since they have been transported to america, no setting seems right. they belonged in a building where there were a succession of small rooms with low ceilings, each room perfect like so many pearls on a string. here in america their only suitable place would be a museum, or to frame the tiny "devotional" of some précieuse flower of modernity. chapter xxviii a modern house in which genuine jacobean furniture is appropriately set an original scheme for a dining-room was recently carried out in a country house in england by a woman whose hobby is illuminating. it will appeal to experts in the advance guard of interior decoration. the woman in question was stimulated for her task by coming into possession of some interesting jacobean pieces of furniture, of oak, squarely and solidly made, with flat carvings, characteristic of the period. plate xxiv a beautiful mantel, a beautiful mirror, beautiful ornaments, and a rare and beautiful marble bust by behnes, but because the bust is too large for both mantel and reflecting mirror, the composition is poor. [illustration: _example of lack of balance in mantel arrangement_] the large jacobean chest happened to be lined, as many of those old chests were, with quaint figured paper, showing a coat-of-arms alternating with another design in large squares of black and grey. this paper, the owner had reproduced to cover the walls of her dining-room, and then she stained her woodwork black (giving the effect of old black oak), also, the four corner cupboards, but the _inside_ of these cupboards--doors and all--she made a rich pompeian red and lackered it. the doors are left open and one sees on the shelves of the corner cupboards a wonderful collection of old china, much of it done in rich gold. at night the whole is illuminated with invisible electric bulbs. the gleaming effect is quite marvellous. the seat-pads on chairs, are made of hides, gilded all over, and on the gilt the owner has painted large baskets holding fruit and flowers done in gay colours. the long jacobean bench has a golden cushion with baskets painted on it in gay colours. a part of the wonderful gold china is used at every meal, and the rest of it being left on the shelves of the four cupboards with their pompeian red lining, when lit up, forms part of the glowing blaze of colour, concentrated in all four corners of this unique room. the jacobean library in this house has the same black oak effect for panelling and at the windows, hang long, red silk curtains, with deep borders of gold on which are painted gay flowers. this blaze of colour is truly jacobean and recalls the bedroom at knole, occupied by james i where the bed-curtains were of red silk embroidered in gorgeous gold, and the high post bedstead heavily carved, covered with gold and silver tissue, lined with red silk, its head-board carved and gilded. another room at knole was known as the "spangle" bedroom. james i gave the furniture in it to lionel, earl of middlesex. bed curtains, as well as the seats of chairs and stools, are of crimson, heavily embroidered in gold and silver. chapter xxix unconventional breakfast-rooms and sports balconies "sun-rooms" are now a feature of country and some town houses. one of the first we remember was in madrid, at the home of canovas del castillo, prime minister during the regency. déjeuner used to be served at one end of the conservatory, in the shadow of tall palms, while fountains played, birds with gay plumage sang, and the air was as fragrant as the tropics. for comfort, deep red rugs were put down on the white marble floors. which reminds us that in many spanish hand-made rugs, what is known as "isabella white" figures conspicuously. the term arises from the following story. it seems that queen isabella during the progress of some war, vowed she would not have her linen washed until her army returned victorious. the war was long, hence the term! in furnishing a conservatory or porch breakfast room, it is best to use some variety of informal tables and chairs, such as painted furniture, willow or bamboo, and coloured, not white, table cloths, doilies and napkins, to avoid the glare from the reflection of strong light. also, informal china, glass, etc. screens, if necessary, should have frames to accord with the furniture, and the panels should be of wood, or some simple material such as sacking or rough linen, which comes in lovely vivid, out-of-door colours. the bizarre and fascinating sports balconies overlooking squash courts, tennis courts, golf links, croquet grounds, etc., are among the newest inventions of the decorator. furnished porches we have all grown accustomed to, and when made so as to be enclosed by glass, in inclement weather, they may be treated like inside rooms in the way of comforts and conveniences. the smart porch-room is furnished with only such chairs, tables, sofas and rugs as are appropriate to a place not thoroughly protected from the elements, for while glass is provided for protection, a summer shower can outstrip a slow-footed servant and valuable articles made for indoors cannot long brave the effect of rain and hot sun. plate xxv in this case the house stood so near the road that there was no privacy, so the ingenious architect-decorator became landscape-gardener and by making a high but ornamental fence and numerous arbours, carried the eye to the green trees beyond and back to the refreshing tangle of shrubs and flowers in the immediate foreground, until the illusion of being secluded was so complete that the nearby road was forgotten. [illustration: _treatment of ground lying between house and much travelled country road_] for this reason furnish your porch with colours which do not fade, and with wicker furniture which knows how to contract and expand to order! the same rule applies to rugs. put your oriental rugs indoors, and use inexpensive, effective porch rugs which, with a light heart, you can renew each season, if necessary. the sports balcony is fitted out with special reference to the comfort of those who figure as audience for sports, and as a lounge between games, and each hostess vies with her friends in the originality and completeness of equipment, as well as in the costumes she dons in her commendable desire to make of herself a part of her scheme of decoration. a country place which affords tennis courts, golf links, cricket and polo grounds or has made arrangements for the exercise of any sports, usually makes special provision for the comfort of those engaging in them, more or less as a country club does. there is a large porch for lounging and tea, and a kitchenette where tea, cooling drinks and sandwiches are easily and quickly prepared, without interfering with the routine of the kitchens. there are hot and cold plunge baths, showers, a swimming pool, dressing rooms with every convenience known to man or woman, and a room given over to racks which hold implements used in the various sports, as well as lockers for sweaters, change of linen, socks, etc., belonging to those stopping in the house. where sports are a main issue, an entire building is often devoted to the comfort of the participants. we have in mind the commodious and exceptionally delightful arrangements made for the comfort and pleasure of those playing court tennis in a large and architecturally fine building erected for the purpose on the estate of the neville lyttons, crabber park, poundhill, england. if sport balconies overlook tennis courts or golf links, they are fitted out with light-weight, easily moved, stiff chairs for the audience, and easy, cushioned arm-chairs and sofas of upholstered wicker, for the participants to lounge in between matches. card tables are provided, as well as small tea tables, to seat two, three or four, while there is always one oblong table at which a sociable crowd of young people may gather for chatter and tea! if you use rail-boxes, or window-boxes, holding growing plants, be sure that the flowers are harmonious in colour when seen from the lawn, road or street, against their background of _house_ and the awnings and chintzes, used on the porch. the flowers in window-boxes and on porch-rails must first of all decorate the _outside_ of your house. therefore, before you buy your chintz for porches, decide as to whether the colour of your house, and its awnings, demands red, pink, white, blue, yellow or mauve flowers, and then choose your chintz and porch rugs as well as porch table-linen, to harmonise. in selecting porch chairs remember that women want the backs of most of the chairs only as high as their shoulders, on account of wearing hats. chapter xxx sun-rooms there are countless fascinating schemes for arranging sun-rooms. one which we have recently seen near philadelphia, was the result of enclosing a large piazza, projecting from an immense house situated in the midst of lawns and groves. the walls are painted orange and striped with pale yellow; the floors are covered with the new variety of matting which imitates tiles, and shows large squares of colour, blocked off by black. the chintzes used are in vivid orange, yellow and green, in a stunning design; the wicker chairs are painted orange and black, and from the immense iridescent globes of electric light hang long, orange silk tassels. plate xxvi shows how to utilise and make really very attractive an extension roof, by converting it into a balcony. an awning of broad green and white stripes protect this one in winter as well as summer, and by using artificial ivy, made of tin and painted to exactly imitate nature, one gets, as you see, a charming effect. [illustration: _an extension roof in new york converted into a balcony_] iron fountains, wonderful designs in black and gold, throw water over gold and silver fish, or gay water plants; while, in black and gold cages, vivid parrots and orange-coloured canaries gleam through the bars. iron vases of black and gold on tall pedestals, are filled with trailing ivy and bright coloured plants. along the walls are wicker sofas, painted orange and black, luxuriously comfortable with down cushions covered, as are some of the chair cushions, in soft lemon, sun-proofed twills. here one finds card-tables, tea-tables and smoking-tables, a writing-desk fully equipped, and at one end, a wardrobe of black and gold, hung with an assortment of silk wraps and "wooleys"--for an unprovided and chilly guest, in early spring, when the steam heat is off and the glass front open. even on a grey, winter day, this orange and gold room seems flooded with sun, and gives one a distinctly cheerful sensation when entering it from the house. of course, if your porch-room is mainly for mid-summer use and your house in a warm region, then we commend instead of sun-producing colours, cool tones of green, grey or blue. if your porch floor is bad, cover it with dark-red linoleum and wax it. the effect is like a cool, tiled floor. on this you can use a few porch rugs. black and white awnings or awnings in broad, green-and-white stripes, or plain green awnings, are deliciously cool-looking, and rail-boxes filled with green and white or blue and pale pink flowers are refreshing on a summer day. by the sea, where the air is bracing, and it is not necessary to trick the senses with a pretence at coolness, nothing is more satisfactory or gay than scarlet geraniums; but if they are used, care must be taken that they harmonise with the colour of the awnings and the chintz on the porch. speaking of rail-boxes reminds us that in making over a small summer house and converting a cheap affair into one of some pretensions, remember that one of the most telling points is the character of your porch railing. so at once remove the cheap one with its small, upright slats and the insignificant and frail top rail, and have a solid porch railing (or porch fence) built with broad, top rail. then place all around porch, resting on iron brackets, rail-flower boxes, the tops of these level with the top of the rail, and paint the boxes the colour of the house trimmings. filled with running vines and gay flowers, nothing could be more charming. window-boxes make any house lovely and are a large part of that charm which appeals to us, whether the house be a mansion in mayfair or a bavarian farm house. americans are learning this. the window and rail-boxes of a house look best when all are planted with the same variety of flowers. having given a certain air of distinction to your porch-railing, add another touch to the appearance of your small, remodelled house by having the shutters hung from the top of the windows, instead of from the sides. a charming variety of awning or sun-shades, to keep the sun and glare out of rooms, is the old english idea of a straw-thatching, woven in and out until it makes a broad, long mat which is suspended from the top of windows, on the outside of the house, being held out and permanently in place, at the customary angle of awnings. we first saw this picturesque kind of rustic awnings used on little cottages of a large estate in vermont, cottages once owned and lived in by labourers, but bought and put in comfortable condition to be used as overflow rooms for guests, in connection with the large family mansion (once the picturesque village inn). the art of making these straw awnings is not generally understood in america. in the case to which we refer, one of the gardeners employed on the estate, chanced to be an old englishman who had woven the straw window awnings for farm houses in his own country. the straw awnings, with window-boxes planted with bright geraniums and vines, make an inland cottage delightfully picturesque and are practical, although by the sea the straw awnings might be destroyed by high winds. chapter xxxi treatment of a woman's dressing-room every house, or flat, which is at all pretentious, should arrange a vanity room for the use of guests, in which there are full-length mirrors, a completely equipped dressing-table with every conceivable article to assist a lady in making her toilet, slipper-chairs and chairs to rest in, and a completely equipped lavatory adjoining. the woman who takes her personal appearance seriously, just as any artist takes her art (and when dressing is not an art it is not worth discussion) can have her dressing-room so arranged with mirrors, black walls and strong, cleverly reflected, electric lights, that she stands out with a cleancut outline, like a cameo, the minutest detail of her toilet disclosed. with such a dressing-room, it is quite impossible to suffer at the hands of a careless maid, and one can use the black walls as a background for vivid chair covers, sofa cushions and lamp shades. off this dressing-room should be another, given over to clothes, with closets equipped with hooks and shelves, glass cabinets for shoes and slippers, and the "show-case" for jewels to be placed in by the maid that the owner may make her selection. at the time of the louis, knights and courtiers had large rooms devoted to the care and display of their wardrobes, and even to-day there are men who are serious connoisseurs in the art of clothes. plate xxvii interior decoration not infrequently leads to a desire to chic the appearance of one's "out-of-doors." we give an example of a perfectly commonplace barn made interesting by adding green latticework, a small iron balcony, ornamental gate and setting out a few decorative evergreens. behold a transformation! [illustration: _a commonplace barn made interesting_] the dressing-table should be constructed of material in harmony with the rest of your furniture. it may be of mahogany, walnut, rose wood, satin wood, or some painted variety, or, as is the fashion now, made of silk,--a seventeenth and eighteenth century style (in vogue during the time of the louis). these are made of taffeta with lace covers on top, and in outline are exactly like the simple dotted-swiss dressing-tables with which every one is familiar,--the usual variety, so easily made by placing a wooden packing box on its side. in this case have your carpenter put shelves inside for boots, shoes and slippers. the entire top is covered with felt or flannel, over which is stretched silk or sateen, in any colour which may harmonise with the room. a flounce, as deep as the box is high, is made of the same material as the top, and tacked to the edges of the table-top. cover the whole with dotted or plain swiss. a piece of glass, cut to exactly fit the top of the table, is a practical precaution. a large mirror, hung above yet resting on the table, is canopied in the old style, with the same material with which you cover your dressing-table. if the table is made of the beautiful taffeta, now so popular for this purpose, as well as for curtains, it is, of course, not covered with swiss or lace, except the top, on which is used a fine, hand-made cover, of real lace and hand embroidery, in soft creams,--cream from age, or a judicious bath in weak tea. the glass top laid over this cover protects the lace. if the table has drawers, each can be neatly covered with the taffeta, as can the frame of any table. a good, up-to-date cabinet-maker understands this work as so much of it is now done. chapter xxxii the treatment of closets the modern architect turns out his closets so complete as to comfort and convenience, that he leaves but little to be done by the professional or amateur decorator. each perfectly equipped bedroom suite calls for, at least, two closets: one supplied with hooks, padded hangers for coats, and covered hangers for skirts, if the closet is for a woman; or, if it is for a man, with such special requirements as he may desire. in the case of a woman's suite, one closet should consist entirely of shelves. paint all the closets to harmonise with the suite, and let the paint on the shelves have a second coat of enamel, so that they may be easily wiped off. supply your shelves with large and small boxes for hats, blouses, laces, veils, etc., neatly covered with paper, or chintz, to harmonise with the room. those who dislike too many mirrors in a room may have full length mirrors on the inside of the closet doors. either devote certain shelves to your boots, shoes and slippers, or have a separate shallow closet for these-shallow because it is most convenient to have but one row on a shelf. where economy is not an item of importance, see that electric lights are placed in all the closets, which are turned on with the action of opening the door. the elaboration of closets, those with drawers of all sizes and depths, cedar closets for furs, etc., is merely a matter of the architect's planning to meet the specific needs of the occupants of any house. chapter xxxiii treatment of a narrow hall a long, narrow hall in a house, or apartment, is difficult to arrange, but there are methods of treating them which partially corrects their defects. one method is shown on plate xiv. the best furnishing is a very narrow console (table) with a stiff, high-backed chair on either side of it, and on the wall, over console, a tapestry, an architectural picture or a family portrait. on the console is placed merely a silver card tray. have a closet for wraps if possible, or arrange hooks and a table, out of right, for this purpose. keep your walls and woodwork light in colour and in the same tone. plate xxviii an idea for treatment of a narrow hall, where the practical and beautiful are combined. the hall table and candlesticks are an example of the renaissance of iron, elaborately wrought after classic designs. the mirror over table is framed in green glass, the ornaments are of dull gold (iron gilded). the venetian glass jar is in opalescent green, made to hold dried rose leaves, and used here purely as an ornament which catches and reflects the light, important, as the hall is dark. the iron of table is black touched with gold, and the marble slab dark-green veined with white. [illustration: _narrow entrance hall of a new york antique shop_] an interesting treatment of a long narrow hall is to break its length with lattice work, which has an open arch, wide enough for one or two people to pass through, the arch surmounted by an urn in which ivy is planted. the lattice work has lines running up and down--not crossed, as is the usual way. it is on hinges so that trunks or furniture may be carried through the hall, if necessary. the whole is kept in the same colour scheme as the hall. chapter xxxiv treatment of a very shaded living-room by introducing plenty of yellow and orange you can bring sunshine into a dark living-room. if your house is in a part of the country where the heat is great, a dark living-room in summer is sometimes a distinct advantage, so keep the colourings subdued in tone, and, therefore, cool looking. if, on the contrary, the living-room is in a cool house on the ocean, or a shaded mountainside, and the sun is cut off by broad porches, you will cheer up your room, and immensely improve it, by using sun-producing colours in chintzes and silks; while cut flowers or growing plants, which reproduce the same colouring, will intensify the illusion of sunshine. sash curtains of thin silk, in bright yellows, are always sun-producing, but if you intend using yellows in a room, be careful to do so in combination with browns, greens, greys, or carefully chosen blues, not with reds or magentas. try not to mix warm and cold colours when planning your walls. grey walls call for dull blue or green curtains; white walls for red or green curtains; cream walls for yellow, brown buff or apple green curtains. if your room is too cold, warm it up by making your accessories, such as lamp shades, and sofa pillows, of rose or yellow material. chapter xxxv servants' rooms whether you expect to arrange for one servant or a dozen, keep in mind the fact that efficiency is dependent upon the conditions under which your manor maid-servant rests as well as works, and that it is as important that the bedroom be _attractive_ as that it be comfortable. for servants' rooms it is advised that the matter of furnishing and decorating be a scheme which includes comfort, daintiness and effectiveness on the simplest, least expensive basis, no matter how elaborate the house. there is a moral principle involved here. in the case of more than one servant the colour scheme alone needs to be varied, for similar furniture will prevent jealousy among the servants, while at the same time the task of inventing is reduced to the mere multiplying of one room; even the wall paper and chintz being alike in pattern, if different in colour. the simplest iron beds, or wooden furniture can be painted white or any colour which may be considered more durable. in maids' rooms for summer use, a vase provided for flowers is sometimes an incentive to personally contribute a touch of beauty. that sense of beauty once awakened in a maid does far more than any words on the subject of order and daintiness in her own room or in those of her employer. chapter xxxvi table decoration for the young and inexperienced we state a few rules for table decoration. if you have furnished your dining-room to accord not only with your taste, but the scale upon which you intend living, be careful that the dining-table never strikes a false note, never "gets out of the picture" by becoming too important as to setting or menu. you may live very formally in your town house and very simply, without any ostentation, in the country, but be sure that in all of your experimenting with table decoration you observe above all the law of appropriateness. your decoration, flowers, fruit, character of bowl or dish which holds them, or _objet d'art_ used in place of either; linen or lace, china, glass and silver,--each and all must be in keeping. the money value has nothing whatever to do with this question of appropriateness, when considered by an artist decorator. remember that in decorating, things are classified according to their colour value, their lines and the purpose for which they are intended. the dining-table is to eat at, therefore it should primarily hold only such things as are required for the serving of the meal. so your real decoration should be your silver, glass and china, with its background of linen or lace. the central decoration, if of flowers or fruit, must be in a bowl or dish decorative in the same sense that the rest of the tableware is. flowers should be kept in the same key as your room. one may do this and yet have infinite variety. tall stately lilies, american beauty roses, great bowls of gardenias and orchids are for stately rooms. your small house, flat or bungalow require modest garden flowers such as daffodils, jonquils, tulips, lilies-of-the-valley, snapdragons, one long-stemmed rose in a vase, or a cluster of shy moss-buds or nodding tea-roses. a table set with art in the key of a small menage and on a scale of simple living, often strikes the note of perfection from the expert's point of view because perfect of its kind and suitable for the occasion. this appropriateness is what makes your "smart" table quite as it makes your "smart" woman. wedgwood cream colour ware "c.c." is beautiful and always good form. for those wanting colour, the same famous makers of england have an infinite variety, showing lovely designs. unless you are a collector in the museum sense, press into service all of your beautiful possessions. if you have to go without them, let it be when you no longer own them, and not because they are hoarded out of sight. you know the story of the man who bought a barrel of apples and each day carefully selected and ate those that were rotten, feeling the necessity of not being wasteful. when the barrel was empty he realised that be had deliberately wasted all his good apples _by not eating one_! let this be a warning to him who would save his treasures. if you love antiques and have joyously hunted them down and, perhaps, denied yourself other things to obtain them, you are the person to use them, even though the joy be transient and they perish at the hand of a careless man or maid-servant. remember, posterity will have its own "fads" and prefer adding the pleasure of pursuit to that of mere ownership. so bring out your treasures and use them! as there are many kinds of dining-rooms, each good if planned and worked out with an art instinct, so there are many kinds of tables. the usual sort is the round, or square, extension table, laid with fine damask and set with conventional china, glass and silver, rare in quality and distinguished in design. for those who prefer the unusual there are oblong, squarely built jacobean and italian refectory tables. with these one makes a point of showing the rich colour of the time-worn wood and carving, for the old italian tables often have the bevelled edge and legs carved. when this style of table is used, the wood instead of a cloth, is our background, and a "runner" with doilies of old italian lace takes the place of linen. in feudal days, when an entire household, master and retainers, sat in the baronial hall "above and below the salt," tables were made of great length. when used out of their original setting, they must be cut down to suit modern conditions. in krakau, poland, the writer often dined at one of these feudal boards which had been in our hostess's family for several hundred years. to get it into her dining-room a large piece had been cut out at the centre and the two ends pushed together. * * * * * for those who live informally, delightfully decorative china can be had at low prices. it was once made only for the peasants, and comes to us from italy, france, germany and england. this fact reminds us that when we were travelling in southern hungary and were asked to dine with a magyar farmer, out on the windy pasta, instead of their usual highly coloured pottery, gay with crude, but decorative flowers, they honoured us by covering the table with american ironstone china! the hungarian crockery resembles the brittany and italian ware, and some of it is most attractive when rightly set. when once the passion to depart from beaten paths seizes us it is very easy to make mistakes. therefore to the housekeeper, accustomed to conventional china, but weary of it, we would commend as a safe departure, modern wedgwood and italian reproductions of classic models, which come in exquisite shapes and in a delicious soft cream tone. if one prefers, it is possible to get these varieties decorated with charming designs in artistic colourings, as previously stated. for eating meals out of doors, or in "sun-rooms," where the light is strong, the dark peasant pottery, like brittany, italian and hungarian, is very effective on dull-blue linen, heavy cream linen or coarse lace, such as the peasants make. copper lustre, with its dark metallic surface; is enchanting on dark wood or coloured linen of the right tone. your table must be a _picture_ composed on artistic lines. that is, it must combine harmony of line and colour and above all, appropriateness. gradually one acquires skill in inventing unusual effects; but only the adept can go against established rules of art and yet produce a pleasing _ensemble_. we can all recall exceptions to this rule for simplicity, beautiful, artistic tables, covered with rare and entrancing objects,--irrelevant, but delighting the eye. some will instantly recall clyde fitch's dinners in this connection, but here let us emphasise the dictum that for a great master of the art of decoration there need be no laws. a careful study of the japanese principles of decoration is an ideal way of learning the art of simplicity. it is impossible to deny the immense decorative value of a single _objet d'art_, as one flower in a simple vase, provided it is given the correct background. background in decoration is like a pedal-point in music; it must support the whole fabric, whether you are planning a house, a room or a table. plate xxix shows how a too pronounced rug which is out of character, though a valuable chinese antique, can destroy the harmony of a composition even where the stage is set with treasures; louis xv chairs, antique fount with growing plants, candelabra, rare tapestry, reflected by mirror, and a graceful console and a settee with grey-green brocade cushions. [illustration: _example of a charming hall spoiled by too pronounced a rug_] chapter xxxvii what to avoid in interior decoration: rules for beginners we all know the saying that it is only those who have mastered the steps in dancing who can afford to forget them. it is the same in every art. therefore let us state at once, that all rules may be broken by the educated--the masters of their respective arts. for beginners we give the following rules as a guide, until they get their bearings in this fascinating game of making pictures by manipulating lines and colours, as expressed in necessary furnishings. * * * * * avoid crowding your rooms, walls or tables, for in creating a _home_ one must produce the quality of restfulness by order and space. as to walls, do not use a cold colour in a north or shaded room. make your ceilings lighter in tone than the side walls, using a very pale shade of the same colour as the side walls. do not put a spotted (figured) surface on other spotted (figured) surfaces. a plain wall paper is the proper, because most effective, background for pictures. avoid the mistake of forgetting that table decoration includes all china, glass, silver and linen used in serving any meal. in attempting the decoration of your dining-room table avoid anything inappropriate to the particular meal to be served and the scale of service. do not have too many flowers on your table, or flowers not in harmony with the rest of the setting, in variety or colour. do not use peasant china, no matter how decorative in itself, on fine damask or rare lace. by so doing you strike a false note. the background it demands is crash or peasant laces. avoid crowding your dining-table or giving it an air of confusion by the number of things on it, thus destroying the laws of simplicity, line and balance in decoration. avoid using on your walls as mere decorations articles such as rugs or priests' vestments primarily intended for other purposes. avoid the misuse of anything in furnishing. it needs only knowledge and patience to find the correct thing for each need. better do without than employ a makeshift in decorating. inappropriateness and elaboration can defeat artistic beauty--but intelligent elimination never can. beware of having about too many vases, or china meant for domestic use. the proper place for table china, no matter how rare it is, is in the dining-room. if very valuable, one can keep it in cabinets. useless bric-à-brac in a dining-room looks worse than it does anywhere else. your dining-room is the best place for any brasses, copper or pewter you may own. if sitting-room and dining-room connect by a wide opening, keep the same colour scheme in both, or, in any case, the same depth of colour. this gives an effect of space. it is not uncommon when a house is very small, to keep all of the walls and woodwork, and all of the carpets, in exactly the same colour and tone. if variety in the colour-scheme is desired, it may be introduced by means of cretonnes or silks used for hangings and furniture covers. avoid the use of thin, old silks on sofas or chair seats. avoid too cheap materials for curtains or chair covers, as they will surely fade. avoid too many small rugs in a room. this gives an impression of restless disorder and interferes with the architect's lines. do not place your rugs at strange angles; but let them follow the lines of the walls. avoid placing ornaments or photographs on a piano which is in sufficiently good condition to be used. avoid the chance of ludicrous effects. for example, keep a plain background behind your piano. make sure that, when listening to music you are not distracted by seeing a bewildering section of a picture above the pianist's head, or a silly little vase dodging, as he moves, in front of, above, or below his nose! avoid placing vases, or a clock, against a chimney piece already elaborately decorated by the architect, as a part of his scheme in using the moulding of panel to frame a painting over the mantel. in the old palaces one sees that a bit of undecorated background is provided between mantel and the architect's decoration. if your room has a long wall space, furnish it with a large cabinet or console, or a sofa and two chairs. avoid blotting out your architect's cleverest points by thoughtlessly misplacing hangings. whoever decorates should always keep the architect's intention in mind. avoid having an antique clock which does not go, and is used merely as an ornament. make your rooms _alive_ by having all the clocks running. this is one of the subtleties which marks the difference between an antique shop, or museum, and a home. avoid the desecration of the few good antiques you own, by the use of a too modern colour scheme. have the necessary modern pieces you have bought to supplement your treasures, stained or painted a dull dark colour in harmony with the antiques, and then use dull colours in the floor coverings, curtains and cushions. if you have no good _old_ ornaments, try to get a few good shapes and colours in inexpensive reproductions of the period to which your antiques belong. avoid the mistake of forgetting that every room is a "stage setting," and must be a becoming and harmonious background for its occupants. avoid arranging a louis xvi bedroom, with fragile antiques and delicate tones, for your husband of athletic proportions and elemental tastes. he will not only feel, but look out of place. if he happens to be fond of artistic things, give him these in durable shades and shapes. avoid the omission of a thoroughly masculine sitting-room, library, smoking-room or billiard-room for the man, or men, of the house. avoid the use of white linen when eating out of doors. saxe-blue, red or taupe linen are restful to the eyes. in fact, after one has used coloured linen, white seems glaring and unsympathetic even indoors, and one instinctively chooses the old deep-cream laces. granting this to be a bit précieuse, we must admit that the traditional white damask, under crystal and silver, or gold plate with rare porcelains, has its place and its distinction in certain houses, and with certain people. plate xxx shows a man's library, masculine gender written all over it-strength, comfort, usefulness and simplicity. the mantel is arranged in accordance with rules already stated. it will be noticed that the ornaments on mantel in a way interfere with design of the large architectural picture. [illustration: _a man's library_] avoid in a studio, bungalow or a small flat, where the living-room and dining-room are the same, all evidences of _dining-room_ (china, silver and glass for use). let the table be covered with a piece of old or modern brocade when not set for use. a lamp and books further emphasises the note of living-room. avoid the use of light-absorbing colours in wall papers if you are anxious to create sympathetic cheerfulness in your rooms, and an appearance of winning comfort. almost all dark colours are light-absorbing; greens, dull reds, dark greys and mahogany browns will make a room dull in character no matter how much sunlight comes in, or how many electric lights you use. perhaps the only dark colour which is not light-absorbing is a dark yellow. avoid the permanent tea-table. we are glad to record that one seldom happens upon one, these days. how the english used to revile them! in the simplest homes it is always possible at the tea hour, to have a table placed before whoever is to "pour" and a tray on which are cups, tea, cream, sugar, lemon, toast, cake or what you will, brought in from the pantry or kitchen. there was a time when in america, one shuddered at the possibility of dusty cups and those countless faults of a seldom-rehearsed tea-table! avoid serving a lunch in an artificially lighted room. this, like a permanent tea-table, is an almost extinct fashion. neither was sensible, because inappropriate, and therefore bad form. the only possible reason for shutting out god's sunlight and using artificial lights, is when the function is to begin by daylight and continue until after nightfall. if in doubt as to what is _good_, go often to museums and compare what you own, or have seen and think of owning, with objects in museum collections. chapter xxxviii fads in collecting in a new york home one room is devoted to a so-called _panier fleuri_ collection which in this case means that each article shows the design of a basket holding flowers or fruit. the collection is to-day so unique and therefore so valuable, that it has been willed to a museum, but its creation as a collection, was entirely a chance occurrence. the design of a basket trimmed with flowers happened to appeal to the owner, and if we are not mistaken, the now large collection had its beginning in the casual purchase of a little old pendant found in a forgotten corner of europe. the owner wore it, her friends saw it, and gradually associated the _panier fleuri_ with her, which resulted in many beautiful specimens of this design being sought out for her by wanderers at home and abroad. to-day this collection includes old silks, laces, jewellery, wax pictures, old prints, some pieces of antique furniture, snuffboxes and ornaments in glass, china, silver, etc. every museum is the result of fads in collecting, and when one considers all that is meant by this heading, which sounds so trifling and unimportant to the layman, it will not seem strange that we strongly recommend it as a dissipation! at first, quite naturally, the collector makes mistakes; but it is through his mistakes that he learns, and absolutely nothing gives such a zest to a stroll in the city, a tramp in the country, or an unexpected delay in an out-of-the-way town, as to have this collecting bee in your bonnet. how often when travelling we have rejoiced when the loss of a train or a mistake in time-table, meant an unexpected opportunity to explore for junk in some old shop, or, perhaps, to bargain with a pretty peasant girl who hoarded a beloved heirloom, of entrancing interest to us (and worth a pile of money really), while she lived happily on cider and cheese! it is doubtless the experience of every lover of the old and the curious, that one never regrets the expenses incurred in this quest of the antique, but one does eternally regret one's economies. the writer suffers now, after years have elapsed, in some cases, at the memory of treasures resisted when chanced upon in russia, poland, hungary, bohemia--where not! always one says, "oh, well, i shall come back again!" but there are so many "pastures green," and it is often difficult to retrace one's steps. then, too, these fads open our eyes and ears, so that in passing along a street on foot, in a cab or on a bus, or in glancing through a book, or, perhaps, in an odd corner of an otherwise colourless town, where fate has taken us, we find "grist for our mill"--just the right piece of furniture for the waiting place! know what you want, _really want it_, and you will find it some time, somewhere, somehow! as a stimulus to beginners in collecting, as well as an illustration of that perseverance required of every keen collector, we cite the case of running down an empire dressing-table. it was our desire to complete a small collection of empire furniture for a suite of rooms, by adding to it as a supplement to the bureau, a certain type of empire dressing-table. it is no exaggeration to say that paris was dragged for what we wanted--the large well-known antique shops and the smaller ones of the latin quarter being both ransacked. time was flying, the date of our sailing was approaching, and as yet the coveted piece had not been found. three days before we left, a fat, red-faced, jolly cabby, after making a vain tour of the junk shops in his quarter, demanded to know exactly what it was we sought. when told, he looked triumphant, bade us get into his cab, lashed his horse and after several rapidly made turns, dashed into an out-of-the-way street and drew up before a sort of junk store-house, full of rickety, dusty odds and ends of furniture, presided over by a stupid old woman who sat outside the door, knitting,--wrapped head and all in a shawl. we entered and, there, to our immense relief, stood the dressing table! it was grey with dust, the original empire green silk, a rusty grey and hanging in shreds on the back of the original glass. there was a marble top set into the wood and grooved in a curious way. the whole was intact except for a loose back leg, which gave it a swaying, tottering appearance. we passed it in silence--being experienced traders! then, after buying several little old picture frames, while madame continued her knitting, we wandered close to the coveted table and asked what was wanted for that broken bit "of no use as it stands." "thirty francs" (six dollars) was the answer. later a well-known new york dealer offered seventy-five dollars for the table in the condition in which we found it, and repaired as it is to-day it would easily bring a hundred and fifty, anywhere! as it happened, the money we went out with had been spent on unexpected finds, and neither we nor our good-natured cabby were in possession of thirty francs! in fact, cabby was rather staggered to hear the price, having offered to advance what we needed. he suggested sending it home "collect" but madame would not even consider such an idea. however, at last our resourceful jehu came to the rescue. if the ladies would seat themselves in the cab, he could place the table in front of them, with the cover of the cab raised, and madame of the shop could lock her door and mounting the box by the side of our _cocher_, she might drive with us to our destination and collect the money herself! he promised to bring her home safely again! as we had only the next day for boxing and shipping, there was no alternative. before we had even taken in our grotesque appearance, the horse was galloping, as only a paris cab horse can gallop, toward our abode in avenue henri martin, past carriages and autos returning from the _bois_, while inside the cab we sat, elated by our success and in that whirl of triumphant absorbing joy which only the real collector knows. this same modest little empire collection had a treasure recently added to it, found by chance, in an antique shop in pennsylvania. it was a mirror. the dealer, an italian, said that he had got it from an old house in bordentown, new jersey. "it's genuine english," he said, certain he was playing his winning card. it has the original glass and a heavy, squarely made, mahogany frame. strange to say it corresponds exactly with the bed and bureau in the collection, having pilasters surmounted by women's heads of gilded wood with small gilded feet showing at base. plate xxxi an end of a room containing genuine empire furniture, empire ornaments and a rare collection of empire cups, which appear in a _vitrine_ seen near the dull-blue brocade curtains drawn over windows. we would especially call attention to the mantelpiece, which was originally the empire frame of a mirror, and to a book shelf made interesting by having the upper shelf supported by a charming pair of antique bronze cupids. this plate is reproduced to show as many empire pieces as possible; it is not an ideal example of arrangement, either as to furniture in room or certain details. there is too much crowding. [illustration: _a collection of empire furniture, ornaments and china_] as the brother of the great napoleon, joseph bonaparte, king of spain and rome, passed many years of his self-imposed exile in bordentown, in a house made beautiful with furnishings he brought from france, it is possible this old mirror has an interesting story, if only it could talk! then, too, it was bordentown that sheltered a prince murat, the relative of joseph bonaparte. if it was he who conveyed our mirror to these shores, a very different, but as highly romantic a tale might unfold! for fear the precious ancient glass should be broken or the frame destroyed, we bribed a pullman-car porter to let us bring its six by four feet of antiquity with us, in the train! when you see a find always take it with you, or the next man may, and above all, always be on the lookout. it was from a french novel by one of the living french writers that we first got a clue to a certain obscure etruscan museum, hidden away in the carrara mountains, in italy. that wonderful little museum and its adjacent potteries, which cover the face of italy like ant-hills, are to-day contributors to innumerable beautiful interiors in every part of america. we recall a dining-room in grosvenor square, london, where a world-renowned collection of "powder-blue" vases (the property of mr. j.b. joel) is made to contribute to a decorative scheme by placing the almost priceless vases of old chinese blue and white porcelain, in niches made for them, high up on the black oak panelling. there are no pictures nor other decorations on the walls, hence each vase has the distinction it deserves, placed as it were, in a shrine. in the peter hewitt museum, new york, you may see an antique italian china cabinet, made of gilded carved wood, which shows on its undulating front, row after row of small niches, lined with red velvet. when each deep niche held its porcelain _chef d'oeuvre_, the effect must have been that of a gold screen set with gems! speaking of red velvet backgrounds, in the same museum, standing near the italian cabinet, is an ancient spanish one; its elaborate steel hinges, locks and ornaments have each a bit of red velvet between them and the oak of the cabinet. one sees this on gothic chests in england and occasionally on the antique furniture of other countries. the red material stretched back of the metal fret-work, is said to be a souvenir of the gruesome custom prevailing in ancient times, of warning off invaders by posting on the doors of public buildings, the skin of prisoners of war, and holding it in place with open-work metal, through which the red skin was plainly seen! at cornwall lodge, in regents park, london, the town house of lady de bathe (lily langtry) the dining-room ceiling is a deep sky-blue, while the sidewalls of black, serve as a background for her valuable collection of old, coloured glass, for the most part english. the collection is the result of the owner's eternal vigilance, when travelling or at home. a well-known paris collector, now dead, found in spain a bust which had been painted black. its good lines led him to buy it, and, when cleaned, it proved to be a genuine canova, and was sold by this dealer, a reliable expert, to an american for five thousand dollars! it had been painted during a revolution, to save it from destruction. the same dealer on another occasion, when in spain, found an old silk gown of lovely flowered brocade, but with one breadth missing. several years later, in an antique shop in italy, he found that missing gore and had it put back in the gown, thus completing the treasure which some ruthless hand had destroyed. chapter xxxix wedgwood pottery, old and modern many of our museums have interesting collections of old wedgwood. altogether the most complete collection we have ever seen is in the museum adjoining the wedgwood factories in staffordshire, england. the curator there, an old man of about seventy, loves to tell the story of its founding and growth. he began as a labourer in the potteries and has worked his way up to be guardian of the veterans in perfected types. many of the rare and beautiful specimens he has himself dug up in the grounds, where from time to time, since , they were thrown out as broken, useless debris. the recovery of these bits, their preservation and classification, together with valuable donations made by english families who have inherited rare specimens, have not only placed at the disposal of those interested, the fascinating history of wedgwood, in a thrilling object lesson, but has made the modern wedgwood what it is:--one of the most beautiful varieties of tableware in the market to-day. josiah wedgwood is said to have been the first english potter, counting from the roman time to the first quarter of the eighteenth century, who made vases to be used for _mere decoration_. chelsea, worcester and derby were just then beginning to make fine porcelain. in wedgwood's day it was the rule for young men of title and wealth to go abroad, and the souvenirs which they brought back with them, such as pictures and vases, helped to form a taste for the antique, in england. then, too, books on greek art were being written by english travellers. josiah wedgwood had a natural bent for the pure line and classic subjects, but he was, also, possessed with the keen businessman's intuition as to what his particular market demanded. so he sat about copying the line and decorations of the antique greek vases. he reproduced lines and designs in decoration, but invented the "bodies," that is to say, the materials from which the potters moulded his wares. he is said to have invented in all, twenty varieties. we say that he reproduced greek designs, and so he did, but john flaxman, his chief decorator, who lived in rome, where he had a studio and clever assistants, studied the classics, imbibed their spirit and originated the large majority of wedgwood's so-called "greek" designs, --those exquisite cameo-like compositions in white, on backgrounds of pastel colours, which appeared as miniatures mounted for jewellery, medallions let into wall panels, and on furniture and carrara marble mantelpieces, wonderful works of art wrought of his "jasper" paste, which make josiah wedgwood outrank any producer of ceramics who has ever lived in any age. wedgwood's first vases were for use, although they were ornamental, too. those were the pots he made in which to grow bulbs or roots, and the "bough pots" which were filled with cut flowers and used to ornament the hearth in summer. mr. frederick rathbone, compiler of the wedgwood catalogue in , a memorial to josiah wedgwood made possible by his great-granddaughter, says that during his thirty-five years' study of wedgwood's work, he had yet to learn of a single vase which was ever made by him, or sent out from his factory at etruria, which was lacking in grace or beauty. the etrurian museum, staffordshire, shows josiah wedgwood's life work from the early whieldon ware to his perfected jasper paste. josiah's "trials" or experiments, are the most interesting specimens in the museum, and prove that the effort of his life was "converting a rude and inconsiderable manufactory into an elegant art and an important part of national commerce." yet, although he is acknowledged by all the world to have been the greatest artist in ceramics of his or any period, remember pottery was only one of his interests. he was by no means a man who concentrated day and night on one line of production. he occupied himself with politics, and planned and carried through great engineering feats and was, also, deeply interested in the education of his children. when wedgwood began his work, all tea and coffee pots were "salt-glazed," plain, or, if decorated, copies of oriental patterns, which were the only available models, imported for the use of the rich. wedgwood invented in turn his tortoise shell, agate, mottled and other coloured wares, and finally his beautiful pale-cream, known as "queen's" ware, in honour of queen charlotte, his patron. it is the "c.c." (cream colour) which is so popular to-day, either plain or decorated. he invented colours, as well as bodies, for the manufacture of his earthenware, both for use and for decoration, and built up a business employing , persons in his factories,--and , in all the branches of his business. in the census showed , persons employed in the factories, and at that time the annual amount paid in wages was over two million pounds (ten million dollars). we must remember that in , the only way of transporting goods to and from the wedgwood factory was by means of pack-horses. therefore josiah wedgwood had to turn his attention to the construction of roads and canals. as mr. gladstone put it in his address at the opening of the wedgwood institute at burslem, staffordshire, "wedgwood made the raw material of his industry abundant and cheap, which supplied a vent for the manufactured article and which opened for it materially a way to what we may term the conquest of the outer world." yet he never travelled outside his own country; always employed english workmen to carry out his ideas, and succeeded entirely by his own efforts, unaided by the state. his first patroness was catherine ii of russia, for whom he made a wonderful table service, and his best customers were the court and aristocracy of france, during that country's greatest art periods (louis xv and xvi). in fact wedgwood ware became so fashionable in paris that the sèvres, royal porcelain factory, copied the colour and relief of his jasper plaques and vases. it is claimed by connoisseurs, that the wedgwood useful decorative pottery is the only ceramic art in which england is supreme and unassailable. it has been said at the wedgwood works, and with great pride, that the copying of wedgwood by the sèvres factories, and the preservation of many rare examples of his work to-day, in french museums, to serve as models for french designers and craftsman, is a neat compliment to the english--"those rude islanders with three hundred religions and only one _sauce_"! plate xxxii in the illustration five of the four vases, four with covers and one without, are reproductions of old pharmacy jars, once used by all italian druggists to keep their drugs in. the really old ones with artistic worth are vanishing from the open market into knowing dealers' or collectors' hands, or the museums have them, but with true latin perspicuity, when the supply ceased to meet the demand, the great modern italian potters turned out lovely reproductions, so lovely that they bring high prices in italy as well as abroad, and are frequently offered to collectors when in italy as genuine antiques. [illustration: _italian reproductions in pottery after classic models_] chapter xl italian pottery about nine years ago, an american connoisseur, automobiling from paris to vienna, the route which lies through northern italy, quite by chance, happened to see some statuettes in the window of a hopeful, but unknown, potter's little shop, on a wonderful, ancient, covered bridge. you, too, may have seen that rarely beautiful bridge spanning the river brenta, and have looked out through broad arches which occur at intervals, on views, so extraordinary that one feels they must be on a gothic tapestry, or the journey just a dream! one cannot forget the wild, rushing river of purplish-blues, and the pines, in deep greens, which climb up, past ruined castles, perched on jutting rocks, toward snow-capped mountain peaks. the views were beautiful, but so were the statuettes which had caught our collector's eye. he bought some, made inquiries as to facilities for reproduction at these potteries, and exchanged addresses. the result was that to-day, that humble potter directs several large factories, which are busy reviving classic designs, which may be found on sale everywhere in italy and in many other countries as well as america. chapter xli venetian glass, old and modern if you have been in venice then you know the murano museum and its beguiling collection of venetian glass, that old glass so vastly more beautiful in line and decoration than the modern type of, say, fifteen years ago, when colours had become bad mixtures, and decorations meaningless excrescences. a bit of inside information given out to some one really interested, led to a revival of pure line and lovely, simple colouring, with appropriate decorations or none at all. you may already know that romantic bit of history. it seems that when the museum was first started, about four hundred years ago, the glass blowers agreed to donate specimens of their work, provided their descendants should be allowed access to the museum for models. this contract made it a simple matter for a connoisseur to get reproduced exactly what was wanted, and what was not in the market. elegance, distinguished simplicity in shapes, done in glass of a single colour, or in one colour with a simple edge in a contrasting shade, or in one colour with a whole nosegay of colours to set it off, appearing literally as flowers or fruit to surmount the stopper of a bottle, the top of a jar, or as decorations on candlesticks. it was in the museo civico of venice that we saw and fell victims to an enchanting antique table decoration--a formal italian garden, in blown glass, once the property of a great venetian family and redolent of those golden days when venice was the playground of princes, and feasting their especial joy; days when visiting royalty and the world's greatest folk could have no higher honour bestowed upon them than a gift of venetian glass, often real marvels mounted in silver and gold. we never tired of looking at that fairy garden with its delicate copings, balustrades and vases of glass, all abloom with exquisite posies in every conceivable shade, wrought of glass--a veritable dream thing! finally, nothing would do but we must know if it had ever been copied. the curator said that he believed it had, and an address was given us. how it all comes back! we arose at dawn, as time was precious, took our coffee in haste and then came that gliding trip in the gondola, through countless canals, to a quarter quite unknown to us, where at work in a small room, we came upon our glass blower and the coveted copy of that lovely table-garden. this man had made four, and one was still in his possession. we brought it back to america, a gleaming jewelled cobweb, and what happened was that the very ethereal quality of its beauty made the average taste ignore it! however, a few years have made a vast difference in table, as well as all other decorations, and to-day the same venetian gardens have their faithful devotees, as is proved by the continuous procession of the dainty wonders, ever moving toward our sturdy shores. in conclusion in bringing our book to an end we would reiterate four fundamental principles of interior decoration (and all decoration): good lines. correct proportions. harmonious colour scheme (which includes the question of background) and appropriateness. observe these four laws and any house, all interior decoration, and any lawn or garden, will be beautiful and satisfying, regardless of type and choice of colours. whether or not you remain content with your achievement depends upon your mental makeup. really know what you want as a home, _want it_, and you can work out any scheme, provided you have intelligence, patience and perseverance. to learn what is meant by _good line_, one must educate oneself by making a point of seeing beautiful furniture and furnishings. visit museums, all collections which boast the stamp of approval of experts; buy at the best modern and antique shops, and compare what you get with the finest examples in the museums. this is the way that _connaisseurs_ are made. index acanthus leaf accessories adam, james and robert alhambra amateur andirons angelo, michael (see michelangelo) antique "antiqued" apelles applique appropriate arabesques architectural picture architrave arras assyria athenian attic rooms awnings background bakst balance barrocco bathroom beauvais behnes belgium benares "bodies" bohemian glass boucher françois boudoir boule, andré charles bric-à-brac bristol glass brocotello byzantine cabriole cæsar, augustus carlovingian carpets (_see_ floor) ceiling cellini, benvenuto charlemagne charles i charles ii charles v chares viii charts _chef d'oeuvre_ chimney-pieces chinese "chinese craze" chintz chippendale cipriani, giovanni battista classic clocks closets cold colours collecting colonial colour commode composition connoisseur console correggio, antonio allegri cretonne (_see_ chintz) cross-stitch dado dark ages day-bed decoration decorative dining-tables directoire distinction dressing-room dressing-table du barry, madame du barry rose dürer, albrecht dutch egypt elimination elizabethan empire england _ensemble_ fads feudal fire-dogs (_see_ andirons) fireplace fixtures flaxman, john floors (_see_ carpets) flower-pictures flowers fontainebleau france francis i franklin stoves french frieze georgian germany gibbons, grinling gimp glass glazed linen gobelin gothic greek gubbio hallmark hangings henry ii henry iii henry iv henry viii heppelwhite holland homes hungarian inappropriateness iron work italian italian louis xvi ivy jacobean james i james ii james vi japan japanese kauffman, angelica key key note knife-boxes lacquer lamp shades landscape paper library, a man's light-absorbing colours light-producing lines living-room louis xiii louis xiv louis xv louis xvi lustre copper mahogany period majolica man's room (_see_ men's rooms) mantel marie antoinette marquetry mediæval art medici medici, catherine de medicine jars men's rooms metal work michelangelo middle ages mirrors mission furniture moors morris, william mouldings mounts napoleon i narrow halls new england oak period _objets d'art_ oriental ormolu outline over-doors painted furniture painted tapestry palladio, andrea panelling panier fleuri parchment paper shades for lights passepartout peasant china peasant lace pergolese, michael angelo pericles period rooms pesaro pharmacy jars (_see_ medicine jars) phidias photographs picture frames pictures _pietra-dura_ pilasters poitiers, diane de poland pomegranate pattern porcelain porch-room portuguese "powder-blue" vases praxiteles pre-raphaelites proportion pseudo-classic puritan queen anne queen elizabeth rail-boxes raphael refectory tables renaissance reproductions rocaille (_see_ shell design) rococo rolls, empire rome sarto, andrea del sash-curtains servants'-rooms sèvres porcelain shades for lights shell design (_see_ rocaille) sheraton silks slipper-chairs sofa cushions spain sports balconies stained glass straw awnings stuart sun-producing sun-proof sun-rooms table decoration table-garden tables tableware taffeta tapestry tea-tables textiles titian tone-on-tone tudor twin beds urbino valance values van eyck vanity-room _"vargueos"_ "vase pattern" vases venetian glass venice vernis martin victorian period vinci, leonardo da virginia homes vitrine wainscoting wall-papers walls warm colours wedgewood wicker furniture william and mary period window-boxes wren, sir christopher the end none proofreading team. [frontispiece: dining-room in "pennyroyal" (in mrs. boudinot keith's cottage, onteora)] principles of home decoration with practical examples by candace wheeler new york doubleday, page & company published february contents chapter i. decoration as an art. decoration in american homes. woman's influence in decoration. chapter ii. character in homes. chapter iii. builders' houses. expedients. chapter iv. colour in houses. colour as a science. colour as an influence. chapter v. the law of appropriateness. cleanliness and harmony tastefully combined. bedroom furnished in accordance with individual tastes. chapter vi. kitchens. treatment of walls from a hygienic point of view. chapter vii. colour with reference to light. examples of the effects of light on colour. gradation of colour. chapter viii. walls, ceilings and floors. treatment and decoration of walls. use of tapestry. leather and wall-papers. panels of wood, painted walls. textiles. chapter ix. location of the house. decoration influenced by situation. chapter x. ceilings. decorations in harmony with walls. treatment in accordance with size of room. chapter xi. floors and floor coverings. treatment of floors--polished wood, mosaics. judicious selection of rugs and carpets. chapter xii. draperies. importance of appropriate colours. importance of appropriate textures. chapter xiii furniture. character in rooms. harmony in furniture. comparison between antique and modern furniture. treatment of the different rooms. list of illustrations dining-room in "penny-royal" (mrs. boudinot keith's cottage, onteora) hall in city house, showing effect of staircase divided and turned to rear stenciled borders for hall and bathroom decorations sitting-room in "wild wood," onteora (belonging to miss luisita leland) large sitting-room in "star rock" (country house of w.e. connor, esq., onteora) painted canvas frieze and buckram frieze for dining-room square hall in city house colonial chairs and sofa (belonging to mrs. ruth mcenery stuart) colonial mantel and english hob-grate (sitting-room in mrs. candace wheeler's house) sofa designed by mrs. candace wheeler, for n.y. library in "woman's building," columbia exposition rustic sofa and tables in "penny-royal" (mrs. boudinot keith's cottage, onteora) dining-room in "star rock" (country house of w.e. connor, esq., onteora) dining-room in new york house showing leaded-glass windows dining-room in new york home showing carved wainscoting and painted frieze screen and glass windows in house at lakewood (belonging to clarence root, esq.) principles of home decoration chapter i decoration as an art "_who creates a home, creates a potent spirit which in turn doth fashion him that fashioned._" probably no art has so few masters as that of decoration. in england, morris was for many years the great leader, but among his followers in england no one has attained the dignity of unquestioned authority; and in america, in spite of far more general practice of the art, we still are without a leader whose very name establishes law. it is true we are free to draw inspiration from the same sources which supplied morris and the men associated with him in his enthusiasms, and in fact we do lean, as they did, upon english eighteenth-century domestic art--and derive from the men who made that period famous many of our articles of faith; but there are almost no authoritative books upon the subject of appropriate modern decoration. our text books are still to be written; and one must glean knowledge from many sources, shape it into rules, and test the rules, before adopting them as safe guides. yet in spite of the absence of authoritative teaching, we have learned that an art dependent upon other arts, as decoration is upon building and architecture, is bound to follow the principles which govern them. we must base our work upon what has already been done, select our decorative forms from appropriate periods, conform our use of colour to the principles of colour, and be able to choose and apply all manufactures in accordance with the great law of appropriateness. if we do this, we stand upon something capable of evolution and the creation of a system. in so far as the principles of decoration are derived from other arts, they can be acquired by every one, but an exquisite feeling in their application is the distinguishing quality of the true decorator. there is quite a general impression that house-decoration is not an art which requires a long course of study and training, but some kind of natural knack of arrangement--a faculty of making things "look pretty," and that any one who has this faculty is amply qualified for "taking up house-decoration." indeed, natural facility succeeds in satisfying many personal cravings for beauty, although it is not competent for general practice. of course there are people, and many of them, who are gifted with an inherent sense of balance and arrangement, and a true eye for colour, and--given the same materials--such people will make a room pleasant and cozy, where one without these gifts would make it positively ugly. in so far, then, individual gifts are a great advantage, yet one possessing them in even an unusual degree may make great mistakes in decoration. what _not_ to do, in this day of almost universal experiment, is perhaps the most valuable lesson to the untrained decorator. many of the rocks upon which he splits are down in no chart, and lie in the track of what seems to him perfectly plain sailing. there are houses of fine and noble exterior which are vulgarized by uneducated experiments in colour and ornament, and belittled by being filled with heterogeneous collections of unimportant art. yet these very instances serve to emphasize the demand for beautiful surroundings, and in spite of mistakes and incongruities, must be reckoned as efforts toward a desirable end. in spite of a prevalent want of training, it is astonishing how much we have of good interior decoration, not only in houses of great importance, but in those of people of average fortunes--indeed, it is in the latter that we get the general value of the art. this comparative excellence is to be referred to the very general acquirement of what we call "art cultivation" among american women, and this, in conjunction with a knowledge that her social world will be apt to judge of her capacity by her success or want of success in making her own surroundings beautiful, determines the efforts of the individual woman. she feels that she is expected to prove her superiority by living in a home distinguished for beauty as well as for the usual orderliness and refinement. of course this sense of obligation is a powerful spur to the exercise of natural gifts, and if in addition to these she has the habit of reasoning upon the principles of things, and is sufficiently cultivated in the literature of art to avoid unwarrantable experiment, there is no reason why she should not be successful in her own surroundings. the typical american, whether man, or woman, has great natural facility, and when the fact is once recognized that beauty--like education--can dignify any circumstances, from the narrowest to the most opulent, it becomes one of the objects of life to secure it. _how_ this is done depends upon the talent and cultivation of the family, and this is often adequate for excellent results. it is quite possible that so much general ability may discourage the study of decoration as a precise form of art, since it encourages the idea that the house beautiful can be secured by any one who has money to pay for processes, and possesses what is simply designated as "good taste." we do not find this impulse toward the creation of beautiful interiors as noticeable in other countries as in america. the instinct of self-expression is much stronger in us than in other races, and for that reason we cannot be contented with the utterances of any generation, race or country save our own. we gather to ourselves what we personally enjoy or wish to enjoy, and will not take our domestic environment at second hand. it follows that there is a certain difference and originality in our methods, which bids fair to acquire distinct character, and may in the future distinguish this art-loving period as a maker of style. a successful foreign painter who has visited this country at intervals during the last ten years said, "there is no such uniformity of beautiful interiors anywhere else in the world. there are palaces in france and italy, and great country houses in england, to the embellishment of which generations of owners have devoted the best art of their own time; but in america there is something of it everywhere. many unpretentious houses have drawing-rooms possessing colour-decoration which would distinguish them as examples in england or france." to americans this does not seem a remarkable fact. we have come into a period which desires beauty, and each one secures it as best he can. we are a teachable and a studious people, with a faculty of turning "general information" to account; and general information upon art matters has had much to do with our good interiors. we have, perhaps half unconsciously, applied fundamental principles to our decoration, and this may be as much owing to natural good sense as to cultivation. we have a habit of reasoning about things, and acting upon our conclusions, instead of allowing the rest of the world to do the reasoning while we adopt the result. it is owing to this conjunction of love for and cultivation of art, and the habit of materializing what we wish, that we have so many thoroughly successful interiors, which have been accomplished almost without aid from professional artists. it is these, instead of the smaller number of costly interiors, which give the reputation of artistic merit to our homes. undoubtedly the largest proportion of successful as well as unsuccessful domestic art in our country is due to the efforts of women. in the great race for wealth which characterizes our time, it is demanded that women shall make it effective by so using it as to distinguish the family; and nothing distinguishes it so much as the superiority of the home. this effort adheres to small as well as large fortunes, and in fact the necessity is more pronounced in the case of mediocre than of great ones. in the former there is something to be made up--some protest of worth and ability and intelligence that helps many a home to become beautiful. as i have said, a woman feels that the test of her capacity is that her house shall not only be comfortable and attractive, but that it shall be arranged according to the laws of harmony and beauty. it is as much the demand of the hour as that she shall be able to train her children according to the latest and most enlightened theories, or that she shall take part in public and philanthropic movements, or understand and have an opinion on political methods. these are things which are expected of every woman who makes a part of society; and no less is it expected that her house shall be an appropriate and beautiful setting for her personality, a credit to her husband, and an unconscious education for her children. but it happens that means of education in all of these directions, except that of decoration, are easily available. a woman can become a member of a kindergarten association, and get from books and study the result of scientific knowledge of child-life and training. she can find means to study the ethics of her relations to her kind and become an effective philanthropist, or join the league for political education and acquire a more or less enlightened understanding of politics; but who is to formulate for her the science of beauty, to teach her how to make the interior aspect of her home perfect in its adaptation to her circumstances, and as harmonious in colour and arrangement as a song without words? she feels that these conditions create a mental atmosphere serene and yet inspiring, and that such surroundings are as much her birthright and that of her children as food and clothing of a grade belonging to their circumstances, but how is it to be compassed? most women ask themselves this question, and fail to understand that it is as much of a marvel when a woman without training or experience creates a good interior _as a whole_, as if an amateur in music should compose an opera. it is not at all impossible for a woman of good taste--and it must be remembered that this word means an educated or cultivated power of selection--to secure harmonious or happily contrasted colour in a room, and to select beautiful things in the way of furniture and belongings; but what is to save her from the thousand and one mistakes possible to inexperience in this combination of things which make lasting enjoyment and appropriate perfection in a house? how can she know which rooms will be benefited by sombre or sunny tints, and which exposure will give full sway to her favourite colour or colours? how can she have learned the reliability or want of reliability in certain materials or processes used in decoration, or the rules of treatment which will modify a low and dark room and make it seem light and airy, or "bring down" too high a ceiling and widen narrow walls so as to apparently correct disproportion? these things are the results of laws which she has never studied--laws of compensation and relation, which belong exclusively to the world of colour, and unfortunately they are not so well formulated that they can be committed to memory like rules of grammar; yet all good colour-practice rests upon them as unquestionably as language rests upon grammatical construction. of course one may use colour as one can speak a language, purely by imitation and memory, but it is not absolutely reliable practice; and just here comes in the necessity for professional advice. there are many difficulties in the accomplishment of a perfect house-interior which few householders have had the time or experience to cope with, and yet the fact remains that each mistress of a house believes that unless she vanquishes all difficulties and comes out triumphantly with colours flying at the housetop and enjoyment and admiration following her efforts, she has failed in something which she should have been perfectly able to accomplish. but the obligation is certainly a forced one. it is the result of the modern awakening to the effect of many heretofore unrecognized influences in our lives and the lives and characters of our children. a beautiful home is undoubtedly a great means of education, and of that best of all education which is unconscious. to grow up in such a one means a much more complete and perfect man or woman than would be possible without that particular influence. but a perfect home is never created all at once and by one person, and let the anxious house-mistress take comfort in the thought. she should also remember that it is in the nature of beauty to _grow_, and that a well-rounded and beautiful family life adds its quota day by day. every book, every sketch or picture--every carefully selected or characteristic object brought into the home adds to and makes a part of a beautiful whole, and no house can be absolutely perfect without all these evidences of family life. it can be made ready for them, completely and perfectly ready, by professional skill and knowledge; but if it remained just where the interior artist or decorator left it, it would have no more of the sentiment of domesticity than a statue. chapter ii character in houses "_for the created still doth shadow forth the mind and will which made it._ "_thou art the very mould of thy creator_." it needs the combined personality of the family to make the character of the house. no one could say of a house which has family character, "it is one of ----'s houses" (naming one or another successful decorator), because the decorator would have done only what it was his business to do--used technical and artistic knowledge in preparing a proper and correct background for family life. even in doing that, he must consult family tastes and idiosyncracies if he has the reverence for individuality which belongs to the true artist. a domestic interior is a thing to which he should give knowledge and not personality, and the puzzled home-maker, who understands that her world expects correct use of means of beauty, as well as character and originality in her home, need not feel that to secure the one she must sacrifice the other. an inexperienced person might think it an easy thing to make a beautiful home, because the world is full of beautiful art and manufactures, and if there is money to pay for them it would seem as easy to furnish a house with everything beautiful as to go out in the garden and gather beautiful flowers; but we must remember that the world is also full of ugly things--things false in art, in truth and in beauty--things made to _sell_--made with only this idea behind them, manufactured on the principle that an artificial fly is made to look something like a true one in order to catch the inexpert and the unwary. it is a curious fact that these false things--manufactures without honesty, without knowledge, without art--have a property of demoralizing the spirit of the home, and that to make it truly beautiful everything in it must be genuine as well as appropriate, and must also fit into some previously considered scheme of use and beauty. the esthetic or beautiful aspect of the home, in short, must be created through the mind of the family or owner, and is only maintained by its or his susceptibility to true beauty and appreciation of it. it must, in fact, be a visible mould of invisible matter, like the leaf-mould one finds in mineral springs, which show the wonderful veining, branching, construction and delicacy of outline in a way which one could hardly be conscious of in the actual leaf. if the grade or dignity of the home requires professional and scholarly art direction, the problem is how to use this professional or artistic advice without delivering over the entire creation into stranger or alien hands; without abdicating the right and privilege of personal expression. if the decorator appreciates this right, his function will be somewhat akin to that of the portrait painter; both are bound to represent the individual or family in their performances, each artist using the truest and best methods of art with the added gift of grace or charm of colour which he possesses, the one giving the physical aspect of his client and the other the mental characteristics, circumstances, position and life of the house-owner and his family. this is the true mission of the decorator, although it is not always so understood. what is called business talent may lead him to invent schemes of costliness which relate far more to his own profit than to the wishes or character of the house-owner. but it is not always that the assistance of the specialist in decoration and furnishing is necessary. there are many homes where both are quite within the scope of the ordinary man or woman of taste. in fact, the great majority of homes come within these lines, and it is to such home-builders that rules, not involving styles, are especially of use. the principles of truth and harmony, which underlie all beauty, may be secured in the most inexpensive cottage as well as in the broadest and most imposing residence. indeed, the cottage has the advantage of that most potent ally of beauty--simplicity--a quality which is apt to be conspicuously absent from the schemes of decoration for the palace. chapter iii builders' houses "_mine own hired house_." a large proportion of homes are made in houses which are not owned, but leased, and this prevents each man or family from indicating personal taste in external aspect. a rich man and house-owner may approximate to a true expression of himself even in the outside of his house if he strongly desires it, but a man of moderate means must adapt himself and his family to the house-builder's idea of houses--that is to say, to the idea of the man who has made house-building a trade, and whose experiences have created a form into which houses of moderate cost and fairly universal application may be cast. although it is as natural to a man to build or acquire a home as to a bird to build a nest, he has not the same unfettered freedom in construction. he cannot always adapt his house either to the physical or mental size of his family, but must accept what is possible with much the same feeling with which a family of robins might accommodate themselves to a wren's nest, or an oriole to that of a barn-swallow. but the fact remains, that all these accidental homes must, in some way, be brought into harmony with the lives to be lived in them, and the habits and wants of the family; and not only this, they must be made attractive according to the requirements of cultivated society. the effort toward this is instructive, and the pleasure in and enjoyment of the home depends upon the success of the effort. the inmates, as a rule, are quite clear as to what they want to accomplish, but have seldom had sufficient experience to enable them to remedy defects of construction. there are expedients by which many of the malformations and uglinesses of the ordinary "builder's house" may be greatly ameliorated, various small surgical operations which will remedy badly planned rooms, and dispositions of furniture which will restore proportion. we can even, by judicious distribution of planes of colour, apparently lower or raise a ceiling, and widen or lengthen a room, and these expedients, which belong partly to the experience of the decorator, are based upon laws which can easily be formulated. every one can learn something of them by the study of faulty rooms and the enjoyment of satisfactory ones. indeed, i know no surer or more agreeable way of getting wisdom in the art of decoration than by tracing back sensation to its source, and finding out why certain things are utterly satisfactory, and certain others a positive source of discomfort. in what are called the "best houses" we can make our deductions quite as well as in the most faulty, and sometimes get a lesson of avoidance and a warning against law-breaking which will be quite as useful as if it were learned in less than the best. there is one fault very common in houses which date from a period of some forty or fifty years back, a fault of disproportionate height of ceilings. in a modern house, if one room is large enough to require a lofty ceiling, the architect will manage to make his second floor upon different levels, so as not to inflict the necessary height of large rooms upon narrow halls and small rooms, which should have only a height proportioned to their size. a ten-foot room with a thirteen-foot ceiling makes the narrowness of the room doubly apparent; one feels shut up between two walls which threaten to come together and squeeze one between them, while, on the other hand, a ten-foot room with a nine-foot ceiling may have a really comfortable and cozy effect. in this case, what is needed is to get rid of the superfluous four feet, and this can be done by cheating the eye into an utter forgetfulness of them. there must be horizontal divisions of colour which attract the attention and make one oblivious of what is above them. every one knows the effect of a paper with perpendicular stripes in apparently heightening a ceiling which is too low, but not every one is equally aware of the contrary effect of horizontal lines of varied surface. but in the use of perpendicular lines it is well to remember that, if the room is small, it will appear still smaller if the wall is divided into narrow spaces by vertical lines. if it is large and the ceiling simply low for the size of the room, a good deal can be done by long, simple lines of drapery in curtains and portieres, or in choosing a paper where the composition of design is perpendicular rather than diagonal. to apparently lower a high ceiling in a small room, the wall should be treated horizontally in different materials. three feet of the base can be covered with coarse canvas or buckram and finished with a small wood moulding. six feet of plain wall above this, painted the same shade as the canvas, makes the space of which the eye is most aware. this space should be finished with a picture moulding, and the four superfluous feet of wall above it must be treated as a part of the ceiling. the cream-white of the actual ceiling should be brought down on the side walls for a space of two feet, and this has the effect of apparently enlarging the room, since the added mass of light tint seems to broaden it. there still remain two feet of space between the picture moulding and ceiling-line which may be treated as a _ceiling-border_ in inconspicuous design upon the same cream ground, the design to be in darker, but of the same tint as the ceiling. the floor in such a room as this should either be entirely covered with plain carpeting, or, if it has rugs at all, there should be several, as one single rug, not entirely covering the floor, would have the effect of confining the apparent size of the room to the actual size of the rug. if the doors and windows in such a room are high and narrow, they can be made to come into the scheme by placing the curtain and portiere rods below the actual height and covering the upper space with thin material, either full or plain, of the same colour as the upper wall. a brocaded muslin, stained or dyed to match the wall, answers this purpose admirably, and is really better in its place than the usual expedient of stained glass or open-work wood transom. a good expedient is to have the design already carried around the wall painted in the same colour upon a piece of stretched muslin. this is simple but effective treatment, and is an instance of the kind of thought or knowledge that must be used in remedying faults of construction. colour has much to do with the apparent size of rooms, a room in light tints always appearing to be larger than a deeply coloured one. perhaps the most difficult problem in adaptation is the high, narrow city house, built and decorated by the block by the builder, who is also a speculator in real estate, and whose activity was chiefly exercised before the ingenious devices of the modern architect were known. these houses exist in quantities in our larger and older cities, and mere slices of space as they are, are the theatres where the home-life of many refined and beauty-loving intelligences must be played. in such houses as these, the task of fitting them to the cultivated eyes and somewhat critical tests of modern society generally falls to the women who represent the family, and calls for an amount of ability which would serve to build any number of creditable houses; yet this is constantly being done and well done for not one, but many families. i know one such, which is quite a model of a charming city home and yet was evolved from one of the worst of its kind and period. in this case the family had fallen heir to the house and were therefore justified in the one radical change which metamorphosed the entrance-hall, from a long, narrow passage, with an apparently interminable stairway occupying half its width, to a small reception-hall seemingly enlarged by a judicious placing of the mirrors which had formerly been a part of the "fixtures" of the parlour and dining-room. [illustration: hall in city house showing effect of staircase divided and turned to rear] the reception-room was accomplished by cutting off the lower half of the staircase, which had extended itself to within three feet of the front door, and turning it directly around, so that it ends at the back instead of the front of the hall. the two cut ends are connected by a platform, thrown across from wall to wall, and furnished with a low railing of carved panels, and turned spindles, which gives a charming balcony effect. the passage to the back hall and stairs passes under the balcony and upper end of the staircase, while the space under the lower stair-end, screened by a portière, adds a coat-closet to the conveniences of the reception-hall. this change was not a difficult thing to accomplish, it was simply an _expedient_, but it has the value of carefully planned construction, and reminds one of the clever utterance of the immortal painter who said, "i never lose an accident." indeed the ingenious home-maker often finds that the worse a thing is, the better it can be made by competent and careful study. to complete and adapt incompetent things to orderliness and beauty, to harmonise incongruous things into a perfect whole requires and exercises ability of a high order, and the consciousness of its possession is no small satisfaction. that it is constantly being done shows how much real cleverness is necessary to ordinary life--and reminds one of the patriotic new york state senator who declared that it required more ability to cross broadway safely at high tide, than to be a great statesman. and truly, to make a good house out of a poor one, or a beautiful interior from an ugly one, requires far more thought, and far more original talent, than to decorate an important new one. the one follows a travelled path--the other makes it. of course competent knowledge saves one from many difficulties; and faults of construction must be met by knowledge, yet this is often greatly aided by natural cleverness, and in the course of long practice in the decorative arts, i have seen such refreshing and charming results from thoughtful untrained intelligence,--i might almost say inspiration,--that i have great respect for its manifestations; especially when exercised in un-authoritative fashion. chapter iv colour in houses _"heaven gives us of its colour, for our joy, hues which have words and speak to ye of heaven."_ although the very existence of a house is a matter of construction, its general interior effect is almost entirely the result of colour treatment and careful and cultivated selection of accessories. colour in the house includes much that means furniture, in the way of carpets, draperies, and all the modern conveniences of civilization, but as it precedes and dictates the variety of all these things from the authoritative standpoint of wall treatment, it is well to study its laws and try to reap the full benefit of its influence. as far as effect is concerned, the colour of a room creates its atmosphere. it may be cheerful or sad, cosy or repellent according to its quality or force. without colour it is only a bare canvas, which might, but does not picture our lives. we understand many of the properties of colour, and have unconsciously learned some of its laws;--but what may be called the _science_ of colour has never been formulated. so far as we understand it, its principles correspond curiously to those of melodious sound. it is as impossible to produce the best effect from one tone or colour, as to make a melody upon one note of the harmonic scale; it is skilful _variation_ of tone, the gradation or even judicious opposition of tint which gives exquisite satisfaction to the eye. in music, sequence produces this effect upon the ear, and in colour, juxtaposition and gradation upon the eye. notes follow notes in melody as shade follows shade in colour. we find no need of even different names for the qualities peculiar to the two; scale--notes--tones--harmonies--the words express effects common to colour as well as to music, but colour has this advantage, that its harmonies can be _fixed_, they do not die with the passing moment; once expressed they remain as a constant and ever-present delight. notes of the sound-octave have been gathered by the musicians from widely different substances, and carefully linked in order and sequence to make a harmonious scale which may be learned; but the painter, conscious of colour-harmonies, has as yet no written law by which he can produce them. the "born colourist" is one who without special training, or perhaps in spite of it, can unerringly combine or oppose tints into compositions which charm the eye and satisfy the sense. even among painters it is by no means a common gift. it is almost more rare to find a picture distinguished for its harmony and beauty of colour, than to see a room in which nothing jars and everything works together for beauty. it seems strange that this should be a rarer personal gift than the musical sense, since nature apparently is far more lavish of her lessons for the eye than for the ear; and it is curious that colour, which at first sight seems a more apparent and simple fact than music, has not yet been written. undoubtedly there is a colour scale, which has its sharps and flats, its high notes and low notes, its chords and discords, and it is not impossible that in the future science may make it a means of regulated and written harmonies:--that some master colourist who has mechanical and inventive genius as well, may so arrange them that they can be played by rule; that colour may have its mozart or beethoven--its classic melodies, its familiar tunes. the musician, as i have said--has gathered his tones from every audible thing in nature--and fitted and assorted and built them into a science; and why should not some painter who is also a scientist take the many variations of colour which lie open to his sight, and range and fit and combine, and write the formula, so that a child may read it? we already know enough to be very sure that the art is founded upon laws, although they are not thoroughly understood. principles of masses, spaces, and gradations underlie all accidental harmonies of colour;--just as in music, the simple, strong, under-chords of the bass must be the ground for all the changes and trippings of the upper melodies. it is easy, if one studies the subject, to see how the very likeness of these two esthetic forces illustrate the laws of each,--in the principles of relation, gradation, and scale. until very recently the relation of colour to the beauty of a house interior was quite unrecognised. if it existed in any degree of perfection it was an accident, a result of the softening and beautifying effect of time, or of harmonious human living. where it existed, it was felt as a mysterious charm belonging to the home; something which pervaded it, but had no separate being; an attractive ghost which attached itself to certain houses, followed certain people, came by chance, and was a mystery which no one understood, but every one acknowledged. now we know that this something which distinguished particular rooms, and made beautiful particular houses, was a definite result of laws of colour accidentally applied. to avail ourselves of this influence upon the moods and experiences of life is to use a power positive in its effects as any spiritual or intellectual influence. it gives the kind of joy we find in nature, in the golden-green of light under tree-branches, or the mingled green and gray of tree and rock shadows, or the pearl and rose of sunrise and sunset. we call the deep content which results from such surroundings the influence of nature, and forget to name the less spiritual, the more human condition of well-being which comes to us in our homes from being surrounded with something which in a degree atones for lack of nature's beauty. it is a different well-being, and lacks the full tide of electric enjoyment which comes from living for the hour under the sky and in the breadths of space, but it atones by substituting something of our own invention, which surprises us by its compensations, and confounds us by its power. chapter v the law of appropriateness i have laid much stress upon the value of colour in interior decoration, but to complete the beauty of the home something more than happy choice of tints is required. it needs careful and educated selection of furniture and fittings, and money enough to indulge in the purchase of an intrinsically good thing instead of a medium one. it means even something more than the love of beauty and cultivation of it, and that is a perfect adherence to the _law of appropriateness_. this is, after all, the most important quality of every kind of decoration, the one binding and general condition of its accomplishment. it requires such a careful fitting together of all the means of beauty as to leave no part of the house, whatever may be its use, without the same care for appropriate completeness which goes to the more apparent features. the cellar, the kitchen, the closets, the servants' bedrooms must all share in the thought which makes the genuinely beautiful home and the genuinely perfect life. it must be possible to go from the top to the bottom of the house, finding everywhere agreeable, suitable, and thoughtful furnishings. the beautiful house must consider the family as a whole, and not make a museum of rare and costly things in the drawing-room, the library, the dining-room and family bedrooms, leaving that important part of the whole machinery, the service, untouched by the spirit of beauty. the same care in choice of colour will be as well bestowed on the servants' floor as on those devoted to the family, and curtains, carpets and furniture may possess as much beauty and yet be perfectly appropriate to servants' use. on this upper floor, it goes almost without saying, that the walls must be painted in oil-colour instead of covered with paper. that the floors should be uncarpeted except for bedside rugs which are easily removable. that bedsteads should be of iron, the mattress with changeable covers, the furniture of painted and enameled instead of polished wood, and in short the conditions of healthful cleanliness as carefully provided as if the rooms were in a hospital instead of a private house--but the added comfort of carefully chosen wall colour, and bright, harmonizing, washable chintz in curtains and bed-covers. these things have an influence upon the spirit of the home; they are a part of its spiritual beauty, giving a satisfied and approving consciousness to the home-makers, and a sense of happiness in the service of the family. in the average, or small house, there is room for much improvement in the treatment and furnishing of servants' bedrooms; and this is not always from indifference, but because they are out of daily sight, and also from a belief that it would add seriously to the burden of housekeeping to see that they are kept up to the standard of family sleeping-rooms. in point of fact, however, good surroundings are potent civilizers, and a house-servant whose room is well and carefully furnished feels an added value in herself, which makes her treat herself respectfully in the care of her room. if it pleases her, the training she receives in the care of family rooms will be reflected in her own, and painstaking arrangements made for her pleasure will perhaps be recognised as an obligation. of course the fact must be recognised, that the occupant is not always a permanent one; that it may at times be a fresh importation directly from a city tenement; therefore, everything in the room should be able to sustain very radical treatment in the way of scrubbing and cleaning. wall papers, unwashable rugs and curtains are out of the question; yet even with these limitations it is possible to make a charming and reasonably inexpensive room, which would be attractive to cultivated as well as uncultivated taste. it is in truth mostly a matter of colour; of coloured walls, and harmonising furniture and draperies, which are in themselves well adapted to their place. as i have said elsewhere, the walls in a servant's bedroom--and preferably in any sleeping-room--should for sanitary reasons be painted in oil colours, but the possibilities of decorative treatment in this medium are by no means limited. all of the lighter shades of green, blue, yellow, and rose are as permanent, and as easily cleaned, as the dull grays and drabs and mud-colours which are often used upon bedroom walls--especially those upper ones which are above the zone of ornament, apparently under the impression that there is virtue in their very ugliness. "a good clean gray" some worthy housewife will instruct the painter to use, and the result will be a dead mixture of various lively and pleasant tints, any one of which might be charming if used separately, or modified with white. a small room with walls of a very light spring green, or a pale turquoise blue, or white with the dash of vermilion and touch of yellow ochre which produces salmon-pink, is quite as durably and serviceably coloured as if it were chocolate-brown, or heavy lead-colour; indeed its effect upon the mind is like a spring day full of sunshine instead of one dark with clouds or lowering storms. the rule given elsewhere for colour in light or dark exposure will hold good for service bedrooms as well as for the important rooms of the house. that is; if a bedroom for servants' use is on the north or shadowed side of the house, let the colour be salmon or rose pink, cream white, or spring green; but if it is on the sunny side, the tint should be turquoise, or pale blue, or a grayish-green, like the green of a field of rye. with such walls, a white iron bedstead, enameled furniture, curtains of white, or a flowered chintz which repeats or contrasts with the colour of the walls, bedside and bureau rugs of the tufted cotton which is washable, or of the new rag-rugs of which the colours are "water fast," the room is absolutely good, and can be used as an influence upon a lower or higher intelligence. as a matter of utility the toilet service should be always of white; so that there will be no chance for the slovenly mismatching which results from breakage of any one of the different pieces, when of different colours. a handleless or mis-matched pitcher will change the entire character of a room and should never be tolerated. if the size of the room will warrant it, a rocking-chair or easy-chair should always be part of its equipment, and the mattress and bed-springs should be of a quality to give ease to tired bones, for these things have to do with the spirit of the house. it may be said that the colouring and furnishing of the servants' bedroom is hardly a part of house decoration, but in truth house decoration at its best is a means of happiness, and no householder can achieve permanent happiness without making the service of the family sharers in it. what i have said with regard to painted walls in plain tints applies to bedrooms of every grade, but where something more than merely agreeable colour effect is desired a stencilled decoration from the simplest to the most elaborate can be added. there are many ways of using this method, some of which partake very largely of artistic effect; indeed a thoroughly good stencil pattern may reproduce the best instances of design, and in the hands of a skilful workman who knows how to graduate and vary contrasting or harmonising tints it becomes a very artistic method and deserves a place of high honour in the art of decoration. [illustration: , and , stenciled borders for bath-room decoration: , , and , stenciled borders for halls (by dunham wheeler)] its simplest form is that of a stencilled border in flat tints used either in place of a cornice or as the border of a wall-paper is used. this, of course, is a purely mechanical performance, and one with which every house-painter is familiar. after this we come to borders of repeating design used as friezes. this can be done with the most delicate and delightful effect, although the finished wall will still be capable of withstanding the most energetic annual scrubbing. frieze borders of this kind starting with strongly contrasting colour at the top and carried downward through gradually fading tints until they are lost in the general colour of the wall have an openwork grille effect which is very light and graceful. there are infinite possibilities in the use of stencil design without counting the introduction of gold and silver, and bronzes of various iridescent hues which are more suitable for rooms of general use than for bedrooms. indeed in sleeping-rooms the use of metallic colour is objectionable because it will not stand washing and cleaning without defacement. the ideal bedroom is one that if the furniture were removed a stream of water from a hose might be played upon its walls and ceiling without injury. i always remember with pleasure a pink and silver room belonging to a young girl, where the salmon-pink walls were deepened in colour at the top into almost a tint of vermilion which had in it a trace of green. it was, in fact, an addition of spring green dropped into the vermilion and carelessly stirred, so that it should be mixed but not incorporated. over this shaded and mixed colour for the space of three feet was stencilled a fountain-like pattern in cream-white, the arches of the pattern rilled in with almost a lace-work of design. the whole upper part had an effect like carved alabaster and was indescribably light and graceful. the bed and curtain-rods of silver-lacquer, and the abundant silver of the dressing-table gave a frosty contrast which was necessary in a room of so warm a general tone. this is an example of very delicate and truly artistic treatment of stencil-work, and one can easily see how it can be used either in simple or elaborate fashion with great effect. irregularly placed floating forms of persian or arabic design are often admirably stencilled in colour upon a painted wall; but in this case the colours should be varied and not too strong. a group of forms floating away from a window-frame or cornice can be done in two shades of the wall colour, one of which is positively darker and one lighter than the ground. if to these two shades some delicately contrasting colour is occasionally added the effect is not only pleasing, but belongs to a thoroughly good style. one seldom tires of a good stencilled wall; probably because it is intrinsic, and not applied in the sense of paper or textiles. it carries an air of permanency which discourages change or experiment, but it requires considerable experience in decoration to execute it worthily; and not only this, there should be a strong feeling for colour and taste and education in the selection of design, for though the form of the stencilled pattern may be graceful, and gracefully combined, it must always--to be permanently satisfactory--have a geometrical basis. it is somewhat difficult to account for the fact that what we call natural forms, of plants and flowers, which are certainly beautiful and graceful in themselves, and grow into shapes which delight us with their freedom and beauty, do not give the best satisfaction as motives for interior decoration. construction in the architectural sense--the strength and squareness of walls, ceilings, and floors--seem to reject the yielding character of design founded upon natural forms, and demand something which answers more sympathetically to their own qualities. perhaps it is for this reason that we find the grouping and arrangement of horizontal and perpendicular lines and blocks in the old greek borders so everlastingly satisfactory. it is the principle or requirement, of geometric base in interior design which, coupled with our natural delight in yielding or growing forms, has maintained through all the long history of decoration what is called conventionalised flower design. we find this in every form or method of decorative art, from embroidery to sculpture, from the lotus of egypt to the rose of england, and although it results in a sort of crucifixion of the natural beauty of the flower, in the hands of great designers it has become an authoritative style of art. of course, there are flower-forms which are naturally geometric, which have conventionalised themselves. many of the intricate moorish frets and indian carvings are literal translations of flower-forms geometrically repeated, and here they lend themselves so perfectly to the decoration of even exterior walls that the fretted arches of some eastern buildings seem almost to have grown of themselves, with all their elaboration, into the world of nature and art. the separate flowers of the gracefully tossing lilac plumes, and the five-and six-leaved flowers of the pink, have become in this way a very part of the everlasting walls, as the acanthus leaf has become the marble blossom of thousands of indestructible columns. these are the classics of design and hold the same relation to ornament printed on paper and silk that we find in the music of the psalms, as compared with the tinkle of the ballad. there are other methods of decoration in oils which will meet the wants of the many who like to exercise their own artistic feelings and ability in their houses or rooms. the painting of flower-friezes upon canvas which can afterward be mounted upon the wall is a never-ending source of pleasure; and many of these friezes have a charm and intimacy which no merely professional painter can rival. these are especially suitable for bedrooms, since there they may be as personal as the inmate pleases without undue unveiling of thoughts, fancies, or personal experiences to the public. a favourite flower or a favourite motto or selection may be the motive of a charming decoration, if the artist has sufficient art-knowledge to subordinate it to its architectural juxtaposition. a narrow border of fixed repeating forms like a rug-border will often fulfil the necessity for architectural lines, and confine the flower-border into limits which justify its freedom of composition. if one wishes to mount a favourite motto or quotation on the walls, where it may give constant suggestion or pleasure--or even be a help to thoughtful and conscientious living--there can be no better fashion than the style of the old illuminated missals. dining-rooms and chimney-pieces are often very appropriately decorated in this way; the words running on scrolls which are half unrolled and half hidden, and showing a conventionalised background of fruit and flowers. in all these things the _knowingness_, which is the result of study, tells very strongly--and it is quite worth while to give a good deal of study to the subject of this kind of decoration before expending the requisite amount of work upon a painted frieze. canvas friezes have the excellent merit of being not only durable and cleanable, but they belong to the category of pictures; to what ruskin calls "portable art," and one need not grudge the devotion of considerable time, study, and effort to their doing, since they are really detachable property, and can be removed from one house or room and carried to another at the owner's or artist's will. there is room for the exercise of much artistic ability in this direction, as the fact of being able to paint the decoration in parts and afterward place it, makes it possible for an amateur to do much for the enhancement of her own house. more than any other room in the house, the bedroom will show personal character. even when it is not planned for particular occupation, the characteristics of the inmate will write themselves unmistakably in the room. if the college boy is put in the white and gold bedroom for even a vacation period, there will shortly come into its atmosphere an element of sporting and out-of-door life. banners and balls and bats, and emblems of the "wild thyme" order will colour its whiteness; and life of the growing kind make itself felt in the midst of sanctity. in the same way, girls would change the bare asceticism of a monk's cell into a bower of lilies and roses; a fit place for youth and unpraying innocence. the bedrooms of a house are a pretty sure test of the liberality of mind and understanding of character of the mother or house-ruler. as each room is in a certain sense the home of the individual occupant, almost the shell of his or her mind, there will be something narrow and despotic in the house-rules if this is not allowed. yet, even individuality of taste and expression must scrupulously follow sanitary laws in the furnishing of the bedroom. "stuffy things" of any sort should be avoided. the study should be to make it beautiful without such things, and a liberal use of washable textiles in curtains, portières, bed and table covers, will give quite as much sense of luxury as heavily papered walls and costly upholstery. in fact, one may run through all the variations from the daintiest and most befrilled and elegant of guests' bedrooms, to the "boys' room," which includes all or any of the various implements of sport or the hobbies of the boy collector, and yet keep inviolate the principles of harmony, colour, and appropriateness to use, and so accomplish beauty. the absolute ruling of light, air, and cleanliness are quite compatible with individual expression. it is this characteristic aspect of the different rooms which makes up the beauty of the house as a whole. if the purpose of each is left to develop itself through good conditions, the whole will make that most delightful of earthly things, a beautiful home. chapter vi kitchens the kitchen is an important part of the perfect house and should be a recognised sharer in its quality of beauty; not alone the beauty which consists of a successful adaptation of means to ends, but the kind which is independently and positively attractive to the eye. in costly houses it is not hard to attain this quality or the rarer one of a union of beauty, with perfect adaptation to use; but where it must be reached by comparatively inexpensive methods, the difficulty is greater. tiled walls, impervious to moisture, and repellent of fumes, are ideal boundaries of a kitchen, and may be beautiful in colour, as well as virtuous in conduct. they may even be laid with gradations of alluring mineral tints, but, of course, this is out of the question in cheap buildings; and in demonstrating the possibility of beauty and intrinsic merit in small and comparatively inexpensive houses, tiles and marbles must be ruled out of the scheme of kitchen perfection. plaster, painted in agreeable tints of oil colour is commendable, but one can do better by covering the walls with the highly enamelled oil-cloth commonly used for kitchen tables and shelves. this material is quite marvellous in its combination of use and effect. its possibilities were discovered by a young housewife whose small kitchen formed part of a city apartment, and whose practical sense was joined to a discursive imagination. after this achievement--which she herself did not recognise as a stroke of genius--she added a narrow shelf running entirely around the room, which carried a decorative row of blue willow-pattern plates. a dresser, hung with a graduated assortment of blue enamelled sauce-pans, and other kitchen implements of the same enticing ware, a floor covered with the heaviest of oil-cloth, laid in small diamond-shapes of blue, between blocks of white, like a mosaic pavement, were the features of a kitchen which was, and is, after several years of strenuous wear, a joy to behold. it was from the first, not only a delight to the clever young housewife and her friends, but it performed the miracle of changing the average servant into a careful and excellent one, zealous for the cleanliness and perfection of her small domain, and performing her kitchen functions with unexampled neatness. the mistress--who had standards of perfection in all things, whether great or small, and was moreover of southern blood--confessed that her ideal of service in her glittering kitchen was not a clever red-haired hibernian, but a slim mulatto, wearing a snow-white turban; and this longing seemed so reasonable, and so impressed my fancy, that whenever i think of the shining blue-and-silver kitchen, i seem to see within it the graceful sway of figure and coffee-coloured face which belongs to the half-breed african race, certain rare specimens of which are the most beautiful of domestic adjuncts. i have used this expedient of oil-cloth-covered walls--for which i am anxious to give the inventor due credit--in many kitchens, and certain bathrooms, and always with success. it must be applied as if it were wall-paper, except that, as it is a heavy material, the paste must be thicker. it is also well to have in it a small proportion of carbolic acid, both as a disinfectant and a deterrent to paste-loving mice, or any other household pest. the cloth must be carefully fitted into corners, and whatever shelving or wood fittings are used in the room, must be placed against it, after it is applied, instead of having the cloth cut and fitted around them. when well mounted, it makes a solid, porcelain-like wall, to which dust and dirt will not easily adhere, and which can be as easily and effectually cleaned as if it were really porcelain or marble. such wall treatment will go far toward making a beautiful kitchen. add to this a well-arranged dresser for blue or white kitchen china, with a closed cabinet for the heavy iron utensils which can hardly be included in any scheme of kitchen beauty; curtained cupboards and short window-hangings of blue, or "turkey red"--which are invaluable for colour, and always washable; a painted floor--which is far better than oil-cloth, and one has the elements of a satisfactory scheme of beauty. a french kitchen, with its white-washed walls, its shining range and rows upon rows of gleaming copper-ware, is an attractive subject for a painter; and there is no reason why an american kitchen, in a house distinguished for beauty in all its family and semi-public rooms, should not also be beautiful in the rooms devoted to service. we can if we will make much even in a decorative way of our enamelled and aluminum kitchen-ware; we may hang it in graduated rows over the chimney-space--as the french cook parades her coppers--and arrange these necessary things with an eye to effect, while we secure perfect convenience of use. they are all pleasant of aspect if care and thought are devoted to their arrangement, and it is really of quite as much value to the family to have a charming and perfectly appointed kitchen, as to possess a beautiful and comfortable parlour or sitting-room. every detail should be considered from the double point of view of use and effect. if the curtains answer the two purposes of shading sunlight, or securing privacy at night, and of giving pleasing colour and contrast to the general tone of the interior, they perform a double function, each of of which is valuable. if the chairs are chosen for strength and use, and are painted or stained to match the colour of the floor, they add to the satisfaction of the eye, as well as minister to the house service. a pursuance of this thought adds to the harmony of the house both in aspect and actual beauty of living. of course in selecting such furnishings of the kitchen as chairs, one must bear in mind that even their legitimate use may include standing, as well as sitting upon them; that they may be made temporary resting-places for scrubbing pails, brushes, and other cleaning necessities, and therefore they must be made of painted wood; but this should not discourage the provision of a cane-seated rocking-chair for each servant, as a comfort for weary bones when the day's work is over. in establishments which include a servants' dining-or sitting-room, these moderate luxuries are a thing of course, but in houses where at most but two maids are employed they are not always considered, although they certainly should be. if a corner can be appropriated to evening leisure--where there is room for a small, brightly covered table, a lamp, a couple of rocking-chairs, work-baskets and a book or magazine, it answers in a small way to the family evening-room, where all gather for rest and comfort. there is no reason why the wall space above it should not have its cabinet for photographs and the usually cherished prayer-book which maids love both to possess and display. such possessions answer exactly to the _bric-a-brac_ of the drawing-room; ministering to the same human instinct in its primitive form, and to the inherent enjoyment of the beautiful which is the line of demarcation between the tribes of animals and those of men. if one can use this distinctly human trait as a lever to raise crude humanity into the higher region of the virtues, it is certainly worth while to consider pots and pans from the point of view of their decorative ability. chapter vii colour with reference to light in choosing colour for walls and ceilings, it is most necessary to consider the special laws which govern its application to house interiors. the tint of any particular room should be chosen not only with reference to personal liking, but first of all, to the quantity and quality of light which pervades it. a north room will require warm and bright treatment, warm reds and golden browns, or pure gold colours. gold-colour used in sash curtains will give an effect of perfect sunshine in a dark and shadowy room, but the same treatment in a room fronting the south would produce an almost insupportable brightness. i will illustrate the modifications made necessary in tint by different exposure to light, by supposing that some one member of the family prefers yellow to all other colours, one who has enough of the chameleon in her nature to feel an instinct to bask in sunshine. i will also suppose that the room most conveniently devoted to the occupation of this member has a southern exposure. if yellow must be used in her room, the quality of it should be very different from that which could be properly and profitably used in a room with a northern exposure, and it should differ not only in intensity, but actually in tint. if it is necessary, on account of personal preference, to use yellow in a sunny room, it should be lemon, instead of ochre or gold-coloured yellow, because the latter would repeat sunlight. there are certain shades of yellow, where white has been largely used in the mixture, which are capable of greenish reflections. this is where the white is of so pure a quality as to suggest blue, and consequently under the influence of yellow to suggest green. we often find yellow dyes in silks the shadows of which are positive fawn colour or even green, instead of orange as we might expect; still, even with modifications, yellow should properly be reserved for sunless rooms, where it acts the part almost of the blessed sun itself in giving cheerfulness and light. going from a sun-lighted atmosphere, or out of actual sunlight into a yellow room, one would miss the sense of shelter which is so grateful to eyes and senses a little dazzled by the brilliance of out-of-door lights; whereas a room darkened or shaded by a piazza, or somewhat chilled by a northern exposure and want of sun, would be warmed and comforted by tints of gold-coloured yellow. interiors with a southern exposure should be treated with cool, light colours, blues in various shades, water-greens, and silvery tones which will contrast with the positive yellow of sunlight. it is by no means a merely arbitrary rule. colours are actually warm or cold in temperature, as well as in effect upon the eye or the imagination, in fact the words cover a long-tested fact. i remember being told by a painter of his placing a red sunset landscape upon the flat roof of a studio building to dry, and on going to it a few hours afterward he found the surface of it so warm to the touch--so sensibly warmer than the gray and blue and green pictures around it--that he brought a thermometer to test it, and found it had acquired and retained heat. it was actually warmer by degrees than the gray and blue pictures in the same sun exposure. we instinctively wear warm colours in winter and dispense with them in summer, and this simple fact may explain the art which allots what we call warm colour to rooms without sun. when we say warm colours, we mean yellows, reds with all their gradations, gold or sun browns, and dark browns and black. when we say cool colours--whites, blues, grays, and cold greens--for greens may be warm or cold, according to their composition or intensity. a water-green is a cold colour, so is a pure emerald green, so also a blue-green; while an olive, or a gold-green comes into the category of warm colours. this is because it is a composite colour made of a union of warm and cold colours; the brown and yellow in its composition being in excess of the blue; as pink also, which is a mixture of red and white; and lavender, which is a mixture of red, white, and blue, stand as intermediate between two extremes. having duly considered the effect of light upon colour, we may fearlessly choose tints for every room according to personal preferences or tastes. if we like one warm colour better than another, there is no reason why that one should not predominate in every room in the house which has a shadow exposure. if we like a cold colour it should be used in many of the sunny rooms. i believe we do not give enough importance to this matter of personal liking in tints. we select our friends from sympathy. as a rule, we do not philosophise much about it, although we may recognise certain principles in our liking; it is those to whom our hearts naturally open that we invite in and have joy in their companionship, and we might surely follow our likings in the matter of colour, as well as in friendship, and thereby add much to our happiness. curiously enough we often speak of the colour of a mind--and i once knew a child who persisted in calling people by the names of colours; not the colour of their clothes, but some mind-tint which he felt. "the blue lady" was his especial favourite, and i have no doubt the presence or absence of that particular colour made a difference in his content all the days of his life. the colour one likes is better for tranquillity and enjoyment--more conducive to health; and exercises an actual living influence upon moods. for this reason, if no other, the colour of a room should never be arbitrarily prescribed or settled for the one who is to be its occupant. it should be as much a matter of _nature_ as the lining of a shell is to the mussel, or as the colour of the wings of a butterfly. in fact the mind which we cannot see may have a colour of its own, and it is natural that it should choose to dwell within its own influence. we do not know _why_ we like certain colours, but we do, and let that suffice, and let us live with them, as gratefully as we should for more explainable ministry. if colours which we like have a soothing effect upon us, those which we do not like are, on the other hand, an unwelcome influence. if a woman says in her heart, i hate green, or red, or i dislike any one colour, and then is obliged to live in its neighbourhood, she will find herself dwelling with an enemy. we all know that there are colours of which a little is enjoyable when a mass would be unendurable. predominant scarlet would be like close companionship with a brass band, but a note of scarlet is one of the most valuable of sensations. the gray compounded of black and white would be a wet blanket to all bubble of wit or spring of fancy, but the shadows of rose colour are gray, pink-tinted it is true; indeed the shadow of pink used to be known by the name of _ashes of roses_. i remember seeing once in paris--that home of bad general decoration--a room in royal purples; purple velvet on walls, furniture, and hangings. one golden rembrandt in the middle of a long wall, and a great expanse of ochre-coloured parquetted floor were all that saved it from the suggestion of a royal tomb. as it was, i left the apartment with a feeling of treading softly as when we pass through a door hung with crape. vagaries of this kind are remediable when they occur in cravats, or bonnets, or gloves--but a room in the wrong colour! saints and the angels preserve us! [illustration: sitting-room in "wild wood." onteora (belonging to miss luisita leland)] the number, size, and placing of the windows will greatly affect the intensity of colour to be used. it must always be remembered that any interior is dark as compared with out-of-doors, and that in the lightest room there will be dark corners or spaces where the colour chosen as chief tint will seem much darker than it really is. a paper or textile chosen in a good light will look several shades darker when placed in large unbroken masses or spaces upon the wall, and a fully furnished room will generally be much darker when completed than might be expected in planning it. for this reason, in choosing a favourite tint, it is better on many accounts to choose it in as light a shade as one finds agreeable. it can be repeated in stronger tones in furniture or in small and unimportant furnishings of the room, but the wall tone should never be deeper than medium in strength, at the risk of having all the light absorbed by the colour, and of losing a sense of atmosphere in the room. there is another reason for this, which is that many colours are agreeable, even to their lovers, only in light tones. the moment they get below medium they become insistent, and make themselves of too much importance. in truth colour has qualities which are almost personal, and is well worth studying in all its peculiarities, because of its power to affect our happiness. the principles of proper use of colour in house interiors are not difficult to master. it is unthinking, unreflective action which makes so many unrestful interiors of homes. the creator of a home should consider, in the first place, that it is a matter as important as climate, and as difficult to get away from, and that the first shades of colour used in a room upon walls or ceiling, must govern everything else that enters in the way of furnishing; that the colour of walls prescribes that which must be used in floors, curtains, and furniture. not that these must necessarily be of the same tint as walls, but that wall-tints must govern the choice. all this makes it necessary to take first steps carefully, to select for each room the colour which will best suit the taste, feeling, or bias of the occupant, always considering the exposure of the room and the use of it. after the relation of colour to light is established--with personal preferences duly taken into account--the next law is that of gradation. the strongest, and generally the purest, tones of colour belong naturally at the base, and the floor of a room means the base upon which the scheme of decoration is to be built. the carpet, or floor covering, should carry the strongest tones. if a single tint is to be used, the walls must take the next gradation, and the ceiling the last. these gradations must be far enough removed from each other in depth of tone to be quite apparent, but not to lose their relation. the connecting grades may appear in furniture covering and draperies, thus giving different values in the same tone, the relation between them being perfectly apparent. these three masses of related colour are the groundwork upon which one can play infinite variations, and is really the same law upon which a picture is composed. there are foreground, middle-distance, and sky--and in a properly coloured room, the floors, walls, and ceiling bear the same relation to each other as the grades of colour in a picture, or in a landscape. fortunately we keep to this law almost by instinct, and yet i have seen a white-carpeted floor in a room with a painted ceiling of considerable depth of colour. imagine the effect where this rule of gradation or ascending scale is reversed. a tinted floor of cream colour, or even white, and a ceiling as deep in colour as a landscape. one feels as if they themselves were reversed, and standing upon their heads. certainly if we ignore this law we lose our sense of base or foundation, and although we may not know exactly why, we shall miss the restfulness of a properly constructed scheme of decoration. the rule of gradation includes also that of massing of colour. in all simple treatment of interiors, whatever colour is chosen should be allowed space enough to establish its influence, broadly and freely, and here again we get a lesson from nature in the massing of colour. it should not be broken into patches and neutralised by divisions, but used in large enough spaces to dominate, or bring into itself or its own influence all that is placed in the room. if this rule is disregarded every piece of furniture unrelated to the whole becomes a spot, it has no real connection with the room, and the room itself, instead of a harmonious and delightful influence, akin to that of a sun-flushed dawn or a sunset sky, is like a picture where there is no composition, or a book where incident is jumbled together without relation to the story. in short, placing of colour in large uniform masses used in gradation is the groundwork of all artistic effect in interiors. as i have said, it is the same rule that governs pictures, the general tone may be green or blue, or a division of each, but to be a perfect and harmonious view, every detail must relate to one or both of these tints. in formulating thus far the rules for use of colour in rooms, we have touched upon three principles which are equally binding in interiors, whether of a cottage or a palace; the first is that of colour in relation to light, the second of colour in gradation, and the third of colour in masses. a house in which walls and ceilings are simply well coloured or covered, has advanced very far toward the home which is the rightful endowment of every human being. the variations of treatment, which pertain to more costly houses, the application of design in borders and frieze spaces, walls, wainscots, and ceilings, are details which will probably call for artistic advice and professional knowledge, since in these things it is easy to err in misapplied decoration. the advance from perfect simplicity to selected and beautiful ornament marks not only the degree of cost but of knowledge which it is in the power of the house-owner to command. the elaboration which is the privilege of more liberal means and the use of artistic experience in decoration on a larger scale. the smaller house shares in the advantage of beautiful colour, correct principles, and appropriate treatment equally with the more costly. the variations do not falsify principles. chapter viii walls, ceilings, and floors the true principle of wall treatment is to make the boundary stand for colour and beauty, and not alone for division of space. as a rule, the colour treatment of a house interior must begin with the walls, and it is fortunate if these are blank and plain as in most new houses with uncoloured ceilings, flat or broken with mouldings to suit the style of the house. the range of possible treatment is very wide, from simple tones of wall colour against which quiet cottage or domestic city life goes on, to the elaboration of walls of houses of a different grade, where stately pageants are a part of the drama of daily life. but having shown that certain rules are applicable to both, and indeed necessary to success in both, we may choose within these rules any tint or colour which is personally pleasing. rooms with an east or west light may carry successfully tones of any shade, without violating fundamental laws. the first impression of a room depends upon the walls. in fact, rooms are good or bad, agreeable or ugly in exact accordance with the wall-quality and treatment. no richness of floor-covering, draperies, or furniture can minimise their influence. perhaps it is for this reason that the world is full of papers and other devices for making walls agreeable; and we cannot wonder at this, when we reflect that something of the kind is necessary to the aspect of the room, and that each room effects for the individual exactly what the outer walls of the house effect for the family, they give space for personal privacy and for that reserve of the individual which is the earliest effect of luxury and comfort. it is certain that if walls are not made agreeable there is in them something of restraint to the eye and the sense which is altogether disagreeable. apparent confinement within given limits, is, on the whole, repugnant to either the natural or civilised man, and for this reason we are constantly tempted to disguise the limit and to cover the wall in such a way as shall interest and make us forget our bounds. in this case, the idea of decoration is, to make the walls a barrier of colour only, instead of hard, unyielding masonry; to take away the sense of being shut in a box, and give instead freedom to thought and pleasure to the sense. it is the effect of shut-in-ness which the square and rigid walls of a room give that makes drapery so effective and welcome, and which also gives value to the practice of covering walls with silks or other textiles. the softened surface takes away the sense of restraint. we hang our walls with pictures, or cover them with textiles, or with paper which carries design, or even colour them with pigments--something--anything, which will disguise a restraining bound, or make it masquerade as a luxury. this effort or instinct has set in motion the machinery of the world. it has created tapestries and brocades for castle and palace, and invented cheap substitutes for these costly products, so that the smallest and poorest house as well as the richest can cover its walls with something pleasant to the eye and suggestive to the mind. [illustration: large sitting-room in "star rock" country house] it is one of the privileges and opportunities of art to invent these disguises; and to do it so thoroughly and successfully as to content us with facts which would otherwise be disagreeable. and we do, by these various devices, make our walls so hospitable to our thoughts that we take positive and continual pleasure in them. we do this chiefly, perhaps, by ministering to our instinctive love of colour; which to many temperaments is like food to the hungry, and satisfies as insistent a demand of the mind as food to the body. at this late period of the world we are the inheritors of many methods of wall disguise, from the primitive weavings or blanket coverings with which nomadic peoples lined the walls of their tents, or the arras which in later days covered the roughness and rudeness of the stone walls of kings and barons, to the pictured tapestries of later centuries. this latter achievement of art manufacture has outlived and far outweighed the others in value, because it more perfectly performs the object of its creation. tapestries, for the most part, offer us a semblance of nature, and cheat us with a sense of unlimited horizon. the older tapestries give us, with this, suggestions of human life and action in out-of-door scenes sufficiently unrealistic to offer a vague dream of existence in fields and forests. this effectually diverts our minds from the confinements of space, and allows us the freedom of nature. probably the true secret of the never-failing appreciation of tapestries--from the very beginning of their history until this day--is this fact of their suggestiveness; since we find that damasks of silk or velvet or other costly weavings, although far surpassing tapestries in texture and concentration of colour, yet lacking their suggestiveness to the mind, can never rival them in the estimation of the world. unhappily, we cannot count veritable tapestries as a modern recourse in wall-treatment, since we are precluded from the use of genuine ones by their scarcity and cost. there is undoubtedly a peculiar richness and charm in a tapestry-hung wall which no other wall covering can give; yet they are not entirely appropriate to our time. they belong to the period of windy palaces and enormous enclosures, and are fitted for pageants and ceremonies, and not to our carefully plastered, wind-tight and narrow rooms. their mission to-day is to reproduce for us in museums and collections the life of yesterday, so full of pomp and almost barbaric lack of domestic comfort. in studios they are certainly appropriate and suggestive, but in private houses except of the princely sort, it is far better to make harmonies with the things of to-day. nevertheless if the soul craves tapestries let them be chosen for intrinsic beauty and perfect preservation, instead of accepting the rags of the past and trying to create with them a magnificence which must be incomplete and shabby. considering, as i do, that tapestries belong to the life and conditions of the past, where the homeless many toiled for the pampered few, and not to the homes of to-day where the man of moderate means expects beauty in his home as confidently as if he were a world ruler, i find it hardly necessary to include them in the list of means of modern decoration, and indeed it is not necessary, since a well-preserved tapestry of a good period, and of a famous manufacturer or origin, is so costly a purchase that only our bounteous and self-indulgent millionaires would venture to acquire one solely for purposes of wall decoration. it would be purchased as a specimen of art and not as furnishing. yet i know one instance of a library where a genuine old foliage tapestry has been cut and fitted to the walls and between bookcases and doors, where the wood of the room is in mahogany, and a great chimney-piece of caen stone of richardson's designing fills nearly one side of the room. of course the tapestry is unapproachable in effect in this particular place and with its surroundings. it has the richness and softness of velvet, and the red of the mahogany doors and furniture finds exactly its foil in the blue greens and soft browns of the web, while the polished floor and velvety antique rugs bring all the richness of the walls down to one's feet and to the hearth with its glow of fire. but this particular room hardly makes an example for general following. it is really a house of state, a house without children, one in which public life predominates. there is a very flagrant far-away imitation of tapestry which is so far from being good that it is a wonder it has had even a moderate success, imitation which does not even attempt the decorative effect of the genuine, but substitutes upon an admirably woven cotton or woollen canvas, figure panels, copied from modern french masters, and suggestive of nothing but bad art. yet these panels are sometimes used (and in fact are produced for the purpose of being used) precisely as a genuine tapestry would be, although the very fact of pretence in them, brings a feeling of untruth, quite at variance with the principles of all good art. the objection to pictures transferred to tapestries holds good, even when the tapestries are genuine. the great cartoons of raphael, still to be seen in the kensington museum, which were drawn and coloured for flemish weavers to copy, show a perfect adaptation to the medium of weaving, while the paintings in the vatican by the same great master are entirely inappropriate to textile reproduction. a picture cannot be transposed to different substance and purpose without losing the qualities which make it valuable. the double effort to be both a tapestry and a picture is futile, and brings into disrepute a simple art of imitation which might become respectable if its capabilities were rightly used. no one familiar with collections of tapestries can fail to recognise the largeness and simplicity of treatment peculiar to tapestry subjects as contrasted with the elaboration of pictures. if we grant that in this modern world of hurry, imitation of tapestries is legitimate, the important question is, what are the best subjects, and what is the best use for such imitations? the best use is undoubtedly that of wall-covering; and that was, indeed, the earliest object for which they were created. they were woven to cover great empty spaces of unsightly masonry; and they are still infinitely useful and beautiful in grand apartments whose barren spaces are too large for modern pictures, and which need the disguise of a suggestion of scenery or pictorial subject. if tapestries must be painted, let them by all means follow the style of the ancient verdure or foliage tapestries, and be used for the same purpose--to cover an otherwise blank wall. this is legitimate, and even beautiful, but it is painting, and should be frankly acknowledged to be such, and no attempt made to have them masquerade as genuine and costly weavings. it is simply and always painting, although in the style and spirit of early tapestries. productions of this sort, where real skill in textile painting is used, are quite worthy of admiration and respect. i remember seeing, in the swedish exhibit of women's work in the woman's building at the columbian exposition, a screen which had evidently been copied from an old bit of verdure tapestry. at the base were broad-leaved water-plants, each leaf carefully copied in blocks and patches of colour, with even the effect of the little empty space--where one thread passes to the back in weaving, to make room for one of another colour brought forward--imitated by a dot of black to simulate the tiny shadow-filled pen-point of a hole. now whether this was art or not i leave to french critics to decide, but it was at least admirable imitation; and any one able to cover the wall spaces between bookcases in a library with such imitation would find them as richly set as if it were veritable tapestry. this is a very different thing from a painted tapestry, perhaps enlarged from a photograph or engraving of a painting the original of which the tapestry-painter had never even seen--the destiny of which unfortunate copy, changed in size, colour, and all the qualities which gave value to the original, is probably to be hung as a picture in the centre of a space of wall-paper totally antagonistic in colour. when i see these things i long to curb the ambition of the unfortunate tapestry-painter until a course of study has taught him or her the proper use of a really useful process; for whether the object is to produce a decoration or a simulated tapestry, it is not attained by these methods. the ordinary process of painting in dyes upon a wool or linen fabric woven in tapestry method, and fixing the colour with heat, enables the painter--if a true tapestry subject is chosen and tapestry effects carefully studied--to produce really effective and good things, and this opens a much larger field to the woman decorator than the ordinary unstudied shams which have thrown what might become in time a large and useful art-industry into neglect and disrepute. i have seen the walls of a library hung with siberian linen, stained in landscape design in the old blues and greens which give tapestry its decorative value, and found it a delightful wall-covering. indeed we may lay it down as a principle in decoration that while we may use and adapt any decorative _effect_ we must not attempt to make it pass for the thing which suggested the effect. coarse and carefully woven linens, used as i have indicated, are really far better than old tapestries for modern houses, because the design can be adapted to the specific purpose and the texture itself can be easily cleaned and is more appropriate to the close walls and less airy rooms of this century. for costly wall-decoration, leather is another of the substances which have had a past of pomp and magnificence, and carries with it, in addition to beauty, a suggestion of the art of a race. spanish leather, with its stamping and gilding, is quite as costly a wall covering as antique or modern tapestry, and far more indestructible. perhaps it is needlessly durable as a mere vehicle for decoration. at all events japanese artists and artisans seem to be of this opinion, and have transferred the same kind of decoration to heavy paper, where for some occult reason--although strongly simulating leather--it seems not only not objectionable, but even meritorious. this is because it simply transfers an artistic method from a costly substance, to another which is less so, and the fact may even have some weight that paper is a product of human manufacture, instead of human appropriation of animal life, for surely sentiment has its influence in decoration as in other arts. wood panelling is also a form of interior treatment which has come to us by inheritance from the past as well as by right of natural possession. it has a richness and sober dignity of effect which commends it in large or small interiors, in halls, libraries, and dining-rooms, whether they are public or private; devoted to grand functions, or to the constantly recurring uses of domesticity. wood is so beautiful a substance in itself, and lends itself to so many processes of ornamentation, that hardly too much can be said of its appropriateness for interior decoration. from the two extremes of plain pine panellings cut into squares or parallelograms by machinery, and covered with paint in tints to match door and window casings, to the most elaborate carvings which back the cathedral stalls or seats of ecclesiastical dignity, it is always beautiful and generally appropriate in use and effect, and that can hardly be said of any other substance. there are wainscotted rooms in old houses in newport, where, under the accumulated paint of one or two centuries, great panels of old spanish mahogany can still be found, not much the worse for their long eclipse. such rooms, in the original brilliancy of colour and polish, with their parallel shadings of mahogany-red reflecting back the firelight from tiled chimney-places and scattering the play of dancing flame, must have had a beauty of colour hard to match in this day of sober oak and painted wainscottings. [illustration: painted canvas frieze] [illustration: buckram frieze for dining-room] one of the lessons gained by experience in treatment of house interiors, is that plain, flat tints give apparent size to small rooms, and that a satisfying effect in large ones can be gained by variation of tint or surface; also, that in a bedroom or other small room apparent size will be gained by using a wall covering which is light rather than dark. some difference of tone there must be in large plain surfaces which lie within the level of the eye; or the monotony of a room becomes fatiguing. a plain, painted wall may, it is true, be broken by pictures, or cabinets, or bits of china; anything in short which will throw parts of it into shadow, and illumine other parts with gilded reflections; but even then there will be long, plain spaces above the picture or cabinet line, where blank monotony of tone will be fatal to the general effect of the room. it is in this upper space, upon a plain painted wall, that a broad line of flat decoration should occur, but on a wall hung with paper or cloth, it is by no means necessary. damasked cloths, where the design is shown by the direction of woven threads, are particularly effective and satisfactory as wall-coverings. the soft surface is luxurious to the imagination, and the play of light and shadow upon the warp and woof interests the eye, although there is no actual change of colour. too much stress can hardly be laid upon the variation of tone in wall-surfaces, since the four walls stand for the atmosphere of a room. tone means quality of colour. it may be light or dark, or of any tint, or variations of tint, but the quality of it must be soft and charitable, instead of harsh and uncompromising. almost the best of modern inventions for inexpensive wall-coverings are found in what are called the ingrain papers. these have a variable surface, without reflections, and make not only a soft and impalpable colour effect, but, on account of their want of reflection, are good backgrounds for pictures. in these papers the colour is produced by a mixture in the mass of paper pulp of atoms of varying tint, which are combined in the substance and make one general tint resulting from the mixture of several. in canvases and textiles, which are a more expensive method of producing almost the same mixed effect, the minute points of brilliance of threads in light and darkness of threads in shadow, combine to produce softness of tone, impossible to pigment because it has but one plain surface, unrelieved by breaking up into light and shadow. variation, produced by minute differences, which affect each other and which the eye blends into a general tone, produce quality. it is at the same time soft and brilliant, and is really a popular adaptation of the philosophy of impressionist painters, whose small dabs of pure colour placed in close juxtaposition and fused into one tone by the eye, give the purity and vibration of colour which distinguishes work of that school. some skilful painters can stipple one tone upon another so as to produce the same brilliant softness of effect, and when this can be done, oil-colour upon plaster is the best of all treatment for bedrooms since it fulfils all the sanitary and other conditions so necessary in sleeping-rooms. the same effect may be produced if the walls are of rough instead of smooth plaster, so that the small inequalities of surface give light and shadow as in textiles; upon such surfaces a pleasant tint in flat colour is always good. painted burlaps and certain japanese papers prepared with what may be called a textile or canvas surface give the same effect, and indeed quality of tint and tone is far more easily obtained in wall-coverings or applied materials than in paint, because in most wall-coverings there are variations of tint produced in the very substance of the material. this matter of variation without contrast in wall-surface, is one of the most important in house decoration, and has led to the increased use of textiles in houses where artistic effects have been carefully studied and are considered of importance. of course wall-paper must continue to be the chief means of wall-covering, on account of its cheapness, and because it is the readiest means of sheathing a plaster surface; and a continuous demand for papers of good and nearly uniform colour, and the sort of inconspicuous design which fits them for modest interiors will have the effect of increasing the manufacture of desirable and artistic things. in the meantime one should carefully avoid the violently coloured papers which are made only to sell; materials which catch the eye of the inexperienced and tempt them into the buying of things which are productive of lasting unrest. it is in the nature of positive masses and strongly contrasting colours to produce this effect. if one is unfortunate enough to occupy a room of which the walls are covered with one of these glaring designs, and circumstances prevent a radical change, the simplest expedient is to cover the whole surface with a kalsomine or chalk-wash, of some agreeable tint. this will dry in an hour or two and present a nearly uniform surface, in which the printed design of the paper, if it appears at all, will be a mere suggestion. papers where the design is carried in colour only a few shades darker than the background, are also safe, and--if the design is a good one--often very desirable for halls and dining-rooms. in skilfully printed papers of the sort the design often has the effect of a mere shadow-play of form. of course in the infinite varieties of use and the numberless variations of personal taste, there are, and should be, innumerable differences in application of both colour and materials to interiors. there are differences in the use of rooms which may make a sense of perfect seclusion desirable, as, for instance, in libraries, or rooms used exclusively for evening gatherings of the family. in such semi-private rooms the treatment should give a sense of close family life rather than space, while in drawing-rooms it should be exactly the reverse, and this effect is easily secured by competent use of colour. chapter ix location of the house besides the difference in treatment demanded by different use of rooms--the character of the decoration of the whole house will be influenced by its situation. a house in the country or a house in town; a house by the sea-shore or a house situated in woods and fields require stronger or less strong colour, and even different tints, according to situation. the decoration itself may be much less conventional in one place than in another, and in country houses much and lasting charm is derived from design and colour in perfect harmony with nature's surroundings. whatever decorative design is used in wall-coverings or in curtains or hangings will be far more effective if it bears some relation to the surroundings and position of the house. if the house is by the sea the walls should repeat with many variations the tones of sea and sand and sky; the gray-greens of sand-grasses; the blues which change from blue to green with every cloud-shadow; the pearl tints which become rose in the morning or evening light, and the browns and olives of sea mosses and lichens. this treatment of colour will make the interior of the house a part of the great out-of-doors and create a harmony between the artificial shelter and nature. there is philosophy in following, as far as the limitations of simple colour will allow, the changeableness and fluidity of natural effects along the shore, and allowing the mood of the brief summer life to fall into entire harmony with the dominant expression of the sea. blues and greens and pinks and browns should all be kept on a level with out-of-door colour, that is, they should not be too deep and strong for harmony with the sea and sky, and if, when harmonious colour is once secured, most of the materials used in the furnishing of the house are chosen because their design is based upon, or suggested by, sea-forms, an impression is produced of having entered into complete and perfect harmony with the elements and aspects of nature. the artificialities of life fall more and more into the background, and one is refreshed with a sense of having established entirely harmonious and satisfactory relations with the surroundings of nature. i remember a doorway of a cottage by the sea, where the moulding which made a part of the frame was an orderly line of carved cockle-shells, used as a border, and this little touch of recognition of its sea-neighbours was not only decorative in itself, but gave even the chance visitor a sort of interpretation of the spirit of the interior life. suppose, on the other hand, that the summer house is placed in the neighbourhood of fields and trees and mountains; it will be found that strong and positive treatment of the interior is more in harmony with the outside landscape. even heavier furniture looks fitting where the house is surrounded with massive tree-growths; and deeper and purer colours can be used in hangings and draperies. this is due to the more positive colouring of a landscape than of a sea-view. the masses of strong and slightly varying green in foliage, the red, brown, or vivid greens of fields and crops, the dark lines of tree-trunks and branches, as well as the unchanging forms of rock and hillside, call for a corresponding strength of interior effect. it is a curious fact, also, that where a house is surrounded by myriads of small natural forms of leaves and flowers and grasses, plain spaces of colour in interiors, or spaces where form is greatly subordinated to colour, are more grateful to the eye than prominently decorated surface. a repetition of small natural forms like the shells and sea-mosses, which are for the most part hidden under lengths of liquid blue, is pleasing and suggestive by the sea; but in the country, where form is prominent and positive and prints itself constantly upon both mental and bodily vision, unbroken colour surfaces are found to be far more agreeable. it will be seen that the principles of appropriate furnishing and adornment in house interiors depend upon circumstances and natural surroundings as well as upon the character and pursuits of the family who are to be lodged, and that the final charm of the home is attained by a perfect adaptation of principles to existing conditions both of nature and humanity. in cottages of the character we are considering, furniture should be simpler and lighter than in houses intended for constant family living. chairs and sofas should be without elaborate upholstery and hangings, and cushions can be appropriately made of some well-coloured cotton or linen material which wind, and sun, and dampness cannot spoil, and of which the freshness can always be restored by laundering. these are general rules, appropriate to all summer cottages, and to these it may be added, that a house which is to be closed for six or eight months in the year should really, to be consistent, be inexpensively furnished. these general rules are intended only to emphasise the fact that in houses which are to become in the truest sense homes--that is, places of habitation which represent the inhabitants, directions or rules for beautiful colour and arrangement of interiors, must always follow the guiding incidents of class and locality. chapter x ceilings as ceilings are in reality a part of the wall, they must always be considered in connection with room interiors, but their influence upon the beauty of the average house is so small, that their treatment is a comparatively easy problem. in simple houses with plaster ceilings the tints to be used are easily decided. the rule of gradation of colour from floor to ceiling prescribes for the latter the lightest tone of the gradation, and as the ceiling stands for light, and should actually reflect light into the room, the philosophy of this arrangement of colours is obvious. it is not, however, an invariable rule that the ceiling should carry the same tint as the wall, even in a much lighter tone, although greater harmony and restfulness of effect is produced in this way. a ceiling of cream white will harmonise well with almost any tint upon the walls, and at the same time give an effect of air and light in the room. it is also a good ground for ornament in elaborately decorated ones. if the walls are covered with a light wall-paper which carries a floral design, it is a safe rule to make the ceiling of the same colour but a lighter shade of the background of the paper, but it is not by any means good art to carry a flower design over the ceiling. one sometimes sees instances of this in the bedrooms of fairly good houses, and the effect is naturally that of bringing the ceiling apparently almost to one's head, or at all events, of producing a very unrestful effect. a wood ceiling in natural colour is always a good feature in a room of defined or serious purpose, like a hall, dining-room, or library, because in such rooms the colour of the side walls is apt to be strong enough to balance it. indeed a wooden ceiling has always the merit of being secure in its place, and even where the walls are light can be painted so as to be in harmony with them. plaster as a ceiling for bedrooms is open to the objection of a possibility of its detaching itself from the lath, especially in old houses, and in these it is well to have them strengthened with flat mouldings of wood put on in regular squares, or even in some geometrical design, and painted with the ceiling. this gives security as well as a certain elaborateness of effect not without its value. for the ordinary, or comparatively inexpensive home, we need not consider the ceiling an object for serious study, because it is so constantly out of the line of sight, and because its natural colourless condition is no bar to the general colour-effect. in large rooms this condition is changed, for in a long perspective the ceiling comes into sight and consciousness. there would be a sense of barrenness and poverty in a long stretch of plain surface or unbroken colour over a vista of decorated wall, and accordingly the ceilings of large and important rooms are generally broken by plaster mouldings or architectural ornament. in rooms of this kind, whether in public or private buildings, decorative painting has its proper and appropriate place. a painted ceiling, no matter how beautiful, is quite superfluous and indeed absolutely lost in a room where size prevents its being brought into the field of the eye by the lowering of long perspective lines, but when the size of the room gives unusual length of ceiling, no effect of decoration is so valuable and precious. colour and gilding upon a ceiling, when well sustained by fine composition or treatment, is undoubtedly the highest and best achievement of the decorative painter's art. such a ceiling in a large and stately drawing-room, where the walls are hung with silk which gives broken indications of graceful design in play of light upon the texture, is one of the most successful of both modern as well as antique methods of decoration. it has come down in direct succession of practice to the school of french decoration of to-day, and has been adopted into american fashion in its full and complete practice without sufficient adaptation to american circumstances. if it were modified by these, it is capable of absorbing other and better qualities than those of mere fashion and brilliance, as we see in occasional instances in some beautiful american houses, where the ceilings have been painted, and the textiles woven with an almost imaginative appropriateness of subject. such ceilings as this belong, of course, to the efforts of the mural or decorative painter, who, in conjunction with the decorator, or architect, has studied the subject as connected with its surroundings. chapter xi floors and floor-coverings although in ordinary sequence the colouring of floors comes after that of walls, the fact that--in important houses--costly and elaborate floors of mosaic or of inlaid wood form part of the architect's plan, makes it necessary to consider the effect of inherent or natural colours of such floors, in connection with applied colour-schemes in rooms. mosaic floors, being as a rule confined to halls in private houses, need hardly be considered in this relation, and costly wood floors are almost necessarily confined to the yellows of the natural woods. these yellows range from pale buff to olive, and are not as a rule inharmonious with any other tint, although they often lack sufficient strength or intensity to hold their own with stronger tints of walls and furniture. as it is one of the principles of colour in a house that the floor is the foundation of the room, this weakness of colour in hard-wood floors must be acknowledged as a disadvantage. the floors should certainly be able to support the room in colour as well as in construction. it must be the strongest tint in the room, and yet it must have the unobtrusiveness of strength. this makes floor treatment a more difficult problem, or one requiring more thought than is generally supposed, and explains why light rooms are more successful with hard-wood floors than medium or very dark ones. there are many reasons, sanitary as well as economic, why hard-wood floors should not be covered in ordinary dwelling-houses; and when the pores of the wood are properly filled, and the surface kept well polished, it is not only good as a fact, but as an effect, as it reflects surrounding tints, and does much to make up for lack of sympathetic or related colour. yet it will be found that in almost every case of successful colour-treatment in a room, something must be added in the way of floor-covering to give it the sense of completeness and satisfaction which is the result of a successful scheme of decoration. the simplest way of doing this is to cover enough of the space with rugs to attract the eye, and restore the balance lost by want of strength of colour in the wood. sometimes one or two small rugs will do this, and these may be of almost any tint which includes the general one of the room, even if the general tint is not prominent in the rug. if the use or luxury of the room requires more covered space, it is better to use one rug of a larger size than several small and perhaps conflicting ones. of course in this the general tone of the rug must be chosen for its affinity to the tone of the room, but that affinity secured, any variations of colour occurring in the design are apt to add to the general effect. [illustration: square hall in city house] a certain amount of contrast to prevailing colour is an advantage, and the general value of rugs in a scheme of decoration is that they furnish this contrast in small masses or divisions, so well worked in with other tints and tones that it makes its effect without opposition to the general plan. thus, in a room where the walls are of a pale shade of copper, the rugs should bring in a variety of reds which would be natural parts of the same scale, like lower notes in the octave; and yet should add patches of relative blues and harmonising greens; possibly also, deep gold, and black and white;--the latter in minute forms and lines which only accent or enrich the general effect. it is really an interesting problem, why the strong colours generally used in oriental rugs should harmonise so much better with weaker tints in walls and furniture than even the most judiciously selected carpets can possibly do. it is true there are bad oriental rugs, very bad ones, just as there may be a villain in any congregation of the righteous, but certainly the long centuries of eastern manufacture, reaching back to the infancy of the world, have given eastern nations secrets not to be easily mastered by the people of later days. but if we cannot tell with certainty why good rugs fit all places and circumstances, while any other thing of mortal manufacture must have its place carefully prepared for it, we may perhaps assume to know why the most beautiful of modern carpets are not as easily managed and as successful. in the first place having explained that some contrast, some fillip of opposing colour, something which the artist calls _snap_, is absolutely required in every successful colour scheme, we shall see that if we are to get this by simple means of a carpet, we must choose one which carries more than one colour in its composition, and colour introduced as design must come under the laws of mechanical manufacture; that is, it must come in as _repeating_ design, and here comes in the real difficulty. the same forms and the same colours must come in in the same way in every yard, or every half or three-quarter yard of the carpet. it follows, then, that it must be evenly sprinkled or it must regularly meander over every yard or half yard of the surface; and this regularity resolves itself into spots, and spots are unendurable in a scheme of colour. so broad a space as the floor of a room cannot be covered by sections of constantly repeated design without producing a spotty effect, although it can be somewhat modified by the efforts of the good designer. nevertheless, in spite of his best knowledge and intention, the difficulty remains. there is no one patch of colour larger than another, or more irregular in form. there is nothing which has not its exact counterpart at an exact distance--north, south, east and west, or northeast, southeast, northwest and southwest--and this is why a carpet with good design and excellent colour becomes unbearable in a room of large size. in a small room where there are not so many repeats, the effect is not as bad, but in a large room the monotonous repetition is almost without remedy. of course there are certain laws of optics and ingenuities of composition which may palliate this effect, but the fact remains that the floor should be covered in a way which will leave the mind tranquil and the eye satisfied, and this is hard to accomplish with what is commonly known as a figured carpet. if carpet is to be used, it seems, then, that the simplest way is to select a good monochrome in the prevailing tint of the room, but several shades darker. not an absolutely plain surface, but one broken with some unobtrusive design or pattern in still darker darks and lighter lights than the general tone. in this case we shall have the room harmonious, it is true, but lacking the element which provokes admiration--the enlivening effect of contrast. this may be secured by making the centre or main part of the carpet comparatively small, and using a very wide and important border of contrasting colour--a border so wide as to make itself an important part of the carpet. in large rooms this plan does not entirely obviate the difficulty, as it leaves the central space still too large and impressive to remain unbroken; but the remedy may be found in the use of hearth-rugs or skin-rugs, so placed as to seem necessities of use. as i have said before, contrast on a broad scale can be secured by choosing carpets of an entirely different tone from the wall, and this is sometimes expedient. for instance, as contrast to a copper-coloured wall, a softly toned green carpet is nearly always successful. this one colour, green, is always safe and satisfactory in a floor-covering, provided the walls are not too strong in tone, and provided that the green in the carpet is not too green. certain brownish greens possess the quality of being in harmony with every other colour. they are the most peaceable shades in the colour-world--the only ones without positive antipathies. green in all the paler tones can claim the title of peace-maker among colours, since all the other tints will fight with something else, but never with green of a corresponding or even of a much greater strength. of course this valuable quality, combined with a natural restfulness of effect, makes it the safest of ordinary floor-coverings. in bedrooms with polished floors and light walls good colour-effects can be secured without carpets, but if the floors are of pine and need covering, no better general effect can be secured than that of plain or mixed ingrain filling, using with it oriental hearth and bedside rugs. the entire second floor of a house can in that case be covered with carpet in the accommodating tint of green mentioned, leaving the various colour-connections to be made with differently tinted rugs. good pine floors well fitted and finished can be stained to harmonise with almost any tint used in furniture or upon the wall. i remember a sea-side chamber in a house where the mistress had great natural decorative ability, and so much cultivation as to prevent its running away with her, where the floor was stained a transparent olive, like depths of sea-water, and here and there a floating sea-weed, or a form of sea-life faintly outlined within the colour. in this room, which seemed wide open to the sea and air, even when the windows were closed, the walls were of a faint greenish blue, like what is called _dead_ turquoise, and the relation between floor and walls was so perfect that it remained with me to this day as a crowning instance of satisfaction in colour. it is perhaps more difficult to convey an idea of happy choice or selection of floor-colour than of walls, because it is relative to walls. it must relate to what has already been done. but in recapitulation it is safe to say, first, that in choosing colour for a room, soft and medium tints are better than positively dark or bright ones, and that walls should be unobtrusive in design as well as colour; secondly, that floors, if of the same tint as walls, should be much darker; and that they should be _made apparent_ by means of this strength of colour, or by the addition of rugs or borders, although the relation between walls and floor must be carefully preserved and perfectly unmistakable, for it is the perfection of this relation of one colour to another which makes home decoration an art. there is still a word to be said as to floor-coverings, which relates to healthful housekeeping instead of art, and that is, that in all cases where carpets or mattings are used, they should be in rug form, not fitted in to irregular floor-spaces; so as to be frequently and easily lifted and cleaned. the great, and indeed the only, objection to the use of mattings in country or summer houses, is the difficulty of frequent lifting, and removal of accumulated dust, which has sifted through to the floor--but if fine hemp-warp mattings are used, and sewn into squares which cover the floor sufficiently, it is an ideal summer floor-covering, as it can be rolled and removed even more easily than a carpet, and there is a dust-shedding quality in it which commends itself to the housekeeper. chapter xii draperies draperies are not always considered as a part of furnishings, yet in truth--as far as decorative necessities are concerned--they should come immediately after wall and floor coverings. the householder who is in haste to complete the arrangement of the home naturally thinks first of chairs, sofas, and tables, because they come into immediate personal use, but if draperies are recognised as a necessary part of the beauty of the house it is worth while to study their appropriate character from the first. they have in truth much more to do with the effect of the room than chairs or sofas, since these are speedily sat upon and pass out of notice, while draperies or portières are in the nature of pictures--hanging in everybody's sight. as far as the element of beauty is concerned, a room having good colour, attractive and interesting pictures, and beautiful draperies, is already furnished. whatever else goes to the making of it may be also beautiful, but it must be convenient and useful, while in the selection of draperies, beauty, both relative and positive, is quite untrammelled. as in all other furnishings, from the æsthetic point of view colour is the first thing to be considered. as a rule it should follow that of the walls, a continuous effect of colour with variation of form and surface being a valuable and beautiful thing to secure. to give the full value of variation--where the walls are plain one should choose a figured stuff for curtains; where the wall is papered, or covered with figures, a plain material should be used. there is one exception to this rule and this is in the case of walls hung with damask. here it is best to use the same material for curtains, as the effect is obtained by the difference between the damask hung in folds, with the design indistinguishable, or stretched flat upon a wall-surface, where it is plainly to be seen and felt. even where damask is used upon the walls, if exactly the same shade of colour can be found in satin or velvet, the plain material in drapery will enhance the value of design on the walls. this choice or selection of colour applies to curtains and portières as simple adjuncts of furnishing, and not to such pieces of drapery as are in themselves works of art. when a textile becomes a work of art it is in a measure a law unto itself, and has as much right to select its own colour as if it were a picture instead of a portière, in fact if it is sufficiently important, the room must follow instead of leading. this may happen in the case of some priceless old embroidery, some relic of that peaceful past, when hours and days flowed contentedly into a scheme of art and beauty, without a thought of competitive manufacture. it might be difficult to subdue the spirit of a modern drawing-room into harmony with such a work of art, but if it were done, it would be a very shrine of restfulness to the spirit. fortunately many ancient marvels of needlework were done upon white satin, and this makes them easily adaptable to any light scheme of colour, where they may appear indeed as guests of honour--invited from the past to be courted by the present. it is not often that such pieces are offered as parts of a scheme of modern decoration, and the fingers of to-day are too busy or too idle for their creation, yet it sometimes happens that a valuable piece of drapery of exceptional colour belongs by inheritance or purchase to the fortunate householder, and in this case it should be used as a picture would be, for an independent bit of decoration. to return to simple things, the rule of contrast as applied to papered walls, covered with design, ordains that the curtains should undoubtedly be plain and of the most pronounced tint used in the paper. if the walls of a room are simply tinted or painted, figured stuffs of the same general tone, or printed silks, velvets, or cottons in which the predominant tint corresponds with that of the wall should be used. these relieve the simplicity of the walls, and give the desirable variation. transparent silk curtains are of great value in colouring the light which enters the room, and these should be used in direct reference to the light. if the room is dark or cold in its exposure, to hang the windows with sun-coloured silk or muslin will cheat the eye and imagination into the idea that it is a sunny room. if, on the contrary, there is actual sunshine in the room, a pervading tint of rose-colour or delicate green may be given by inner curtains of either of those colours. these are effects, however, for which rules can hardly be given, since the possible variations must be carefully studied, unless, indeed, they are the colour-strokes of some one who has that genius for combination or contrast of tints which we call "colour sense." after colour in draperies come texture and quality, and these need hardly be discussed in the case of silken fabrics, because silk fibre has inherent qualities of tenacity of tint and flexibility of substance. pure silk, that is silk unstiffened with gums, no matter how thickly and heavily it is woven, is soft and yielding and will fall into folds without sharp angles. this quality of softness is in its very substance. even a single unwoven thread of silk will drop gracefully into loops, where a cotton or linen or even a woollen thread will show stiffness. woollen fibre seems to acquire softness as it is gathered into yarns and woven, and will hang in folds with almost the same grace as silk; but unfortunately they are favourite pasture grounds as well as burying-places for moths, and although these co-inhabitants of our houses come to a speedy resurrection, they devour their very graves, and leave our woollen draperies irremediably damaged. it is a pity that woollen fabrics should in this way be made undesirable for household use, for they possess in a great degree the two most valuable qualities of silk: colour-tenacity and flexibility. if one adopts woollen curtains and portières, constant "vigilance is the price of safety," and considering that vigilance is required everywhere and at all times in the household, it is best to reduce the quantity whenever it is possible. this throws us back upon cottons and linens for inexpensive hangings, and in all the thousand forms in which these two fibres are manufactured it would seem easy to choose those which are beautiful, durable, and appropriate. but here we are met at the very threshold of choice with the two undesirable qualities of fugitive colour, and stiffness of texture. something in the nature of cotton makes it inhospitable to dyes. if it receives them it is with a protest, and an evident intention of casting them out at the earliest opportunity--it makes, it is true, one or two exceptions. it welcomes indigo dye and will never quite relinquish its companionship; once received, it will carry its colours through all its serviceable life, and when it is finally ready to fall into dust, it is still loyally coloured by its influence. if it is cheated, as we ourselves are apt to be, into accepting spurious indigo, made up of chemical preparations, it speedily discovers the cheat and refuses its colouring. perhaps this sympathy is due to a vegetable kinship and likeness of experience, for where cotton will grow, indigo will also flourish. in printed cottons or chintzes, there is a reasonable amount of fidelity to colour, and if chintz curtains are well chosen, and lined to protect them from the sun, their attractiveness bears a fair proportion to their durability. an interlining of some strong and tried colour will give a very soft and subtle daylight effect in a room, but this is, of course, lost in the evening. the expedient of an under colour in curtain linings will sometimes give delightful results in plain or unprinted goods, and sometimes a lining with a strong and bold design will produce a charming shadow effect upon a tinted surface--of course each new experiment must be tried before one can be certain of its effect, and, in fact, there is rather an exciting uncertainty as to results. yet there are infinite possibilities to the householder who has what is called the artistic instinct and the leisure and willingness to experiment, and experiments need not be limited to prints or to cottons, for wonderful combinations of colour are possible in silks where light is called in as an influence in the composition. one must, however, expect to forego these effects except in daylight, but as artificial light has its own subtleties of effect, the one can be balanced against the other. in my own country-house i have used the two strongest colours--red and blue--in this doubled way, with delightful effect. the blue, which is the face colour, presenting long, pure folds of blue, with warmed reddish shadows between, while at sunset, when the rays of light are level, the variations are like a sunset sky. it will be seen by these suggestions that careful selection, and some knowledge of the qualities of different dyes, will go far toward modifying the want of permanence of colour and lack of reflection in cottons; the other quality of stiffness, or want of flexibility, is occasionally overcome by methods of weaving. indeed, if the manufacturer or weaver had a clear idea of excellence in this respect, undoubtedly the natural inflexibility of fibre could be greatly overcome. there is a place waiting in the world of art and decoration for what in my own mind i call "the missing textile." this is by no means a fabric of cost, for among its other virtues it must possess that of cheapness. to meet an almost universal want it should combine inexpensiveness, durability, softness, and absolute fidelity of colour, and these four qualities are not to be found in any existing textile. three of them--cheapness, strength, and colour--were possessed by the old-fashioned true indigo-blue denim--the delightful blue which faded into something as near the colour of the flower of grass, as dead vegetable material can approach that which is full of living juices--the possession of these three qualities doubled and trebled the amount of its manufacture until it lost one of them by masquerading in aniline indigo. many of our ordinary cotton manufactures are strong and inexpensive, and a few of them have the flexibility which denim lacks. it was possessed in an almost perfect degree by the canton, or fleeced, flannels, manufactured so largely a few years ago, and called art-drapery. it lacked colour, however, for the various dyes given to it during its brief period of favouritism were not colour; they were merely _tint_. that strong, good word, colour, could not be applied to the mixed and evanescent dyes with which this soft and estimable material clothed itself withal. it was, so to speak, invertebrate--it had no backbone. besides this lack of colour stanchness, it had another fault which helped to overbalance its many virtues. it was fatally attractive to fire. its soft, fluffy surface seemed to reach out toward flame, and the contact once made, there ensued one flash of instantaneous blaze, and the whole surface, no matter if it were a table-cover, a hanging, or the wall covering a room, was totally destroyed. yet as one must have had or heard of such a disastrous experience to fear and avoid it, this proclivity alone would not have ended its popularity. it was probably the evanescent character of what was called its "art-colour" which ended the career of an estimable material, and if the manufacturers had known how to eliminate its faults and adapt its virtues, it might still have been a flourishing textile. in truth, we do not often stop to analyse the reasons of prolonged popular favour; yet nothing is more certain than that there is reason, and good reason, for fidelity in public taste. popular liking, if continued, is always founded upon certain incontrovertible virtues. if a manufacture cannot hold its own for ever in public favour, it is because it fails in some important particular to be what it should be. products of the loom must have lasting virtues if they would secure lasting esteem. blue denim had its hold upon public use principally for the reason that it possessed a colour superior to all the chances and accidents of its varied life. it is true it was a colour which commended itself to general liking, yet if as stanch and steadfast a green or red could be imparted to an equally cheap and durable fabric, it would find as lasting a place in public favour. it is quite possible that in the near future domestic weavings may come to the aid of the critical house-furnisher, so that the qualities of strength and pliability may be united with colour which is both water-fast and sun-fast, and that we shall be able to order not only the kind of material, but the exact shade of colour necessary to the perfection of our houses. to be washable as well as durable is also a great point in favour of cotton textiles. the english chintzes with which the high post bedsteads of our foremothers were hung had a yearly baptism of family soap-suds, and came from it with their designs of gaily-crested, almost life-size pheasants, sitting upon inadequate branches, very little subdued by the process. those were not days of colour-study; and harmony, applied to things of sight instead of conduct, was not looked for; but when we copy the beautiful old furniture of that day, we may as well demand with it the quality of washableness and cleanableness which went with all its belongings. it is always a wonder to the masculine, that the feminine mind has such an ineradicable love of draperies. the man despises them, but to the woman they are the perfecting touch of the home, hiding or disguising all the sharp angles of windows and doors, and making of them opportunities of beauty. it is the same instinct with which she tries to cover the hard angles and facts of daily life and make of them virtuous incitements. as long as the woman rules, house-curtains will be a joy and delight to her. something in their soft protection, grace of line, and possible beauty of colour appeals to her as no other household belonging has the power to do. the long folds of the straight hanging curtain are far more beautiful than the looped and festooned creations which were held in vogue by some previous generations, and indeed are still dear to the hearts of professional upholsterers. the simpler the treatment, the better the effect, since natural rather than distorted line is more restful and enjoyable. quality, colour, and simple graceful lines are quite sufficient elements of value in these important adjuncts of house furnishing and decoration. chapter xiii furniture although the forms and varieties of furniture are infinite, they can easily be classified first into the two great divisions of good and bad, and after that into kinds and styles; but no matter how good the different specimens may be, or to what style they may belong, each one is subject again to the ruling of fitness. detached things may be both thoroughly pleasing and thoroughly good in themselves, but unless they are appropriate to the place where, and purpose for which they are used, they will not be beautiful. [illustration: colonial chairs and sofa (belonging to mrs. ruth mcenery stuart)] it is well to reiterate that the use to which a room is put must always govern its furnishing and in a measure its colour, and that whatever we put in it must be placed there because it is appropriate to that use, and because it is needed for completeness. it is misapplication which makes much of what is called "artistic furnishing" ridiculous. an old-fashioned brass preserving-kettle and a linen or wool spinning-wheel are in place and appropriate pieces of furnishing for a studio; the one for colour, and the other for form, and because also they may serve as models; but they are sadly out of place in a modern city house, or even in the parlour of a country cottage. we all recognise the fact that a room carefully furnished in one style makes a oneness of impression; whereas if things are brought together heterogeneously, even if each separate thing is selected for its own special virtue and beauty, the feeling of enjoyment will be far less complete. there is a certain kinship in pieces of furniture made or originated at the same period and fashioned by a prevailing sentiment of beauty, which makes them harmonious when brought together; and if our minds are in sympathy with that period and style of expression, it becomes a great pleasure to use it as a means of expression for ourselves. whatever appeals to us as the best or most beautiful thought in manufacture we have a right to adopt, but we should study to understand the circumstances of its production, in order to do justice to it and ourselves, since style is evolved from surrounding influences. it would seem also that its periods and origin should not be too far removed from the interests and ways of our own time, and incongruous with it, because it would be impossible to carry an utterly foreign period or method of thought into all the intimacies of domestic life. the fad of furnishing different rooms in different periods of art, and in the fashion of nations and peoples whose lives are totally dissimilar, may easily be carried too far, and the spirit of home, and even of beauty, be lost. of course this applies to small, and not to grand houses, which are always exceptions to the purely domestic idea. there are many reasons why one should be in sympathy with what is called the "colonial craze"; not only because colonial days are a part of our history, but because colonial furniture and decorations were derived directly from the best period of english art. its original designers were masters who made standards in architectural and pictorial as well as household art. the adams brothers, to whom many of the best forms of the period are referable, were great architects as well as great designers. even so distinguished a painter as hogarth delighted in composing symmetrical forms for furniture, and preached persistently the beauty of curved instead of rectangular lines. it was, in fact, a period in which superior minds expressed themselves in material forms, when flaxman, wedgwood, chippendale and many others of their day, true artists in form, wrote their thoughts in wood, stone, and pottery, and bequeathed them to future ages. certainly the work of such minds in such company must outlast mere mechanical efforts. it is interesting to note, that many of the chippendale chairs keep in their under construction the square and simple forms of a much earlier period, while the upper part, the back, and seats are carved into curves and floriated designs. one cannot help wondering whether this square solidity was simply a reminiscence or persistence of earlier forms, or a conscious return to the most direct principles of weight-bearing constructions. all furniture made under primitive conditions naturally depends upon perpendicular and horizontal forms, because uninfluenced construction considers first of all the principle of strength; but under the varied influences of the georgian period one hardly expects fidelity to first principles. new england carpenters and cabinet-makers who had wrought under the masters of carpentry and cabinet-work in england brought with them not only skill to fashion, but the very patterns and drawings from which chippendale and sheraton furniture had been made in england. our english forefathers were very fond of the st. domingo mahogany, brought back in the ship-bottoms of english traders, but the english workmen who made furniture in the new world, while they adopted this foreign wood, were not slow to appreciate the wild cherry, and the different maples and oak and nut woods which they found in america. they were woods easy to work, and apt to take on polish and shining surface. the cabinet-makers liked also the abnormal specimens of maple where the fibre grew in close waves, called _curled_ maple, as well as the great roots flecked and spotted with minute knots, known as dotted maple. all these things went into colonial furniture, so beautifully cut, so carefully dowelled and put together, so well made, that many of the things have become heirlooms in the families for which they were constructed. i remember admiring a fine old cherry book-case in mr. lowell's library at cambridge, and being told by the poet that it had belonged to his grandfather. when i spoke of the comparative rarity of such possessions he answered: "oh, anyone can have his grandfather's furniture if he will wait a hundred years!" nevertheless, with modern methods of manufacture it is by no means certain that a hundred years will secure possession of the furniture we buy to-day to our grandchildren. in those early days it was not uncommon, it was indeed the custom, for some one of the men who were called "journeymen cabinet-makers"--that is, men who had served their time and learned their trade, but had not yet settled down to a fixed place and shop of their own--to take up an abode in the house with the family which had built it, for a year, or even two or three years, carrying on the work in some out-house or dependence, choosing and seasoning the wood, and measuring the furniture for the spaces where it was to stand. there was a fine fitness in such furnishing; it was as if the different pieces actually grew where they were placed, and it is small wonder that so built and fashioned they should possess almost a human interest. direct and special thought and effort were incorporated with the furniture from the very first, and it easily explains the excellences and finenesses of its fashioning. there is an interesting house in flushing, long island, where such furniture still stands in the rooms where it was put together in , and where it is so fitted to spaces it has filled during the passing centuries, that it would be impossible to carry it through the narrow doors and passages, which, unlike our present halls, were made for the passing to and fro of human beings, and not of furniture. [illustration: colonial mantel and english hob-grate (sitting-room in mrs. candace wheeler's house)] it is this kind of interest which attaches us to colonial furniture and adds to the value of its beauty and careful adaptation to human convenience. in the roomy "high boys" which we find in old houses there are places for everything. they were made for the orderly packing and keeping of valuable things, in closetless rooms, and they were made without projecting corners and cornices, because life was lived in smaller spaces than at present. they were the best product of a thoughtful time--where if manufacture lacked some of the machinery and appliances of to-day, it was at least not rushed by breathless competition, but could progress slowly in careful leisure. of course we cannot all have colonial furniture, and indeed it would not be according to the spirit of our time, for the arts of our own day are to be encouraged and fostered--but we can buy the best of the things which are made in our time, the best in style, in intention, in fittingness, and above all in carefulness and honesty of construction. for some reason the quality of durability seems to be wanting in modern furniture. our things are fashioned of the same woods, but something in the curing or preparation of them has weakened the fibre and made it brittle. probably the gradual evaporation of the tree-juices which old-time cabinet-makers were willing to wait for, left the shrunken sinews of the wood in better condition than is possible with our hurried and violent kiln-dried methods. what is gained in time in the one place is lost in another. nature refuses to enter into our race for speedy completion, and if we hurry her natural processes we shorten our lease of ownership. as a very apt illustration of this fact, i remember coming into possession some twenty years ago of an oak chair which had stood, perhaps, for more than two hundred years in a long island farm-house. when i found it, it had been long relegated to kitchen use and was covered with a crust of variously coloured paints which had accumulated during the two centuries of its existence. the fashion of it was rare, and had probably been evolved by some early american cabinet-maker, for while it had all and even more than the grace of the high-backed chippendale patterns, it was better fitted to the rounded surfaces of the human body. it was a spindle chair with a slightly hollowed seat, the rim of the back rounded to a loop which was continued into arm-rests, which spread into thickened blades for hand-rests. being very much in love with the grace and ease of it, i took it to a manufacturer to be reproduced in mahogany, who, with a far-sighted sagacity, flooded the market with that particular pattern. we are used--and with good reason--to consider mahogany as a durable wood, but of the half-dozen of mahogany copies of the old oak chair, each one has suffered some break of legs or arms or spindles, while the original remains as firm in its withered old age as it was the day i rescued it from the "out-kitchen" of the long island farm-house. for the next fifty years after the close of our colonial history, the colonial cabinet-makers in new england and the northern middle states continued to flourish, evolving an occasional good variation from what may be called colonial forms. rush-and flag-bottomed chairs and chairs with seats of twisted rawhide--the frames often gilded and painted-- sometimes took the place of wrought mahogany, except in the best rooms of great houses. many of these are of excellent shape and construction, and specially interesting as an adaptation of natural products of the country. undoubtedly, with our ingenious modern appliances, we could make as good furniture as was made in chippendale and sheraton's day, with far less expenditure of effort; but the demon of competition in trade will not allow it. we must use all material, perfect or imperfect; we cannot afford to select. we must cover knots and imperfections with composition and pass them on. we must use the cheapest glue, and save an infinitesimal sum in the length of our dowels; we must varnish instead of polishing, or "the other man" will get the better of us. if we did not do these things our furniture would be better, but "the other man" would sell more, because he could sell more cheaply. since the revived interest in the making of furniture, we find an occasional and marked recurrence to primitive form--on each occasion the apparently new style taking on the name of the man who produced it. in our own day we have seen the "eastlake furniture" appear and disappear, succeeded by the "morris furniture," which is undoubtedly better adapted to our varied wants. at present, mortising and dowelling have come to the front as proper processes, especially for table-building; and this time the style appears under the name of "mission furniture." much of this is extremely well suited for cottage furnishing, but the occasional exaggeration of the style takes one back not only to early, but the earliest, english art, when chairs were immovable seats or blocks, and tables absolute fixtures on account of the weighty legs upon which they were built. in short, the careful and cultivated decorator finds it as imperative to guard against exaggerated simplicity as unsupported prettiness. fortunately there has been a great deal of attention paid to good cabinet work within the last few years, and although the method of its making lacks the human motive and the human interest of former days--it is still a good expression of the art of to-day, and at its best, worthy to be carried down with the generations as one of the steps in the evolutions of time. what we have to do, is to learn to discriminate between good and bad, to appreciate the best in design and workmanship, even although we cannot afford to buy it. in this case we should learn to do with less. as a rule our houses are crowded. if we are able to buy a few good things, we are apt instead to buy many only moderately good, for lavish possession seems to be a sort of passion, or birthright, of americans. it follows that we fill our houses with heterogeneous collections of furniture, new and old, good and bad, appropriate or inappropriate, as the case may be, with a result of living in seeming luxury, but a luxury without proper selection or true value. to have less would in many cases be to have more--more tranquillity of life, more ease of mind, more knowledge and more real enjoyment. there is another principle which can be brought into play in this case, and that is the one of buying--not a costly kind of thing, but the best of its kind. if it is a choice in chairs, for instance, let it be the best cane-seated, or rush-bottomed chair that is made, instead of the second or third best upholstered or leather-covered one. if it is a question of tables, buy the simplest form made of flawless wood and with best finish, instead of a bargain in elaborately turned or scantily carved material. if it is in bedsteads, a plain brass, or good enamelled iron or a simple form in black walnut, instead of a cheap inlaid wood--and so on through the whole category. a good chintz or cotton is better for draperies, than flimsy silk or brocade; and when all is done the very spirit of truth will sit enthroned in the household, and we shall find that all things have been brought into harmony by her laws. [illustration: sofa designed by mrs. candace wheeler for new library in "woman's building," columbian exposition] although the furnishing of a house should be one of the most painstaking and studied of pursuits, there is certainly nothing which is at the same time so fascinating and so flattering in its promise of future enjoyment. it is like the making of a picture as far as possibility of beauty is concerned, but a picture within and against which one's life, and the life of the family, is to be lived. it is a bit of creative art in itself, and one which concerns us so closely as to be a very part of us. we enjoy every separate thing we may find or select or procure--not only for the beauty and goodness which is in it, but for its contribution to the general whole. and in knowledge of applied and manufactured art, the furnishing of a house is truly "the beginning of wisdom." one learns to appreciate what is excellent in the new, from study and appreciation of quality in the old. it is the fascination of this study which has made a multiplication of shops and collections of "antiques" in every quarter of the city. many a woman begins from the shop-keeper's point of view of the value of mere age, and learns by experience that age, considered by itself, is a disqualification, and that it gives value only when the art which created the antique has been lost or greatly deteriorated. if one can find as good, or a better thing in art and quality, made to-day--by all means buy the thing of to-day, and let yourself and your children be credited with the hundred or two years of wear which is in it. we can easily see that it is wiser to buy modern iridescent glass, fitted to our use, and yet carrying all the fascinating lustre of ancient glass, than to sigh for the possession of some unbuyable thing belonging to dead and gone caesars. and the case is as true of other modern art and modern inventions, if the art is good, and the inventions suitable to our wants and needs. yet in spite of the goodness of much that is new, there is a subtle pleasure in turning over, and even in appropriating, the things that are old. there are certain fenced-in-blocks on the east side of new york city where for many years the choice parts of old houses have been deposited. as fashion and wealth have changed their locality--treading slowly up from the battery to central park--many beautiful bits of construction have been left behind in the abandoned houses--either disregarded on account of change in popular taste, or unappreciated by reason of want of knowledge. for the few whose knowledge was competent, there were things to be found in the second-hand yards, precious beyond comparison with anything of contemporaneous manufacture. there were panelled front doors with beautifully fluted columns and carved capitals, surmounted by half-ovals of curiously designed sashes; there were beautifully wrought iron railings, and elaborate newel-posts of mahogany, brass door-knobs and hinges, and english hob-grates, and crystal chandeliers of cost and brilliance, and panelled wainscots of oak and mahogany; chimney-pieces in marble and wood of an excellence which we are almost vainly trying to compass, and all of them to be bought at the price of lumber. these are the things to make one who remembers them critical about the collections to be found in the antique shops of to-day, and yet such shops are enticing and fashionable, and the quest of antiques will go on until we become convinced of the art-value and the equal merit of the new--which period many things seem to indicate is not far off. in those days there was but one antique shop in all new york which was devoted to the sale of old things, to furniture, pictures, statuary, and what ruskin calls "portable art" of all kinds. it was a place where one might go, crying "new lamps for old ones" with a certainty of profit in the transaction. in later years it has been known as _sypher's_, and although one of many, instead of a single one, is still a place of fascinating possibilities. to sum up the gospel of furnishing, we need only fall back upon the principles of absolute fitness, actual goodness, and real beauty. if the furniture of a well-coloured room possesses these three qualities, the room as a whole can hardly fail to be lastingly satisfactory. it must be remembered, however, that it is a trinity of virtues. no piece of furniture should be chosen because it is intrinsically good or genuinely beautiful, if it has not also its _use_--and this rule applies to all rooms, with the one exception of the drawing-room. the necessity of _use_, governing the style of furnishing in a room, is very well understood. thus, while both drawing-room and dining-room must express hospitality, it is of a different kind or degree. that of the drawing-room is ceremonious and punctilious, and represents the family in its relation to society, while the dining-room is far more intimate, and belongs to the family in its relation to friends. in fact, as the dining-room is the heart of the house, its furnishing would naturally be quite different in feeling and character from the drawing-room, although it might be fully as lavish in cost. it would be stronger, less conservative, and altogether more personal in its expression. family portraits and family silver give the personal note which we like to recognise in our friends' dining-rooms, because the intimacy of the room makes even family history in place. in moderate houses, even the drawing-room is too much a family room to allow it to be entirely emancipated from the law of use, but in houses which are not circumscribed in space, and where one or more rooms are set apart to social rather than domestic life, it is natural and proper to gather in them things which stand, primarily, for art and beauty--which satisfy the needs of the mind as distinct from those of bodily comfort. things which belong in the category of "unrelated beauty" may be appropriately gathered in such a room, because the use of it is to please the eye and excite the interest of our social world; therefore a table which is a marvel of art, but not of convenience, or a casket which is beautiful to look at, but of no practical use, are in accordance with the idea of the room. they help compose a picture, not only for the eyes of friends and acquaintances, but for the education of the family. it follows that an artistic and luxurious drawing-room may be a true family expression; it may speak of travel and interest in the artistic development of mankind; but even where the experiences of the family have been wide and liberal, if the house and circumstances are narrow, a luxurious interior is by no means a happiness. it may seem quite superfluous to give advice against luxury in furnishing except where it is warranted by exceptional means, because each family naturally adjusts its furnishing to its own needs and circumstances; but the influence of mere beauty is very powerful, and many a costly toy drifts into homes where it does not rightly belong and where, instead of being an educational or elevating influence, it is a source of mental deterioration, from its conflict with unsympathetic circumstances. a long and useful chapter might be written upon "art out of place," but nothing which could be said upon the subject would apply to that incorporation of art and beauty with furniture and interior surrounding, which is the effort and object of every true artist and art-lover. the fact to be emphasised is, that _objects d'art_--beautiful in themselves and costly because of the superior knowledge, artistic feeling, and patient labour which have produced them--demand care and reserve for their preservation, which is not available in a household where the first motive of everything must be ministry to comfort. art in the shape of pictures is fortunately exempt from this rule, and may dignify and beautify every room in the house without being imperilled by contact in the exigencies of use. following out this idea, a house where circumstances demand that there shall be no drawing-room, and where the family sitting-room must also answer for the reception of guests, a perfect beauty and dignity may be achieved by harmony of colour, beauty of form, and appropriateness to purpose, and this may be carried to almost any degree of perfection by the introduction and accompaniment of pictures. in this case art is a part of the room, as well as an adornment of it. it is kneaded into every article of furniture. it is the daily bread of art to which we are all entitled, and which can make a small country home, or a smaller city apartment, as enjoyable and elevating as if it were filled with the luxuries of art. [illustration: rustic sofa and tables in "pennyroyal" (in mrs. boudinot keith's cottage, onteora)] but one may say, "it requires knowledge to do this; much knowledge in the selection of the comparatively few things which are to make up such an interior," and that is true--and the knowledge is to be proved every time we come to the test of buying. yet it is a curious fact that the really _good_ thing, the thing which is good in art as well as construction, will inevitably be chosen by an intelligent buyer, instead of the thing which is bad in art and in construction. fortunately, one can see good examples in the shops of to-day, where twenty years ago at best only honest and respectable furniture was on exhibition. one must rely somewhat on the character of the places from which one buys, and not expect good styles and reliable manufacture where commercial success is the dominant note of the business. in truth the careful buyer is not so apt to fail in quality as in harmony, because grade as well as style in different articles and manufactures is to be considered. what is perfectly good in one grade of manufacture will not be in harmony with a higher or lower grade in another. just as we choose our grade of floor-covering from ingrain to aubusson, we must choose the grade of other furnishings. even an inexperienced buyer would be apt to feel this, and would know that if she found a simple ingrain-filling appropriate to a bed-chamber, maple or enamelled furniture would belong to it, instead of more costly inlaid or carved pieces. it may be well to reiterate the fact that the predominant use of each room in a house gives the clew to the best rules of treatment in decoration and furniture. for instance, the hall, being an intermediate space between in and out of doors, should be coloured and furnished in direct reference to this, and to its common use as a thoroughfare by all members of the family. it is not a place of prolonged occupation, and may therefore properly be without the luxury and ease of lounges and lounging-chairs. but as long as it serves both as entrance-room to the house and for carrying the stairways to the upper floors, it should be treated in such a way as to lead up to and prepare the mind for whatever of inner luxury there may be in the house. at the same time it should preserve something of the simplicity and freedom from all attempt at effect which belong to out-of-door life. the difference between its decoration and furniture and that of other divisions of the house should be principally in surface, and not in colour. difference of surface is secured by the use of materials which are permanent and durable in effect, such as wood, plaster, and leather. these may all be coloured without injury to their impression of permanency, although it is generally preferable to take advantage of indigenous or "inherent colour" like the natural yellows and russets of wood and leather. when these are used for both walls and ceiling, it will be found that, to give the necessary variation, and prevent an impression of monotony and dulness, some tint must be added in the ornament of the surface, which could be gained by a forcible deepening or variation of the general tone, like a deep golden brown, which is the lowest tone of the scale of yellow, or a red which would be only a variant of the prevailing tint. the introduction of an opposing or contrasting tint, like pale blue in small masses as compared with the general tint, even if it is in so small a space as that of a water-colour on the wall, adds the necessary contrast, and enlivens and invigorates a harmony. no colour carries with it a more appropriate influence at the entrance of a house than red in its different values. certain tints of it which are known both as pompeiian and damascus red have sufficient yellow in their composition to fall in with the yellows of oiled wood, and give the charm of a variant but related colour. in its stronger and deeper tones it is in direct contrast to the green of abundant foliage, and therefore a good colour for the entrance-hall or vestibule of a country-house; while the paler tones, which run into pinks, hold the same opposing relation to the gray and blue of the sea-shore. if walls and ceiling are of wood, a rug of which the prevailing colour is red will often give the exact note which is needed to preserve the room from monotony and insipidity. a stair-carpet is a valuable point to make in a hall, and it is well to reserve all opposing colour for this one place, which, as it rises, meets all sight on a level, and makes its contrast directly and unmistakably. a stair-carpet has other reasons for use in a country-house than æsthetic ones, as the stairs are conductors of sound to all parts of the house, and should therefore be muffled, and because a carpeted stair furnishes much safer footing for the two family extremes of childhood and age. the furniture of the hall should not be fantastic, as some cabinet-makers seem to imagine. impossible twists in the supports of tables and chairs are perhaps more objectionable in this first vestibule or entrance to the house than elsewhere, because the mind is not quite free from out-of-door influences, or ready to take pleasure in the vagaries of the human fancy. simple chairs, settles, and tables, more solid perhaps than is desirable in other parts of the house, are what the best natural, as well as the best cultivated, taste demands. if there is one place more than another where a picture performs its full work of suggestion and decoration, it is in a hall which is otherwise bare of ornament. pictures in dining-rooms make very little impression as pictures, because the mind is engrossed with the first and natural purpose of the room, and consequently not in a waiting and easily impressible mood; but in a hall, if one stops for even a moment, the thoughts are at leisure, and waiting to be interested. aside from the colour effect, which may be so managed as to be very valuable, pictures hung in a hall are full of suggestion of wider mental and physical life, and, like books, are indications of the tastes and experiences of the family. of course there are country-houses where the halls are built with fireplaces, and windows commanding favourite views, and are really intended for family sitting-rooms and gathering-places; in this case it is generally preceded by a vestibule which carries the character of an entrance-hall, leaving the large room to be furnished more luxuriously, as is proper to a sitting-room. the dining-room shares with the hall a purpose common to the life of the family, and, while it admits of much more variety and elaboration, that which is true of the hall is equally true of the dining-room, that it should be treated with materials which are durable and have surface quality, although its decoration should be preferably with china rather than with pictures. it is important that the colour of a dining-room should be pervading colour--that is, that walls and ceiling should be kept together by the use of one colour only, in different degrees of strength. for many reasons, but principally because it is the best material to use in a dining-room, the rich yellows of oiled wood make the most desirable colour and surface. the rug, the curtains, the portières and screen, can then be of any good tint which the exposure of the room and the decoration of the china seem to indicate. if it has a cold, northern exposure, reds or gold browns are indicated; but if it is a sunny and warm-looking room, green or strong india blue will be found more satisfactory in simple houses. the materials used in curtains, portières, and screens should be of cotton or linen, or some plain woollen goods which are as easily washable. a one-coloured, heavy-threaded cotton canvas, a linen in solid colour, or even indigo-blue domestic, all make extremely effective and appropriate furnishings. the variety of blue domestic which is called denim is the best of all fabrics for this kind of furnishing, if the colour is not too dark. the prettiest country house dining-room i know is ceiled and wainscoted with wood, the walls above the wainscoting carrying an ingrain paper of the same tone; the line of division between the wainscot and wall being broken by a row of old blue india china plates, arranged in groups of different sizes and running entirely around the room. there is one small mirror set in a broad carved frame of yellow wood hung in the centre of a rather large wall-space, its angles marked by small dutch plaques; but the whole decoration of the room outside of these pieces consists of draperies of blue denim in which there is a design, in narrow white outline, of leaping fish, and the widening water-circles and showery drops made by their play. the white lines in the design answer to the white spaces in the decorated china, and the two used together in profusion have an unexpectedly decorative effect. the table and chairs are, of course, of the same coloured wood used in the ceiling and wainscot, and the rug is an india cotton of dark and light blues and white. the sideboard is an arrangement of fixed shelves, but covered with a beautiful collection of blue china, which serves to furnish the table as well. if the dining-room had a northern exposure, and it was desirable to use red instead of blue for colouring, as good an effect could be secured by depending for ornament upon the red kaga porcelain so common at present in japanese and chinese shops, and using with it the eastern cotton known as _bez_. this is dyed with madder, and exactly repeats the red of the porcelain, while it is extremely durable both in colour and texture. borders of yellow stitchery, or straggling fringes of silk and beads, add very much to the effect of the drapery and to the character of the room. [illustration: dining-room in "star rock" (country house of w.e. connor, esq., onteora)] a library in ordinary family life has two parts to play. it is not only to hold books, but to make the family at home in a literary atmosphere. such a room is apt to be a fascinating one by reason of this very variety of use and purpose, and because it is a centre for all the family treasures. books, pictures, papers, photographs, bits of decorative needlework, all centre here, and all are on most orderly behaviour, like children at a company dinner. the colour of such a room may, and should, be much warmer and stronger than that of a parlour pure and simple, the very constancy and hardness of its use indicating tints of strength and resistance; but, keeping that in mind, the rules for general use of colour and harmony of tints will apply as well to a room used for a double purpose as for a single. of course the furniture should be more solid and darker, as would be necessary for constant use, but the deepening of tones in general colour provides for that, and for the use of rugs of a different character. in a room of this kind perhaps the best possible effect is produced by the use of some textile as a wall-covering, as in that case the same material with a contrasted colour in the lining can be used for curtains, and to some extent in the furniture. this use of one material has not only an effect of richness which is due to the library of the house, but it softens and brings together all the heterogeneous things which different members of a large family are apt to require in a sitting-room. to those who prefer to work out and adapt their own surroundings, it is well to illustrate the advice given for colour in different exposures by selecting particular rooms, with their various relations to light, use, and circumstances, and seeing how colour-principles can be applied to them. we may choose a reception-hall, in either a city or country house, since the treatment would in both cases be guided by the same rules. if in a city house, it may be on the shady or the sunny side of the street, and this at once would differentiate, perhaps the colour, and certainly the depth of colour to be used. if it is the hall of a country house the difference between north or south light will not be as great, since a room opening on the north in a house standing alone, in unobstructed space, would have an effect of coldness, but not necessarily of shadow or darkness. the first condition, then, of coldness of light would have to be considered in both cases, but less positively in the country, than in the city house. if the room is actually dark, a warm or orange tone of yellow will both modify and lighten it. gold-coloured or yellow canvas with oak mouldings lighten and warm the walls; and rugs with a preponderance of white and yellow transform a dark hall into a light and cheerful one. it must be remembered that few dark colours can assert themselves in the absolute shadow of a north light. green and blue become black. gold, orange, and red alone have sufficient power to hold their own, and make us conscious of them in darkness. in a hall which has plenty of light, but no sun, red is an effective and natural colour, copper-coloured leather paper, cushions and rugs or carpets of varying shades of red, and transparent curtains of the same tint give an effect of warmth and vitality. red is truly a delightful colour to deal with in shadowed interiors, its sensitiveness to light, changing from colour-tinted darkness to palpitating ruby, and even to flame colour, on the slightest invitation of day-or lamp-light, makes it like a living presence. it is especially valuable at the entrance of the home, where it seems to meet one with almost a human welcome. if we can succeed in making what would be a cold and unattractive entrance hospitable and cordial by liberal use of warm and strong colour, by reversing the effort we can just as easily modify the effect of glaring, or overpowering, sunlight. suppose the entrance-hall of the house to be upon the sunny side of the street, where in addition to the natural effect of full rays of the sun there are also the reflections from innumerable other house-fronts and house-windows. in this case we must simulate shadow and mystery, and this can be done by the colour-tones of blues and greens. i use these in the plural because the shadows of both are innumerable, and because all, except perhaps turquoise and apple-green, are natural shadow-tints. green and blue can be used together or separately, according to the skill and what is called the "colour-sense" with which they are applied. to use them together requires not only observation of colour-occurrences in nature but sensitiveness to the more subtle out-of-door effects, resulting from intermingling of shadows and reflection of lights. well done, it is one of the most beautiful and satisfactory of achievements, but it may easily be bad by reason of sharp contrasts, or unmodified juxtaposition. but a room where blue in all its shades from dark to light alone predominates, or a room where only green is used, bright and gray tones in contrast and variation is within the reach of most colour-loving mortals, and as both of these tints are companionable with oak and gold, and to be found in nearly all decoration materials, it is easy to arrange a refined and beautiful effect in either colour. it will require little reflection to show that a hall skilfully treated with green or blue tints would modify the colour of sunlight, without giving a sense of discord. it would be like passing only from sunlight to grateful shadow, and this because in all art the actual representation shadow-colour would be blue or green. the shadow of a tree falling upon snow on a sunny winter day is blue. the shadow of a sunheated rock in summer is green, and the success of either of these schemes of decoration would be because of adherence to an actual principle of colour, or a knowledge of the peculiar qualities of certain colours and their proper use. it would be an intelligent application of the medicinal or healing qualities of colour to the constitution of the house, as skilful physicians use medicines to overcome constitutional defects or difficulties in man. this may be called _corrective_ treatment of a room, and may, of course, include all the decorative devices of ornament, design and furniture, and although it is not, strictly speaking, decoration, it should certainly and always precede decoration. it is sad to see an elaborate scheme of ornament based upon bad colour-treatment, and unfortunately this not infrequently happens. it is difficult to give a formula for the decoration of any room in relation to its colour-treatment, except by a careful description of certain successful examples, each one of which illustrates principles that may be of use to the amateur or student of the art. one which occurs to me in this immediate connection is a dining-room in an apartment house, where this room alone is absolutely without what may be called exterior light. its two windows open upon a well, the brick wall of which is scarcely ten feet away. fortunately, it makes a part of the home of a much travelled and exceedingly cultivated pair of beings, the business of one being to create beauty in the way of pictures and the other of statues, so perhaps it is less than a wonder that this square, unattractive well-room should have blossomed under their hands into a dining-room perfect in colour, style, and fittings. i shall give only the result, the process being capable of infinite small variations. at present it is a room sixteen feet square, one side of which is occupied by two nearly square windows. the wood-work, including a five-foot wainscot of small square panels, is painted a glittering varnished white which is warm in tone, but not creamy. the upper halves of the square windows are of semi-opaque yellow glass, veined and variable, but clear enough everywhere to admit a stained yellow light. below these, thin yellow silk curtains cross each other, so that the whole window-space radiates yellow light. if we reflect that the colour of sunlight is yellow, we shall be able to see both the philosophy and the result of this treatment. the wall above the wainscot is covered with a plain unbleached muslin, stencilled at the top in a repeating design of faint yellow tile-like squares which fade gradually into white at a foot below the ceiling. at intervals along the wall are water-colours of flat holland meadows, or blue canals, balanced on either side by a blue delft plate, and in a corner near the window is a veritable blue porcelain stove, which once faintly warmed some far-off german interior. the floor is polished oak, as are the table and chairs. i purposely leave out all the accessories and devices of brass and silver, the quaint brass-framed mirrors, the ivy-encircled windows, the one or two great ferns, the choice blue table-furniture:--because these are personal and should neither be imitated or reduced to rules. the lesson is in the use of yellow and white, accented with touches of blue, which converts a dark and perfectly cheerless room into a glitter of light and warmth. the third example i shall give is of a dining-room which may be called palatial in size and effect, occupying the whole square wing of a well-known new york house. there are many things in this house in the way of furniture, pictures, historic bits of art in different lines, which would distinguish it among fine houses, but one particular room is, perhaps, as perfectly successful in richness of detail, picturesqueness of effect, and at the same time perfect appropriateness to time, place, and circumstances as is possible for any achievement of its kind. the dining-room, and its art, taken in detail, belongs to the venetian school, but if its colour-effect were concentrated upon canvas, it would be known as a rembrandt. there is the same rich shadow, covering a thousand gradations,--the same concentration of light, and the same liberal diffusion of warm and rich tones of colour. it is a grand room in space, as new york interiors go, being perhaps forty to fifty feet in breadth and length, with a height exactly proportioned to the space. it has had the advantage of separate creation--being "thought out" years after the early period of the house, and is, consequently, a concrete result of study, travel, and opportunities, such as few families are privileged to experience. aside from the perfect proportions of the room, it is not difficult to analyse the art which makes it so distinguished an example of decoration of space, and decide wherein lies its especial charm. it is undoubtedly that of colour, although this is based upon a detail so perfect, that one hesitates to give it predominant credit. the whole, or nearly the whole west end of the room is thrown into one vast, slightly projecting window of clear leaded glass, the lines of which stand against the light like a weaving of spiders' webs. there is a border of various tints at its edge, which softens it into the brown shadow of the room, and the centre of each large sash is marked by a shield-like ornament glowing with colour like a jewel. the long ceiling and high wainscoting melt away from this leaded window in a perspective of wonderfully carved planes of antique oak, catching the light on lines and points of projection and quenching it in hollows of relief. [illustration: dining-room in new york house showing leaded-glass windows] these perpendicular wall panels were scaled from a room in a venetian palace, carved when the art and the fortunes of that sea-city were at their best, and the alternately repeating squares of the ceiling were fashioned to carry out and supplement the ancient carvings. if this were a small room, there would be a sense of unrest in so lavish a use of broken surface, but in one large enough to have it felt as a whole, and not in detail, it simply gives a quality of preciousness. the soft browns of the wood spread a mystery of surface, from the edge of the polished floor until it meets a frieze of painted canvas filled with large reclining figures clad in draperies of red, and blue, and yellow--separating the walls from the ceiling by an illumination of colour. this colour-decoration belongs to the past, and it is a question if any modern painting could have adapted itself so perfectly to the spirit of the room, although in itself it might be far more beautiful. it is a bit of antique imagination, its cherub-borne plates of fruit, and golden flagons, and brown-green of foliage and turquoise of sky, and crimson and gold of garments, all softened to meet the shadows of the room. the door-spaces in the wainscot are hung with draperies of crimson velvet, the surface frayed and flattened by time into variations of red, impossible to newer weavings, while the great floor-space is spread with an enormous rug of the same colour--the gift of a sultan. a carved table stands in the centre, surrounded with high-backed carved chairs, the seats covered with the same antique velvet which shows in the portières. a fall of thin crimson silk tints the sides of the window-frame, and on the two ends of the broad step or platform which leads to the window stand two tall pedestals and globe-shaped jars of red and blue-green pottery. the deep, ruby-like red of the one and the mixed indefinite tint of the other seem to have curdled into the exact shade for each particular spot, their fitness is so perfect. the very sufficient knowledge which has gone to the making of this superb room has kept the draperies unbroken by design or device, giving colour only and leaving to the carved walls the privilege of ornament. it will be seen that there are but two noticeable colour-tones in the room--brown with infinite variations, and red in rugs and draperies. there is no real affinity between these two tints, but they are here so well balanced in mass, that the two form a complete harmony, like the brown waves of a landscape at evening tipped with the fire of a sunset sky. much is to be learned from a room like this, in the lesson of unity and concentration of effect. the strongest, and in fact the only, mass of vital colour is in the carpet, which is allowed to play upwards, as it were, into draperies, and furniture, and frieze, none of which show the same depth and intensity. to the concentration of light in the one great window we must give the credit of the rembrandt-like effect of the whole interior. if the walls were less rich, this single flood of light would be a defect, because it would be difficult to treat a plain surface with colour alone, which should be equally good in strong light and deep shadow. [illustration: dining-room in new york home showing carved wainscotting and painted frieze] then, again, the amount of living and brilliant colour is exactly proportioned to that of sombre brown, the red holding its value by strength, as against the greatly preponderating mass of dark. on the whole this may be called a "picture-room," and yet it is distinctly liveable, lending itself not only to hospitality and ceremonious function but also to real domesticity. it is true that there is a certain obligation in its style of beauty which calls for fine manners and fine behaviour, possibly even, behaviour in kind; for it is in the nature of all fine and exceptional things to demand a corresponding fineness from those who enjoy them. i will give still another dining-room as an example of colour, which, unlike the others, is not modern, but a sort of falling in of old gentility and costliness into lines of modern art--one might almost say it _happened_ to be beautiful, and yet the happening is only an adjustment of fine old conditions to modern ideas. yet i have known many as fine a room torn out and refitted, losing thereby all the inherent dignity of age and superior associations. a beautiful city home of seventy years ago is not very like a beautiful city home of to-day; perhaps less so in this than in any other country. the character of its fineness is curiously changed; the modern house is fitted to its inmates, while the old-fashioned house, modelled upon the early eighteenth century art of england, obliged the inmates to fit themselves as best they might to a given standard. the dining-room i speak of belongs to the period when washington square, new york, was still surrounded by noble homes, and almost the limit of luxurious city life was union square. the house fronts to the north, consequently the dining-room, which is at the back, is flooded with sunshine. the ceiling is higher than it would be in a modern house, and the windows extend to the floor, and rise nearly to the ceiling, far indeed above the flat arches of the doorways with their rococo flourishes. this extension of window-frame, and the heavy and elaborate plaster cornice so deep as to be almost a frieze, and the equally elaborate centre-piece, are the features which must have made it a room difficult to ameliorate. i could fancy it must have been an ugly room in the old days when its walls were probably white, and the great mahogany doors were spots of colour in prevailing spaces of blankness. now, however, any one at all learned in art, or sensitive to beauty, would pronounce it a beautiful room. the way in which the ceiling with its heavy centre-piece and plaster cornice is treated is especially interesting. the whole of this is covered with an ochre-coloured bronze, while the walls and door-casings are painted a dark indigo, which includes a faint trace of green. over this wall-colour, and joining the cornice, is carried a stencil design in two coloured bronzes which seem to repeat the light and shadow of the cornice mouldings, and this apparently extends the cornice into a frieze which ends faintly at a picture-moulding some three feet below. this treatment not only lowers the ceiling, which is in construction too high for the area of the room, but blends it with the wall in a way which imparts a certain richness of effect to all the lower space. the upper part of the windows, to the level of the picture-moulding, is covered with green silk, overlaid with an appliqué of the same in a design somewhat like the frieze, so that it seems to carry the frieze across the space of light in a green tracery of shadow. the same green extends from curtain-rods at the height of the picture-moulding into long under-curtains of silk, while the over-curtains are of indigo coloured silk-canvas which matches the walls. the portières separating the dining-room from the drawing-room are of a wonderfully rich green brocade--the colour of which answers to the green of the silk under-curtains across the room, while the design ranges itself indisputably with the period of the plaster work. the blue and green of the curtains and portière each seem to claim their own in the mixed and softened background of the wall. the colour of the room would hardly be complete without the three beautiful portraits which hang upon the walls, and suggest their part of the life and conversation of to-day so that it stands on a proper plane with the dignity of three generations. the beautiful mahogany doors and elaboration of cornice and central ornament belong to them, but the harmony and beauty of colour are of our own time and tell of the general knowledge and feeling for art which belongs to it. i have given the colour-treatment only of this room, leaving out the effect of carved teak-wood furniture and subtleties of china and glass--not alone as an instance of colour in a sunny exposure, but as an example of fitting new styles to old, of keeping what is valuable and beautiful in itself and making it a part of the comparatively new art of decoration. [illustration: screen by dora wheeler keith screen and glass window in house at lakewood (belonging to clarence roof, esq.)] there is a dining-room in one of the many delightful houses in lakewood, n.j., which owes its unique charm to a combination of position, light, colour, and perhaps more than all, to the clever decoration of its upper walls, which is a fine and broad composition of swans and many-coloured clusters of grapes and vine-foliage placed above the softly tinted copper-coloured wall. the same design is carried in silvery and gold-coloured leaded-glass across the top of the wide west window, as shown in illustration opposite page , and reappears with a shield-shaped arrangement of wings in a beautiful four-leaved screen. the notable and enjoyable colour of the room is seen from the very entrance of the house, the broad main hall making a carpeted highway to the wide opening of the room, where a sheaf of tinted sunset light seems to spread itself like a many-doubled fan against the shadows of the hall. all the ranges and intervals, the lights, reflections, and darks possible to that most beautiful of metals--copper--seem to be gathered into the frieze and screen, and melt softly into the greens of the foliage, or tint the plumage of the swans. it is an instance of the kind of decoration which is both classic and domestic, and being warmed and vivified by beautiful colour, appeals both to the senses and the imagination. it would be easy to multiply instances of beautiful rooms, and each one might be helpful for mere imitation, but those i have given have each one illustrated--more or less distinctly--the principle of colour as affecting or being affected by light. i have not thought it necessary to give examples of rooms with eastern or western exposures, because in such rooms one is free to consult one's own personal preferences as to colour, being limited only by the general rules which govern all colour decoration. i have not spoken of pictures or paintings as accessories of interior decoration, because while their influence upon the character and degree of beauty in the house is greater than all other things put together, their selection and use are so purely personal as not to call for remark or advice. any one who loves pictures well enough to buy them, can hardly help placing them where they not only are at their best, but where they will also have the greatest influence. a house where pictures predominate will need little else that comes under the head of decoration. it is a pity that few houses have this advantage, but fortunately it is quite possible to give a picture quality to every interior. this can often be done by following the lead of some accidental effect which is in itself picturesque. the placing a jar of pottery or metal near or against a piece of drapery which repeats its colour and heightens the lustre of its substance is a small detail, but one which gives pleasure out of all proportion to its importance. the half accidental draping of a curtain, the bringing together of shapes and colours in insignificant things, may give a character which is lastingly pleasing both to inmates and casual visitors. of course this is largely a matter of personal gift. one person may make a picturesque use of colour and material, which in the hands of another will be perhaps without fault, but equally without charm. instances of this kind come constantly within our notice, although we are not always able to give the exact reasons for success or failure. we only know that we feel the charm of one instance and are indifferent to, or totally unimpressed by, the other. it is by no means an unimportant thing to create a beautiful and picturesque interior. there is no influence so potent upon life as harmonious surroundings, and to create and possess a home which is harmonious in a simple and inexpensive way is the privilege of all but the wretchedly poor. in proportion also as these surroundings become more perfect in their art and meaning, there is a corresponding elevation in the dweller among them--since the best decoration must include many spiritual lessons. it may indeed be used to further vulgar ambitions, or pamper bodily weaknesses, but truth and beauty are its essentials, and these will have their utterance. none note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) the house in good taste by elsie de wolfe illustrated with photographs in color and black and white new york the century co. [illustration] contents chapter i. the development of the modern house ii. suitability, simplicity and proportion iii. the old washington irving house iv. the little house of many mirrors v. the treatment of walls vi. the effective use of color vii. of doors, and windows, and chintz viii. the problem of artificial light ix. halls and staircases x. the drawing-room xi. the living-room xii. sitting-room and boudoir xiii. a light, gay dining-room xiv. the bedroom xv. the dressing-room and the bath xvi. the small apartment xvii. reproductions of antique furniture and objects of art xviii. the art of trelliage xix. villa trianon xx. notes on many things list of illustrations elsie de wolfe (frontispiece) in this hall, simplicity, suitability and proportion are observed mennoyer drawings and old mirrors set in panelings a portrait by nattier inset above a fine old mantel the washington irving house was delightfully rambling a washington irving house bedroom miss marbury's bedroom the fore-court and entrance of the fifty-fifth street house a painted wall broken into panels by narrow moldings a wall paper of elizabethan design with oak furniture the scheme of this room grew from the jars on the mantel a louis seize bedroom in rose and blue and cream the writing corner of a chintz bedroom black chintz used in a dressing-room printed linen curtains over rose colored silk straight hangings of rose and yellow shot silk muslin glass curtains in the washington irving house here are many lighting fixtures harmoniously assembled in a drawing-room detail of a fine old french fixture of hand wrought metal lighting fixtures inspired by adam mirrors the staircase in the bayard thayer house the drawing-room should be intimate in spirit the fine formality of well-placed paneling the living-room in the c.w. harkness house at morristown, new jersey miss anne morgan's louis xvi boudoir miss morgan's louis xvi _lit de repos_ a georgian dining-room in the william iselin house mrs. ogden armour's chinese paper screen mrs. james warren lane's painted dining-table the private dining-room in the colony club an old painted bed of the louis xvi period miss crocker's louis xvi bed a colony club bedroom mauve chintz in a dull green room mrs. frederick havemeyer's chinoiserie chintz bed mrs. payne whitney's green feather chintz bed my own bedroom is built around a breton bed furniture painted with chintz designs miss morgan's louis xvi dressing-room miss marbury's chintz-hung dressing-table a corner of my own boudoir built-in bookshelves in a small room mrs. c.w. harkness's cabinet for _objets d'art_ a banquette of the louis xv period covered with needlework a chinese chippendale sofa covered with chintz the trellis room in the colony club mrs. ormond g. smith's trellis room at center island, new york looking over the _tapis vert_ to the trellis a fine old console in the villa trianon the broad terrace connects house and garden a proper writing-table in the drawing-room a cream-colored porcelain stove in a new york house mr. james deering's wall fountain fountain in the trellis room of mrs. ormond g. smith i the development of the modern house i know of nothing more significant than the awakening of men and women throughout our country to the desire to improve their houses. call it what you will--awakening, development, american renaissance--it is a most startling and promising condition of affairs. it is no longer possible, even to people of only faintly æsthetic tastes, to buy chairs merely to sit upon or a clock merely that it should tell the time. home-makers are determined to have their houses, outside and in, correct according to the best standards. what do we mean by the best standards? certainly not those of the useless, overcharged house of the average american millionaire, who builds and furnishes his home with a hopeless disregard of tradition. we must accept the standards that the artists and the architects accept, the standards that have come to us from those exceedingly rational people, our ancestors. our ancestors built for stability and use, and so their simple houses were excellent examples of architecture. their spacious, uncrowded interiors were usually beautiful. houses and furniture fulfilled their uses, and if an object fulfils its mission the chances are that it is beautiful. it is all very well to plan our ideal house or apartment, our individual castle in spain, but it isn't necessary to live among intolerable furnishings just because we cannot realize our castle. there never was a house so bad that it couldn't be made over into something worth while. we shall all be very much happier when we learn to transform the things we have into a semblance of our ideal. how, then, may we go about accomplishing our ideal? by letting it go! by forgetting this vaguely pleasing dream, this evidence of our smug vanity, and making ourselves ready for a new ideal. by considering the body of material from which it is good sense to choose when we have a house to decorate. by studying the development of the modern house, its romantic tradition and architectural history. by taking upon ourselves the duty of self-taught lessons of sincerity and common sense, and suitability. by learning what is meant by color and form and line, harmony and contrast and proportion. when we are on familiar terms with our tools, and feel our vague ideas clearing into definite inspiration, then we are ready to talk about ideals. we are fit to approach the full art of home-making. we take it for granted that every woman is interested in houses--that she either has a house in course of construction, or dreams of having one, or has had a house long enough wrong to wish it right. and we take it for granted that this american home is always the woman's home: a man may build and decorate a beautiful house, but it remains for a woman to make a home of it for him. it is the personality of the mistress that the home expresses. men are forever guests in our homes, no matter how much happiness they may find there. you will express yourself in your house, whether you want to or not, so you must make up your mind to a long preparatory discipline. you may have only one house to furnish in your life-time, possibly, so be careful and go warily. therefore, you must select for your architect a man who isn't too determined to have _his_ way. it is a fearful mistake to leave the entire planning of your home to a man whose social experience may be limited, for instance, for he can impose on you his conception of your tastes with a damning permanency and emphasis. i once heard a certain boston architect say that he taught his clients to be ladies and gentlemen. he couldn't, you know. all he could do is to set the front door so that it would reprove them if they weren't! who does not know, for instance, those mistaken people whose houses represent their own or their architects' hasty visits to the fine old _châteaux_ of the loire, or the palaces of versailles, or the fine old houses of england, or the gracious villas of italy? we must avoid such aspiring architects, and visualize our homes not as so many specially designated rooms and convenient closets, but as individual expressions of ourselves, of the future we plan, of our dreams for our children. the ideal house is the house that has been long planned for, long awaited. [illustration: in this hall, simplicity, suitability and proportion are observed] fortunately for us, our best architects are so very good that we are better than safe if we take our problems to them. these men associate with themselves the hundred young architects who are eager to prove themselves on small houses. the idea that it is economical to be your own architect and trust your house to a building contractor is a mistaken, and most expensive, one. the surer you are of your architect's common sense and professional ability, the surer you may be that your house will be economically efficient. he will not only plan a house that will meet the needs of your family, but he will give you inspiration for its interior. he will concern himself with the moldings, the light-openings, the door-handles and hinges, the unconsidered things that make or mar your house. select for your architect a man you'd like for a friend. perhaps he will be, before the house comes true. if you are both sincere, if you both purpose to have the best thing you can afford, the house will express the genius and character of your architect and the personality and character of yourself, as a great painting suggests both painter and sitter. the hard won triumph of a well-built house means many compromises, but the ultimate satisfaction is worth everything. i do not purpose, in this book, to go into the historic traditions of architecture and decoration--there are so many excellent books it were absurd to review them--but i do wish to trace briefly the development of the modern house, the woman's house, to show you that all that is intimate and charming in the home as we know it has come through the unmeasured influence of women. man conceived the great house with its parade rooms, its _grands appartements_ but woman found eternal parade tiresome, and planned for herself little retreats, rooms small enough for comfort and intimacy. in short, man made the house: woman went him one better and made of it a home. the virtues of simplicity and reticence in form first came into being, as nearly as we can tell, in the _grotta_, the little studio-like apartment of isabella d'este, the marchioness of mantua, away back in . the marchioness made of this little studio her personal retreat. here she brought many of the treasures of the italian renaissance. really, simplicity and reticence were the last things she considered, but the point is that they were considered at all in such a restless, passionate age. later, in , she established the _paradiso_, a suite of apartments which she occupied after her husband's death. so you see the idea of a woman planning her own apartment is pretty old, after all. the next woman who took a stand that revealed genuine social consciousness was that half-french, half-italian woman, catherine de vivonne, marquise de rambouillet. she seceded from court because the court was swaggering and hurly-burly, with florid marie-de-medicis at its head. and with this recession, she began to express in her conduct, her feeling, her conversation, and, finally, in her house, her awakened consciousness of beauty and reserve, of simplicity and suitability. this was the early seventeenth century, mind you, when the main salons of the french houses were filled with such institutions as rows of red chairs and boxed state beds. she undertook, first of all, to have a light and gracefully curving stairway leading to her salon instead of supplanting it. she grouped her rooms with a lovely diversity of size and purpose, whereas before they had been vast, stately halls with cubbies hardby for sleeping. she gave the bedroom its alcove, boudoir, ante-chamber, and even its bath, and then as decorator she supplanted the old feudal yellow and red with her famous silver-blue. she covered blue chairs with silver bullion. she fashioned long, tenderly colored curtains of novel shades. reticence was always in evidence, but it was the reticence of elegance. it was through madame de rambouillet that the armchair received its final distribution of yielding parts, and began to express the comfort of soft padded backward slope, of width and warmth and color. it was all very heavy, very grave, very angular, this hôtel rambouillet, but it was devised for and consecrated to conversation, considered a new form of privilege! the _précieuses_ in their later jargon called chairs "the indispensables of conversation." i have been at some length to give a picture of madame de rambouillet's hôtel because it really is the earliest modern house. there, where the society that frequented it was analyzing its soul in dialogue and long platonic discussion that would seem stark enough to us, the word which it invented for itself was _urbanité_--the coinage of one of its own foremost figures. it is unprofitable to follow on into the grandeurs of louis xiv, if one hopes to find an advance there in truth-telling architecture. at the end of that splendid official success the squalor of versailles was unspeakable, its stenches unbearable. in spite of its size the palace was known as the most comfortless house in europe. after the death of its owner society, in a fit of madness, plunged into the _rocaille_. when the restlessness of louis xv could no longer find moorings in this brilliancy, there came into being little houses called _folies_, garden hermitages for the privileged. here we find madame de pompadour in calicoes, in a wild garden, bare-foot, playing as a milkmaid, or seated in a little gray-white interior with painted wooden furniture, having her supper on an earthen-ware service that has replaced old silver and gold. amorous alcoves lost their painted loves and took on gray and white decorations. the casinos of little _comédiennes_ did not glitter any more. english sentiment began to bedim gallic eyes, and so what we know as the louis xvi style was born. and so, at that moment, the idea of the modern house came into its own, and it could advance--as an idea--hardly any further. for with all the intrepidity and passion of the later eighteenth century in its search for beauty, for all the magic-making of convenience and ingenuity of the nineteenth century, the fundamentals have changed but little. and now we of the twentieth century can only add material comforts and an expression of our personality. we raise the house beyond the reach of squalor, we give it measured heat, we give it water in abundance and perfect sanitation and light everywhere, we give it ventilation less successfully than we might, and finally we give it the human quality that is so modern. there are no dungeons in the good modern house, no disgraceful lairs for servants, no horrors of humidity. [illustration: mennoyer drawings and old mirrors set in panelings] and so we women have achieved a house, luminous with kind purpose throughout. it is finished--that is our difficulty! we inherit it, all rounded in its perfection, consummate in its charms, but it is finished, and what can we do about a thing that is finished i doesn't it seem that we are back in the old position of isabella d'este--eager, predatory, and "thingy"? and isn't it time for us to pull up short lest we sidestep the goal? we are so sure of a thousand appetites we are in danger of passing by the amiable commonplaces. we find ourselves dismayed in old houses that look too simple. we must stop and ask ourselves questions, and, if necessary, plan for ourselves little retreats until we can find ourselves again. what is the goal? a house that is like the life that goes on within it, a house that gives us beauty as we understand it--and beauty of a nobler kind that we may grow to understand, a house that _looks_ amenity. suppose you have obtained this sort of wisdom--a sane viewpoint. i think it will give you as great a satisfaction to re-arrange your house with what you have as to re-build, re-decorate. the results may not be so charming, but you can learn by them. you can take your indiscriminate inheritance of victorian rosewood of eastlake walnut and cocobolo, your pickle-and-plum colored morris furniture, and make a civilized interior by placing it right, and putting detail at the right points. your sense of the pleasure and meaning of human intercourse will be clear in your disposition of your best things, in your elimination of your worst ones. when you have emptied the tables of _rubbish_ so that you can put _things_ down on them at need, placed them in a light where you can write on them in repose, or isolated real works of art in the middle of them; when you have set your dropsical sofas where you want them for talk, or warmth and reading; when you can see the fire from the bed in your sleeping-room, and dress near your bath; if this sort of sense of your rights is acknowledged in your rearrangement, your rooms will always have meaning, in the end. if you like only the things in a chair that have meaning, and grow to hate the rest you will, without any other instruction, prefer--the next time you are buying--a good louis xvi _fauteuil_ to a stuffed velvet chair. you will never again be guilty of the errors of meaningless magnificence. to most of us in america who must perforce lead workaday lives, the absence of beauty is a very distinct lack. i think, indeed, that the present awakening has come to stay, and that before very long, we shall have simple houses with fireplaces that draw, electric lights in the proper places, comfortable and sensible furniture, and not a gilt-legged spindle-shanked table or chair anywhere. this may be a decorator's optimistic dream, but let us all hope that it may come true. ii suitability, simplicity and proportion when i am asked to decorate a new house, my first thought is suitability. my next thought is proportion. always i keep in mind the importance of simplicity. first, i study the people who are to live in this house, and their needs, as thoroughly as i studied my parts in the days when i was an actress. for the time-being i really am the chatelaine of the house. when i have thoroughly familiarized myself with my "part," i let that go for the time, and consider the proportion of the house and its rooms. it is much more important that the wall openings, windows, doors, and fireplaces should be in the right place and should balance one another than that there should be expensive and extravagant hangings and carpets. my first thought in laying out a room is the placing of the electric light openings. how rarely does one find the lights in the right place in our over-magnificent hotels and residences! one arrives from a journey tired out and travel-stained, only to find oneself facing a mirror as far removed from the daylight as possible, with the artificial lights directly behind one, or high in the ceiling in the center of the room. in my houses i always see that each room shall have its lights placed for the comfort of its occupants. there must be lights in sheltered corners of the fireplace, by the writing-desk, on each side of the dressing-table, and so on. then i consider the heating of the room. we americans are slaves to steam heat. we ruin our furniture, our complexions, and our dispositions by this enervating atmosphere of too much heat. in my own houses i have a fireplace in each room, and i burn wood in it. there is a heating-system in the basement of my house, but it is under perfect control. i prefer the normal heat of sunshine and open fires. but, granted that open fires are impossible in all your rooms, do arrange in the beginning that the small rooms of your house may not be overheated. it is a distinct irritation to a person who loves clean air to go into a room where a flood of steam heat pours out of every corner. there is usually no way to control it unless you turn it off altogether. i once had the temerity to do this in a certain hotel room where there was a cold and cheerless empty fireplace. i summoned a reluctant chambermaid, only to be told that the chimney had never had a fire in it and the proprietor would rather not take such a risk! [illustration: a portrait by nattier inset above a fine old mantel] perhaps the guest in your house would not be so troublesome, but don't tempt her! if you have a fireplace, see that it is in working order. we are sure to judge a woman in whose house we find ourselves for the first time, by her surroundings. we judge her temperament, her habits, her inclinations, by the interior of her home. we may talk of the weather, but we are looking at the furniture. we attribute vulgar qualities to those who are content to live in ugly surroundings. we endow with refinement and charm the person who welcomes us in a delightful room, where the colors blend and the proportions are as perfect as in a picture. after all, what surer guarantee can there be of a woman's character, natural and cultivated, inherent and inherited, than taste? it is a compass that never errs. if a woman has taste she may have faults, follies, fads, she may err, she may be as human and feminine as she pleases, but she will never cause a scandal! how can we develop taste? some of us, alas, can never develop it, because we can never let go of shams. we must learn to recognize suitability, simplicity and proportion, and apply our knowledge to our needs. i grant you we may never fully appreciate the full balance of proportion, but we can exert our common sense and decide whether a thing is suitable; we can consult our conscience as to whether an object is simple, and we can train our eyes to recognize good and bad proportion. a technical knowledge of architecture is not necessary to know that a huge stuffed leather chair in a tiny gold and cream room is unsuitable, is hideously complicated, and is as much out of proportion as the proverbial bull in the china-shop. a woman's environment will speak for her life, whether she likes it or not. how can we believe that a woman of sincerity of purpose will hang fake "works of art" on her walls, or satisfy herself with imitation velvets or silks? how can we attribute taste to a woman who permits paper floors and iron ceilings in her house? we are too afraid of the restful commonplaces, and yet if we live simple lives, why shouldn't we be glad our houses are comfortably commonplace? how much better to have plain furniture that is comfortable, simple chintzes printed from old blocks, a few good prints, than all the sham things in the world? a house is a dead-give-away, anyhow, so you should arrange is so that the person who sees your personality in it will be reassured, not disconcerted. too often, here in america, the most comfortable room in the house is given up to a sort of bastard collection of gilt chairs and tables, over-elaborate draperies shutting out both light and air, and huge and frightful paintings. this style of room, with its museum-like furnishings, has been dubbed "marie antoinette," _why_, no one but the american decorator can say. heaven knows poor marie antoinette had enough follies to atone for, but certainly she has never been treated more shabbily than when they dub these mausoleums "marie antoinette rooms." i remember taking a clever englishwoman of much taste to see a woman who was very proud of her new house. we had seen most of the house when the hostess, who had evidently reserved what she considered the best for the last, threw open the doors of a large and gorgeous apartment and said, "this is my louis xvi ballroom." my friend, who had been very patient up to that moment, said very quietly, "what makes you think so?" louis xvi thought a salon well furnished with a few fine chairs and a table. he wished to be of supreme importance. in the immense salons of the italian palaces there were a few benches and chairs. people then wished spaces about them. nowadays, people are swamped by their furniture. too many centuries, too many races, crowd one another in a small room. the owner seems insignificant among his collections of historical furniture. whether he collects all sorts of things of all periods in one heterogeneous mass, or whether he fills his house with the furniture of some one epoch, he is not at home in his surroundings. the furniture of every epoch records its history. our ancestors of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries inherited the troublous times of their fathers in their heavy oaken chests. they owned more chests than anything else, because a chest could be carried away on the back of a sturdy pack mule, when the necessity arose for flight. people never had time to sit down in the sixteenth century. their feverish unrest is recorded in their stiff, backed chairs. it was not until the seventeenth century that they had time to sit down and talk. we need no book of history to teach us this--we have only to observe the ample proportions of the arm-chairs of the period. our ancestors of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries worked with a faith in the permanence of what they created. we have lost this happy confidence. we are occupied exclusively with preserving and reproducing. we have not succeeded in creating a style adapted to our modern life. it is just as well! our life, with its haste, its nervousness and its preoccupations, does not inspire the furniture-makers. we cannot do better than to accept the standards of other times, and adapt them to our uses. why should we american woman run after styles and periods of which we know nothing? why should we not be content with the fundamental things? the formal french room is very delightful in the proper place but when it is unsuited to the people who must live in it it is as bad as a sham room. the woman who wears paste jewels is not so conspicuously wrong as the woman who plasters herself with too many real jewels at the wrong time! this is what i am always fighting in people's houses, the unsuitability of things. the foolish woman goes about from shop to shop and buys as her fancy directs. she sees something "pretty" and buys it, though it has no reference either in form or color to the scheme of her house. haven't you been in rooms where there was a jumble of mission furniture, satinwood, fine old mahogany and gilt-legged chairs? and it is the same with color. a woman says, "oh, i love blue, let's have blue!" regardless of the exposure of her room and the furnishings she has already collected. and then when she has treated each one of her rooms in a different color, and with a different floor covering, she wonders why she is always fretted in going from one room to another. don't go about the furnishing of your house with the idea that you must select the furniture of some one period and stick to that. it isn't at all necessary. there are old english chairs and tables of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that fit into our quiet, spacious twentieth century country homes. lines and fabrics and woods are the things to be compared. there are so many beautiful things that have come to us from other times that it should be easy to make our homes beautiful, but i have seen what i can best describe as apoplectic chairs whose legs were fashioned like aquatic plants; tables upheld by tortured naked women; lighting fixtures in the form of tassels, and such horrors, in many houses of to-day under the guise of being "authentic period furniture." only a connoisseur can ever hope to know about the furniture of every period, but all of us can easily learn the ear-marks of the furniture that is suited to our homes. i shan't talk about ear-marks here, however, because dozens of collectors have compiled excellent books that tell you all about curves and lines and grain-of-wood and worm-holes. my business is to persuade you to use your graceful french sofas and your simple rush bottom new england chairs in different rooms--in other words, to preach to you the beauty of suitability. suitability! _suitability!_ suitability!! it is such a relief to return to the tranquil, simple forms of furniture, and to decorate our rooms by a process of elimination. how many rooms have i not cleared of junk--this heterogeneous mass of ornamental "period" furniture and bric-a-brac bought to make a room "look cozy." once cleared of these, the simplicity and dignity of the room comes back, the architectural spaces are freed and now stand in their proper relation to the furniture. in other words, the architecture of the room becomes its decoration. iii the old washington irving house i have always lived in enchanting houses. probably when another woman would be dreaming of love affairs, i dream of the delightful houses i have lived in. and just as the woman who dreams of many lovers finds one dream a little dearer than all the rest, so one of my houses has been dearer to me than all the others. [illustration: the washington irving house was delightfully rambling] this favorite love of mine is the old washington irving house in new york, the quaint mansion that gave historic irving place its name. for twenty years my friend, elizabeth marbury, and i made this old house our home. two years ago we reluctantly gave up the old house and moved into a more modern one--also transformed from old into new--on east fifty-fifth street. we have also a delightful old house in france, the villa trianon, at versailles, where we spend our summers. so you see we have had the rare experience of transforming three mistreated old houses into very delightful homes. when we found this old house, so many years ago, we were very young, and it is amusing now to think of its evolution. we had so many dreams, so many theories, and we tried them all out on the old house. and like a patient, well-bred maiden aunt, the old house always accepted our changes most placidly. there never was such a house! you could do anything to it, because, fundamentally, it was good. its wall spaces were inviting, its windows were made for framing pleasant things. when we moved there we had a broad sweep of view: i can remember seeing the river from our dining-room. now the city has grown up around the old house and jostled it rudely, and shut out much of its sunshine. there is a joy in the opportunity of creating a beautiful interior for a new and up-to-date house, but best of all is the joy of furnishing an old house like this one. it is like reviving an old garden. it may not be just your idea of a garden to begin with, but as you study it and deck its barren spaces with masses of color, and fit a sundial into the spot that so needs it, and give the sunshine a fountain to play with, you love the old garden just a little more every time you touch it, until it becomes to you the most beautiful garden in all the world. gardens and houses are such whimsical things! this old house of ours had been so long mistreated that it was fairly petulant and querulous when i began studying it. it asked questions on every turn, and seemed surprised when they were answered. the house was delightfully rambling, with a tiny entrance hall, and narrow stairs, and sudden up and down steps from one room to another like the old, old house one associates with far-away places and old times. the little entrance hall was worse than a question, it was a problem, but i finally solved it. the floor was paved with little hexagon-shaped tiles of a wonderful old red. a door made of little square panes of mirrors was placed where it would deceive the old hall into thinking itself a spacious thing. the walls were covered with a green-and-white-stripe wall-paper that looked as old as rip van winkle. this is the same ribbon-grass paper that i afterward used in the colony club hallway. the woodwork was painted a soft gray-green. finally, i had my collection of faded french costume prints set flat against the top of the wall as a frieze. the hall was so very narrow that as you went up stairs you could actually examine the old prints in detail. another little thing: i covered the handrail of the stairs with a soft gray-green velvet of the same tone as the woodwork, and the effect was so very good and the touch of it so very nice that many of my friends straightway adopted the idea. but i am placing the cart before the horse! i should talk of the shell of the house before the contents, shouldn't i? it is hard to talk of this particular house as a thing apart from its furnishings, however, for every bit of paneling, every lighting-fixture, the placing of each mirror, was worked out so that the shell of the house and its furnishings might be in perfect harmony. the drawing-room and dining-room occupied the first floor of the house. the drawing-room was a long, narrow room with cream woodwork and walls. the walls were broken into panels by the use of a narrow molding. in the large panel above the mantel-shelf i had inset a painting by nattier. you will see the same painting used in the fifty-fifth street house drawing-room, in another illustration. the color scheme of rose and cream and dull yellow was worked out from the rose and yellow persian rug. most of the furniture we found in france, but it fitted perfectly into this aristocratic and dignified room. miss marbury and i have a perfect right to french things in our drawing-room, you see, for we are french residents for half the year. and, besides, this gracious old house welcomed a fine old louis xiv sofa as serenely as you please. i have no idea of swallowing my words about unsuitability! light, air and comfort--these three things i must always have in a room, whether it be drawing-room or servant's room. this room had all three. the chairs were all comfortable, the lights well placed, and there was plenty of sunshine and air. the color of the room was so subdued that it was restful to the eye--one color faded into another so subtly that one did not realize there was a definite color-scheme. the hangings of the room were of a deep rose color. i used the same colors in the coverings of the chairs and sofas. the house was curtained throughout with fine white muslin curtains. no matter what the inner curtains of a room may be, i use this simple stuff against the window itself. there isn't any nicer material. to me there is something unsuitable in an array of lace against a window, like underclothes hung up to dry. [illustration: a washington irving house bedroom] the most delightful part of the drawing-room was the little conservatory, which was a plain, lamentable bay-window once upon a time. i determined to make a little flower-box of it, and had the floor of it paved with large tiles, and between the hardwood floor of the drawing-room and the marble of the window space was a narrow curb of marble, which made it possible to have a jolly little fountain in the window. the fountain splashed away to its heart's content, for there was a drain pipe under the curb. at the top of the windows there were shallow white boxes filled with trailing ivy that hung down and screened the glass, making the window as delightful to the passer-by without as to us within. there were several pots of rose-colored flowers standing in a prim row on the marble curb. you see how much simpler it is to make the best of an old bay window than to build on a new conservatory. there are thousands of houses with windows like this one of ours, an unfortunate space of which no use is made. sometimes there is a gilt table bearing a lofty jar, sometimes a timid effort at comfort--a sofa--but usually the bay window is sacred to its own devices, whatever they may be! why not spend a few dollars and make it the most interesting part of the room by giving it a lot of vines and flowers and a small fountain? it isn't at all an expensive thing to do. from the drawing-room you entered the dining-room. this was a long room with beautifully spaced walls, a high ceiling, and quaint cupboards. the arrangement of the mirrors around the cupboards and doors was unusual and most decorative. this room was so beautiful in itself that i used very little color--but _such_ color! we never tired of the gray and white and ivory color-scheme, the quiet atmosphere that made glorious the old chinese carpet, with its rose-colored ground and blue-and-gold medallions and border. the large india-ink sketches set in the walls are originals by mennoyer, the delightful eighteenth century artist who did the overdoors of the petit trianon. the mirror-framed lighting fixtures i brought over from france. the dining-table too, was french, of a creamy ivory-painted wood. the chairs had insets of cane of a deeper tone. the recessed window-seat was covered with a soft velvet of a deep yellow, and there were as many little footstools beside the window-seat as there were chairs in the room. doesn't everyone long for a footstool at table? i believe that everything in one's house should be comfortable, but one's bedroom must be more than comfortable: it must be intimate, personal, one's secret garden, so to speak. it may be as simple as a convent cell and still have this quality of the personality of its occupant. there are two things that are as important to me as the bed in the bedrooms that i furnish, and they are the little tables at the head of the bed, and the lounging chairs. the little table must hold a good reading light, well shaded, for who doesn't like to read in bed? there must also be a clock, and there really should be a telephone. and the _chaise-longue_, or couch, as the case may be, should be both comfortable and beautiful. who hasn't longed for a comfortable place to snatch forty winks at midday? my own bedroom in this house was very pleasant to me. the house was very small, you see, and my bedroom had to be my writing-and reading-room too, so that accounts for the bookshelves that fill the wall space above and around the mantel and the large writing-table. the room was built around a wonderful old french bed which came from brittany. this old bed is of carved mahogany, with mirrored panels on the side against the wall, and with tall columns at the ends. it is always hung with embroidered silk in the rose color that i adore and has any number of pillows, big and little. the _chaise-longue_ was covered with this same silk, as were the various chair cushions. the other furnishings were in keeping. it was a delightfully comfortable room, and it grew a little at a time. i needed bookshelves, and i built them. a drop-light was necessary, and i found the old brass lantern which hung from the ceiling. and so it was furnished, bit by bit, need by need. miss marbury's bedroom in this house was entirely different in type, but exactly the same in comfort. the furniture was of white enamel, the walls ivory-white, and the rug a soft dull blue. the chintz used was the familiar bird of paradise, gorgeous in design, but so subdued in tone that one never tires of it. the bed had a flat, perfectly fitted cover of the chintz, which is tucked under the mattress. the box spring was also covered with the chintz, and the effect was always tidy and satisfactory. this is the neatest disposal of the bed-clothes i have seen. i always advise this arrangement. besides the bed there was the necessary little table, holding a reading-light and so forth, and at the head of the bed a most adorable screen of white enamel, paneled with chintz below and glass above. there was a soft couch of generous width in this room, with covers and cushions of the chintz. over near the windows was the dressing-table with the lighting-fixtures properly placed. this table, hung with chintz, had a sheet of plate glass exactly fitting its top. the writing-table, near the window is also part of my creed of comfort. there should be a writing-table in every bedroom. my friends laugh at the little fat pincushions on my writing-tables, but when they are covered with a bit of the chintz or tapestry or brocade of the room they are very pretty, and i am sure pins are as necessary on the writing-table as on the dressing-table. [illustration: miss marbury's bedroom] another thing i like on every writing-table is a clear glass bowl of dried rose petals, which gives the room the faintest spicy fragrance. there is also a little bowl of just the proper color to hold pens and clips and odds and ends. i get as much pleasure from planning these small details as from the planning of the larger furniture of the room. the house was very simple, you see, and very small, and so when the time came to leave it we had grown to love every inch of it. you can love a small house so completely! but we couldn't forgive the skyscrapers encroaching on our supply of sunshine, and we really needed more room, and so we said good-by to our beloved old house and moved into a new one. now we find ourselves in danger of loving the new one as much as the old. but that is another story. iv the little house of many mirrors one walks the streets of new york and receives the fantastic impression that some giant architect has made for the city thousands of houses in replica. these dismal brownstone buildings are so like without, and alas! so like within, that one wonders how their owners know their homes from one another. i have had the pleasure of making over many of these gloomy barracks into homes for other people, and when we left the old irving place house we took one of these dreary houses for ourselves, and made it over into a semblance of what a city house should be. you know the kind of house--there are tens of thousands of them--a four story and basement house of pinkish brownstone, with a long flight of ugly stairs from the street to the first floor. the common belief that all city houses of this type must be dark and dreary just because they always _have_ been dark and dreary is an unnecessary superstition. my object in taking this house was twofold: i wanted to prove to my friends that it was possible to take one of the darkest and grimiest of city houses and make it an abode of sunshine and light, and i wanted to furnish the whole house exactly as i pleased--for once! the remaking of the house was very interesting. i tore away the ugly stone steps and centered the entrance door in a little stone-paved fore-court on the level of the old area-way. the fore-court is just a step below the street level, giving you a pleasant feeling of invitation. everyone hates to climb into a house, but there is a subtle allure in a garden or a court yard or a room into which you must step down. the fore-court is enclosed with a high iron railing banked with formal box-trees. above the huge green entrance door there is a graceful iron balcony, filled with green things, that pulls the great door and the central window of the floor above into an impressive composition. the façade of the house, instead of being a commonplace rectangle of stone broken by windows, has this long connected break of the door and balcony and window. by such simple devices are happy results accomplished! the door itself is noteworthy, with its great bronze knob set squarely in the center. on each side of it there are the low windows of the entrance hall, with window-boxes of evergreens. compare this orderly arrangement of windows and entrance door with the badly balanced houses of the old type, and you will realize anew the value of balance and proportion. from the fore-court you enter the hall. once within the hall, the, house widens magically. surely this cool black and white apartment cannot be a part of restless new york! have you ever come suddenly upon an old southern house, and thrilled at the classic purity of white columns in a black-green forest? this entrance hall gives you the same thrill; the elements of formality, of tranquillity, of coolness, are so evident. the walls and ceiling are a deep, flat cream, and the floor is laid in large black and white marble tiles. exactly opposite you as you enter, there is a wall fountain with a background of mirrors. the water spills over from the fountain into ferns and flowers banked within a marble curb. the two wall spaces on your right and left are broken by graceful niches which hold old statues. an oval chinese rug and the white and orange flowers of the fountain furnish the necessary color. the windows flanking the entrance doorway are hung with flat curtains of coarse white linen, with inserts of old filet lace, and there are side curtains of dead black silk with borderings of silver and gold threads. in any house that i have anything to do with, there is some sort of desk or table for writing in the hall. how often i have been in other people's houses when it was necessary to send a message, or to record an address, when the whole household began scurrying around trying to find a pencil and paper! this, to my mind, is an outward and visible sign of an inward--and fundamental!--lack of order. [illustration: the forecourt and entrance of the fifty-fifth street house] in this hall there is a charming desk particularly adapted to its place. it is a standing desk which can be lowered or heightened at will, so that one who wishes to scribble a line or so may use it without sitting down. this desk is called a _bureau d'architect_. i found it in biarritz. it would be quite easy to have one made by a good cabinet-maker, for the lines and method of construction are simple. my hall desk is so placed that it is lighted by the window by day and the wall lights by night, but it might be lighted by two tall candlesticks if a wall light were not available. there is a shallow drawer which contains surplus writing materials, but the only things permitted on the writing surface of the desk are the tray for cards, the pad and pencils. the only other furniture in the hall is an old porter's chair near the door, a chair that suggests the sedan of old france, but serves its purpose admirably. a glass door leads to the inner hall and the stairway, which i consider the best thing in the house. instead of the usual steep and gloomy stairs with which we are all familiar, here is a graceful spiral stairway which runs from this floor to the roof. the stair hall has two walls made up of mirrors in the french fashion, that is, cut in squares and held in place by small rosettes of gilt, and these mirrored walls seemingly double the spaciousness of what would be, under ordinary conditions, a gloomy inside hallway. the house is narrow in the extreme, and the secret of its successful renaissance is plenty of windows and light color and mirrors--mirrors--mirrors! it has been called the "little house of many mirrors," for so much of its spaciousness and charm is the effect of skilfully managed reflections. the stair-landings are most ingeniously planned. there are landings that lead directly from the stairs into the rooms of each floor, and back of one of the mirrored stair walls there is a little balcony connecting the rooms on that floor, a private passageway. the drawing-room and dining-room occupy the first floor. the drawing-room is a pleasant, friendly place, full of quiet color. the walls are a deep cream color and the floor is covered with a beautiful savonnerie rug. there are many beautiful old chairs covered with aubusson tapestry, and other chairs and sofas covered with rose colored brocade. this drawing-room is seemingly a huge place, this effect being given by the careful placing of mirrors and lights, and the skilful arrangement of the furniture. i believe in plenty of optimism and white paint, comfortable chairs with lights beside them, open fires on the hearth and flowers wherever they "belong," mirrors and sunshine in all rooms. but i think we can carry the white paint idea too far: i have grown a little tired of over-careful decorations, of plain white walls and white woodwork, of carefully matched furniture and over-cautious color-schemes. somehow the feeling of homey-ness is lost when the decorator is too careful. in this drawing-room there is furniture of many woods, there are stuffs of many weaves, there are candles and chandeliers and reading-lamps, but there is harmony of purpose and therefore harmony of effect. the room was made for conversation, for hospitality. a narrow landing connects the dining-room and the drawing-room. the color of the dining-room has grown of itself, from the superb chinese rug on the floor and the rare old mennoyer drawings inset in the walls. the woodwork and walls have been painted a soft dove-like gray. the walls are broken into panels by a narrow gray molding, and the mennoyers are set in five of these panels. in one narrow panel a beautiful wall clock has been placed. above the mantel there is a huge mirror with a panel in black and white relief above it. on the opposite wall there is another mirror, with a console table of carved wood painted gray beneath it. there is also a console table under one of the mennoyers. the two windows in this room are obviously windows by day, but at night two sliding doors of mirrors are drawn, just as a curtain would be drawn, to fill the window spaces. this is a little bit tricky, i admit, but it is a very good trick. the dining-table is of carved wood painted gray and covered with yellow damask, which in turn is covered with a sheet of plate glass. the chairs are covered with a blue and gold striped velvet. the rug has a gold ground with medallions and border of blue, ivory and rose. near the door that leads to the service rooms there is a huge screen made of one piece of wondrous tapestry. no other furniture is needed in the room. the third floor is given over to my sitting-room, bedroom, dressing-room, and so forth, and the fourth floor to miss marbury's apartments. these rooms will be discussed in other chapters. the servants' quarters in this house are very well planned. in the back yard that always goes with a house of this type i had built a new wing, five stories high, connected with the floors of the house proper by window-lined passages. on the dining-room floor the passage becomes a butler's pantry. on the bedroom floors the passages are large enough for dressing-rooms and baths, connecting with the bedrooms, and for outer halls and laundries connecting with the maids' rooms and the back stairs. in this way, you see, the maids can reach the dressing-rooms without invading the bedrooms. the kitchen and its dependencies occupy the first floor of the new wing, the servants' bedrooms the next three floors, and the top floor is made up of clothes closets, sewing-rooms, store rooms, etc. i firmly believe that the whole question of household comfort evolves from the careful planning of the service portion of the house. my servants' rooms are all attractive. the woodwork of these rooms is white, the walls are cream, the floors are waxed. they are all gay and sweet and cheerful, with white painted beds and chests of drawers and willow chairs, and chintz curtains and bed-coverings that are especially chosen, _not_ handed down when they have become too faded to be used elsewhere! v the treatment of walls surely the first considerations of the house in good taste must be light, air and sanitation. instead of ignoring the relation of sanitary conditions and decorative schemes, the architect and client of to-day work out these problems with excellent results. practical needs are considered just as worthy of the architect as artistic achievements. he is a poor excuse for his profession if he cannot solve the problems of utility and beauty, and work out the ultimate harmony of the house-to-be. if one enters a room in which true proportion has been observed, where the openings, the doors, windows and fireplace, balance perfectly, where the wall spaces are well planned and the height of the ceiling is in keeping with the floor-space, one is immediately convinced that here is a beautiful and satisfactory room, before a stick of furniture has been placed in it. all questions pertaining to the practical equipment and the decorative amenities of the house should be approached architecturally. if this is done, the result cannot fail to be felicitous, and our dream of our house beautiful comes true! before you begin the decoration of your walls, be sure that your floors have been finished to fulfil their purposes. stain them or polish them to a soft glow, keep them low in tone so that they may be backgrounds. we will assume that the woodwork of each room has been finished with a view to the future use and decoration of the room. we will assume that the ceilings are proper ceilings; that they will stay in their place, i.e., the top of the room. this is a most daring assumption, because there are so many feeble and threatening ceilings overhanging most of us that good ones seem rare. but the ceiling is an architectural problem, and you must consider it in the beginning of things. it may be beamed and have every evidence of structural beauty and strength, or it may be beamed in a ridiculous fashion that advertises the beams as shams, leading from nowhere to nowhere. it may be a beautiful expanse of creamy modeled plaster resting on a distinguished cornice, or it may be one of those ghastly skim-milk ceilings with distorted cupids and roses in relief. it may be a rectangle of plain plaster tinted cream or pale yellow or gray, and keeping its place serenely, or it may be a villainous stretch of ox-blood, hanging over your head like the curse of cain. there are hundreds of magnificent painted ceilings, and vaulted arches of marble and gold, but these are not of immediate importance to the woman who is furnishing a small house, and are not within the scope of this book. so let us exercise common sense and face our especial ceiling problem in an architectural spirit. if your house has structural beams, leave them exposed, if you like, but treat them as beams; stain them, and wax them, and color the spaces between them cream or tan or warm gray, and then make the room beneath the beams strong enough in color and furnishings to carry the impressive ceiling. if you have an architect who is also a decorator, and he has ideas for a modeled plaster ceiling, or a ceiling with plaster-covered beams and cornice and a fine application of ornament, let him do his best for you, but remember that a fine ceiling demands certain things of the room it covers. if you have a simple little house with simple furnishings, be content to have your ceilings tinted a warm cream, keep them always clean. when all these things are settled--floors and ceilings and woodwork--you may begin to plan your wall coverings. begin, you understand. you will probably change your plans a dozen times before you make the final decisions. i hope you will! because inevitably the last opinion is best--it grows out of so many considerations. the main thing to remember, when you begin to cover your walls, is that they are walls, that they are straight up and down, and have breadth and thickness, that they are supposedly strong, in other words, that they are a structural part of your house. a wall should always be treated as a flat surface and in a conventional way. pictorial flowers and lifelike figures have no place upon it, but conventionalized designs may be used successfully--witness the delighted use of the fantastic landscape papers in the middle of the eighteenth century. walls should always be obviously _walls_, and not flimsy partitions hung with gauds and trophies. the wall is the background of the room, and so must be flat in treatment and reposeful in tone. walls have always offered tempting spaces for decoration. our ancestors hung their walls with trophies. our pioneer of to-day may live in an adobe hut, but he hangs his walls with things that suggest beauty and color to him, calendars, and trophies and gaudy chromos. the rest of his hut he uses for the hard business of living, but his walls are his theater, his literature, his recreation. the wolf skin will one day give place to a painting of the chase, the gaudy calendars to better things, when prosperity comes. but now these crude things speak for the pioneer period of the man, and therefore they are the right things for the moment. how absurd would be the refined etching and the delicate water-color on these clay walls, even were they within his grasp! the first impulse of all of us is to hang the things we admire on our walls. unfortunately, we do not always select papers and fabrics and pictures we will continue to admire. who doesn't know the woman who goes to a shop and selects wall papers as she would select her gowns, because they are "new" and "different" and "pretty"? she selects a "rich" paper for her hall and an "elegant" paper for her drawing-room--the chances are it is a nile green moire paper! for her library she thinks a paper imitating an oriental fabric is the proper thing, and as likely as not she buys gold paper for her dining-room. she finds so many charming bedroom papers that she has no trouble in selecting a dozen of them for insipid blue rooms and pink rooms and lilac rooms. she forgets that while she wears only one gown at a time she will live with all her wall papers all the time. she decides to use a red paper of large figures in one room, and a green paper with snaky stripes in the adjoining room, but she doesn't try the papers out; she doesn't give them the fair test of living with them a few days. you can always buy, or borrow, a roll of the paper you like and take it home and live with it awhile. the dealer will credit the roll when you make the final decisions. you should assemble all the papers that are to be used in the house, and all the fabrics, and rugs, and see what the effect of the various compositions will be, one with another. you can't consider one room alone, unless it be a bedroom, for in our modern houses we believe too thoroughly in spaciousness to separate our living rooms by ante-chambers and formal approaches. we must preserve a certain amount of privacy, and have doors that may be closed when need be, but we must also consider the effect of things when those doors are open, when the color of one room melts into the color of another. [illustration: a painted wall broken into panels by narrow moldings] to me, the most beautiful wall is the plain and dignified painted wall, broken into graceful panels by the use of narrow moldings, with lighting fixtures carefully placed, and every picture and mirror hung with classic precision. this wall is just as appropriate to the six-room cottage as to the twenty-room house. if i could always find perfect walls, i'd always paint them, and never use a yard of paper. painted walls, when very well done, are dignified and restful, and most sanitary. the trouble is that too few plasterers know how to smooth the wall surface, and too few workmen know how to apply paint properly. in my new house on east fifty-fifth street i have had all the walls painted. the woodwork is ivory white throughout the house, except in the dining-room, where the walls and woodwork are soft gray. the walls of most of the rooms and halls are painted a very deep tone of cream and are broken into panels, the moldings being painted cream like the woodwork. with such walls you can carry out any color-plan you may desire. you would think that every woman would know that walls are influenced by the exposure of the room, but how often i have seen bleak north rooms with walls papered in cold gray, and sunshiny south rooms with red or yellow wall papers! dull tones and cool colors are always good in south rooms, and live tones and warm colors in north rooms. for instance, if you wish to keep your rooms in one color-plan, you may have white woodwork in all of them, and walls of varying shades of cream and yellow. the north rooms may have walls painted or papered with a soft, warm yellow that suggests creamy chiffon over orange. the south rooms may have the walls of a cool creamy-gray tone. whether you paint or paper your walls, you should consider the placing of the picture-molding most carefully. if the ceiling is very high, the walls will be more interesting if the picture-molding is placed three or four feet below the ceiling line. if the ceiling is low, the molding should be within two inches of the ceiling. these measurements are not arbitrary, of course. every room is a law unto itself, and no cut and dried rule can be given. a fine frieze is a very beautiful decoration, but it must be _very_ fine to be worth while at all. usually the dropped ceiling is better for the upper wall space. it goes without saying that those dreadful friezes perpetrated by certain wall paper designers are very bad form, and should never be used. indeed, the very principle of the ordinary paper frieze is bad; it darkens the upper wall unpleasantly, and violates the good old rule that the floors should be darkest in tone, the side walls lighter, and the ceiling lightest. the recent vogue of stenciling walls may be objected to on this account, though a very narrow and conventional line of stenciling may sometimes be placed just under the picture rail with good effect. in a great room with a beamed ceiling and oak paneled walls a painted fresco or a frieze of tapestry or some fine fabric is a very fine thing, especially if it has a lot of primitive red and blue and gold in it, but in simple rooms--beware! lately there has been a great revival of interest in wood paneling. we go abroad, and see the magnificent paneling of old english houses, and we come home and copy it. but we cannot get the workmen who will carve panels in the old patterns. we cannot wait a hundred years for the soft bloom that comes from the constant usage, and so our paneled rooms are apt to be too new and woody. but we have such a wonderful store of woods, here in america, it is worth while to panel our rooms, copying the simple rectangular english patterns, and it is quite permissible to "age" our walls by rubbing in black wax, and little shadows of water-color, and in fact by any method we can devise. wood paneled walls, like beamed ceilings, are best in great rooms. they make boxes of little ones. painted walls, and walls hung with tapestries and leather, are not possible to many of us, but they are the most magnificent of wall treatments. i know a wonderful library with walls hung in squares of spanish leather, a cold northern room that merits such a brilliant wall treatment. the primitive colors of the cordova leather workers, with gold and crimson dominant, glow from the deep shadows. spanish and italian furniture and fine old velvets and brocades furnish this room. the same sort of room invites wood paneling and tapestry, whereas the ideal room for painted walls in a lighter key is the ballroom, or some such large apartment. i once decorated a ballroom with pillement panels, copied from a beautiful eighteenth century room, and so managed to bring a riot of color and decoration into a large apartment. the ground of the paneling was deep yellow, and all the little birds and flowers surrounding the central design were done in the very brightest, strongest colors imaginable. the various panels had quaint little scenes of the same chinese flavor. of course, in such an apartment as a ballroom there would be nothing to break into the decorative plan of the painted walls, and the unbroken polished floor serves only to throw the panels into their proper prominence. painted walls, when done in some such broad and daring manner, are very wonderful, but they should not be attempted by the amateur, or, indeed, by an expert in a room that will be crowded with furniture, and curtains, and rugs. if your walls are faulty, you must resort to wall papers or fabrics. properly selected wall papers are not to be despised. the woodwork of a room, of course, directly influences the treatment of its walls. so many people ask me for advice about wall papers, and forget absolutely to tell me of the finish of the framing of their wall spaces. a pale yellowish cream wall paper is very charming with woodwork of white, but it would not do with woodwork of heavy oak, for instance. [illustration: a wall paper of elizabethan design with oak furniture] a general rule to follow in a small house is: do not have a figured wall paper if you expect to use things of large design in your rooms. if you have gorgeous rugs and hangings, keep your walls absolutely plain. in furnishing the colony club i used a ribbon grass paper in the hallway. the fresh, spring-like green and white striped paper is very delightful with a carpet and runner of plain dark-green velvet, and white woodwork, and dark mahogany furniture, and many gold-framed mirrors. in another room in this building where many chintzes and fabrics were used, i painted the woodwork white and the walls a soft cream color. in the bedrooms i used a number of wall papers, the most fascinating of these, perhaps, is in the bird room. the walls are hung with a daringly gorgeous paper covered with birds--birds of paradise and paroquets perched on flowery tropical branches. the furniture in this room is of black and gold lacquer, and the rug and hangings are of jade green. it would not be so successful in a room one lived in all the year around, but it is a good example of what one can do with a tempting wall paper in an occasional room, a guest room, for instance. some of the figured wall papers are so decorative that they are more than tempting, they are compelling. the chinese ones are particularly fascinating. recently i planned a small boudoir in a country house that depended on a gay chinoiserie paper for its charm. the design of the paper was made up of quaint little figures and parasols and birds and twisty trees, all in soft tones of green and blue and mauve on a deep cream ground. the woodwork and ceiling repeated the deep cream, and the simple furniture (a day bed, a chest of drawers, and several chairs) were of wood, painted a flat blue green just the color of the twisty pine-trees of the paper. we had a delightful time decorating the furniture with blue and mauve lines, and we painted parasols and birds and flowers on chair backs and drawer-knobs and so forth. the large rug was of pinky-mauve-gray, and the coverings of the day bed and chairs were of a mauve and gray striped stuff, the stripes so small that they had the effect of being threads of color. there were no pictures, of course, but there was a long mirror above the chest of drawers, and another over the mantel. the lighting-fixtures, candlesticks and appliqués, were of carved and painted wood, blue-green with shades of thin mauve silk over rose. among the most enchanting of the new papers are the black and white ones, fantastic chinese designs and startling austrian patterns. black and white is always a tempting combination to the decorator, and now that josef hoffman, the great austrian decorator, has been working in black and white for a number of years, the more venturesome decorators of france, and england and america have begun to follow his lead, and are using black and white, and black and color, with amazing effect. we have black papers patterned in color, and black velvet carpets, and white coated papers sprinkled with huge black polka dots, and all manner of unusual things. it goes without saying that much of this fad is freakish, but there is also much that is good enough and refreshing enough to last. one can imagine nothing fresher than a black and white scheme in a bedroom, with a saving neutrality of gray or some dull tone for rugs, and a brilliant bit of color in porcelain. there is no hint of the mournful in the decorator's combination of black and white: rather, there is a naïve quality suggestive of smartness in a gown, or chic in a woman. a white walled room with white woodwork and a black and white tiled floor; a black lacquer bed and chest of drawers and chair; glass curtains of white muslin and inside ones of black and white hoffman chintz; a splash of warm orange-red in an oval rug at the bedside, if it be winter, or a cool green one in summer--doesn't this tempt you? i once saw a little serving-maid wearing a calico gown, black crosses on a white ground, and i was so enchanted with the cool crispness of it that i had a glazed wall paper made in the same design. i have used it in bedrooms, and in bathrooms, always with admirable effect. one can imagine a girl making a pierrot and pierrette room for herself, given whitewashed walls, white woodwork, and white painted furniture. an ordinary white cotton printed with large black polka dots would make delightful curtains, chair-cushions, and so forth. the rug might be woven of black and white rags, or might be one of those woven from the old homespun coverlet patterns. the landscape papers that were so popular in the new england and southern houses three generations ago were very wonderful when they were used in hallways, with graceful stairs and white woodwork, but they were distressing when used in living-rooms. it is all very well to cover the walls of your hall with a hand-painted paper, or a landscape, or a foliage paper, because you get only an impressionistic idea of a hall--you don't loiter there. but papers of large design are out of place in rooms where pictures and books are used. if there is anything more dreadful than a busy "parlor" paper, with scrolls that tantalize or flowers that demand to be counted, i have yet to encounter it. remember, above all things that your walls must be beautiful in themselves. they must be plain and quiet, ready to receive sincere things, but quite good enough to get along without pictures if necessary. a wall that is broken into beautiful spaces and covered with a soft creamy paint, or paper, or grasscloth, is good enough for any room. it may be broken with lighting fixtures, and it is finished. [illustration: the scheme of this room grew from the jars on the mantel] vi the effective use of color what a joyous thing is color! how influenced we all are by it, even if we are unconscious of how our sense of restfulness has been brought about. certain colors are antagonistic to each of us, and i think we should try to learn just what colors are most sympathetic to our own individual emotions, and then make the best of them. if you are inclined to a hasty temper, for instance, you should not live in a room in which the prevailing note is red. on the other hand, a timid, delicate nature could often gain courage and poise by living in surroundings of rich red tones, the tones of the old italian damasks in which the primitive colors of the middle ages have been handed down to us. no half shades, no blending of tender tones are needed in an age of iron nerves. people worked hard, and they got downright blues and reds and greens--primitive colors, all. nowadays, we must consider the effect of color on our nerves, our eyes, our moods, everything. love of color is an emotional matter, just as much as love of music. the strongest, the most intense, feeling i have about decoration is my love of color. i have felt as intimate a satisfaction at st. mark's at twilight as i ever felt at any opera, though i love music. color! the very word would suggest warm and agreeable arrangement of tones, a pleasing and encouraging atmosphere which is full of life. we say that one woman is "so full of color," when she is alert and happy and vividly alive. we say another woman is "colorless," because she is bleak and chilling and unfriendly. we demand that certain music shall be full of color, and we always seek color in the pages of our favorite books. one poet has color and to spare, another is cynical and hard and--gray. we think and criticize from the standpoint of an appreciation of color, although often we have not that appreciation. there is all the difference in the world between the person who appreciates color and the person who "likes colors." the child, playing with his broken toys and bits of gay china and glass, the american indian with his gorgeous blankets and baskets and beads--all these primitive minds enjoy the combination of vivid tones, but they have no more feeling for color than a blind man. the appreciation of color is a subtle and intellectual quality. sparrow, the englishman who has written so many books on housefurnishing, says: "colors are like musical notes and chords, while color is a pleasing result of their artistic use in a combined way. so colors are means to an end, while color is the end itself. the first are tools, while the other is a distinctive harmony in art composed of many lines and shades." we are aware that some people are "color-blind," but we do not take the trouble to ascertain whether the majority of people see colors crudely. i suppose there are as many color-blind people as there are people who have a deep feeling for color, and the great masses of people in between, while they know colors one from another, have no appreciation of hue. just as surely, there are some people who cannot tell one tune from another and some people who have a deep and passionate feeling for music, while the rest--the great majority of people--can follow a tune and sing a hymn, but they can go no deeper into music than that. surely, each of you must know your own color-sense. you know whether you get results, don't you? i have never believed that there is a woman so blind that she cannot tell good from bad effects, even though she may not be able to tell _why_ one room is good and another bad. it is as simple as the problem of the well-gowned woman and the dowdy one. the dowdy woman doesn't realize the degree of her own dowdiness, but she _knows_ that her neighbor is well-gowned, and she envies her with a vague and pathetic envy. if, then, you are not sure that you appreciate color, if you feel that you, like your children, like the green rug with the red roses because it is "so cheerful," you may be sure that you should let color-problems alone, and furnish your house in neutral tones, depending on book-bindings and flowers and open fires and the necessary small furnishings for your color. then, with an excellent background of soft quiet tones, you can venture a little way at a time, trying a bit of color here for a few days, and asking yourself if you honestly like it, and then trying another color--a jar or a bowl or a length of fabric--somewhere else, and trying that out. you will soon find that your joy in your home is growing, and that you have a source of happiness within yourself that you had not suspected. i believe that good taste can be developed in any woman, just as surely as good manners are possible to anyone. and good taste is as necessary as good manners. we may take our first lessons in color from nature, on whose storehouse we can draw limitlessly. nature, when she plans a wondrous splash of color, prepares a proper background for it. she gives us color plans for all the needs we can conceive. white and gray clouds on a blue sky--what more could she use in such a composition? a bit of gray green moss upon a black rock, a field of yellow dandelions, a pink and white spike of hollyhocks, an orange-colored butterfly poised on a stalk of larkspur--what color-plans are these! [illustration: a louis seize bedroom in rose and blue and cream] i think that the first consideration after you have settled your building-site should be to place your house so that its windows may frame nature's own pictures. with windows facing north and south, where all the fluctuating and wayward charm of the season unrolls before your eyes, your windows become the finest pictures that you can have. when this has been arranged, it is time to consider the color-scheme for the interior of the house, the colors that shall be in harmony with the window-framed vistas, the colors that shall be backgrounds for the intimate personal furnishings of your daily life. you must think of your walls as backgrounds for the colors you wish to bring into your rooms. and by colors i do not mean merely the primary colors, red and blue and yellow, or the secondary colors, green and orange and violet, i mean the white spaces, the black shadows, the gray halftones, the suave creams, that give you the _feeling_ of color. how often we get a more definite idea of brilliant color from a white-walled room, with dark and severe furniture and no ornaments, no actual color save the blue sky framed by the windows and the flood of sunshine that glorifies everything, than from a room that has a dozen fine colors, carefully brought together, in its furnishings! we must decide our wall colors by the aspect of our rooms. rooms facing south may be very light gray, cream, or even white, but northern rooms should be rich in color, and should suggest warmth and just a little mystery. some of you have seen the sala di cambio at perugia. do you remember how dark it seems when one enters, and how gradually the wonderful coloring glows out from the gloom and one is comforted and soothed into a sort of dreamland of pure joy, in the intimate satisfaction of it all? it is unsurpassable for sheer decorative charm, i think. for south rooms blues and grays and cool greens and all the dainty gay colors are charming. do you remember the song edna may used to sing in "the belle of new york"? i am not sure of quoting correctly, but the refrain was: "follow the light!" i have so often had it in mind when i've been planning my color schemes--"follow the light!" but light colors for sunshine, remember, and dark ones for shadow. for north rooms i am strongly inclined to the use of paneling in our native american woods, that are so rich in effect, but alas, so little used. i hope our architects will soon realize what delightful and inexpensive rooms can be made of pine and cherry, chestnut and cypress, and the beautiful california redwood. i know of a library paneled with cypress. the beamed ceiling, the paneled walls, the built-in shelves, the ample chairs and long tables are all of the soft brown cypress. here, if anywhere, you would think a monotony of brown wood would be obvious, but think of the thousands of books with brilliant bindings! think of the green branches of trees seen through the casement windows! think of the huge, red-brick fireplace, with its logs blazing in orange and yellow and vermillion flame! think of the distinction of a copper bowl of yellow flowers on the long brown table! can't you see that this cypress room is simply glowing with color? i wish that i might be able to show all you young married girls who are working out your home-schemes just how to work out the color of a room. suppose you are given some rare and lovely jar, or a wee rug, or a rare old print, or even a quaint old chair from long ago, and build a room around it. i have some such point of interest in every room i build, and i think that is why some people like my rooms--they feel, without quite knowing why, that i have loved them while making them. now there is a little sitting-room and bedroom combined in a certain new york house that i worked out from a pair of chinese jars. they were the oddest things, of a sort of blue-green and mauve and mulberry, with flecks of black, on a cream porcelain ground. first i found a wee oriental rug that repeated the colors of the jugs. this was to go before the hearth. then i worked out the shell of the room: the woodwork white, the walls bluish green, the plain carpet a soft green. i designed the furniture and had it made by a skilful carpenter, for i could find none that would harmonize with the room. the day bed which is forty-two inches wide, is built like a wide roomy sofa. one would never suspect it of being a plain bed. still it makes no pretensions to anything else, for it has the best of springs and the most comfortable of mattresses, and a dozen soft pillows. the bed is of wood and is painted a soft green, with a dark-green line running all around, and little painted festoons of flowers in decoration. the mattress and springs are covered with a most delightful mauve chintz, on which birds and flowers are patterned. there are several easy chairs cushioned with this chintz, and the window hangings are also of it. the chest of drawers is painted in the same manner. there are glass knobs on the drawers, and a sheet of plate glass covers the top of it. an old painting hangs above it. the open bookshelves are perfectly plain in construction. they are painted the same bluish-green, and the only decoration is the line of dark green about half an inch from the edge. any woman who is skilful with her brush could decorate furniture of this kind, and i daresay many women could build it. there is another bedroom in this house, a room in red and blue. "red and blue"--you shudder. i know it! but _such_ red and _such_ blue! will you believe me when i assure you that this room is called cool and restful-looking by everyone who sees it? the walls are painted plain cream. the woodwork is white. the perfectly plain carpet rug is of a dull red that is the color of an old-fashioned rose--you know the roses that become lavender when they fade? the mantel is of siena marble, and over it there is an old mirror with an upper panel painted in colors after the manner of some of those delightful old rooms found in france about the time of louis xvi. if you have one very good picture and will use it in this way, inset over the mantel with a mirror below it, you will need no other pictures in your room. [illustration: by permission of the butterick publishing co. the writing corner of a chintz bedroom] the chintz used in this room is patterned in the rose red of the carpet and a dull cool blue, on a white ground. this chintz is used on the graceful sofa, the several chairs and the bed, which are ivory in tone. the hangings of the bed are lined with taffetas of rose red. the bedcover is of the same silk, and the inner curtains at the window are lined with it. the small table at the head of the bed, the kidney table beside the sofa, and the small cabinets near the mantel, are of mahogany. there is a mahogany writing-table placed at right angles to the windows. from this rose and blue bedroom you enter a little dressing-room that is also full of color. here are the same cream walls, the dull red carpet, the old blue silk shades on lamps and candles, but the chintz is different: the ground is black, and gray parrots and paroquets swing in blue-green festoons of leaves and branches. the dressing-table is placed in front of the window, so that you can see yourself for better or for worse. there is a three-fold mirror of black and gold lacquer, and a chinese cabinet of the same lacquer in the corner. the low seat before the dressing-table is covered with the chintz. a few costume prints hang on the wall. you can imagine how impossible it would be to be ill-tempered in such a cheerful place. vii of doors, and windows, and chintz what a sense of intimacy, of security, encompasses one when ushered into a living room in which the door opens and _closes_! who that has read henry james's remarkable article on the vistas dear to the american hostess, our portiere-hung spaces, guiltless of doors and open to every draft, can fail to feel how much better our conversation might be were we not forever conscious that between our guests and the greedy ears of our servants there is nothing but a curtain! all that curtains ever were used for in the eighteenth century was as a means of shutting out drafts in large rooms inadequately heated by wood fires. how often do we see masses of draperies looped back and arranged with elaborate dust-catching tassels and fringes that mean nothing. these curtains do not even draw! i am sure that a good, well-designed door with a simple box-lock and hinges would be much less costly than velvet hangings. a door is not an ugly object, to be concealed for very shame, but a fine architectural detail of great value. consider the french and italian doors with their architraves. how fine they are, how imposing, how honest, and how well they compose! of course, if your house has been built with open archways, you will need heavy curtains for them, but there are curtains _and_ curtains. if you need portieres at all, you need them to cut off one room from another, and so they should hang in straight folds. they should be just what they pretend to be--honest curtains with a duty to fulfil. for the simple house they may be made of velvet or velveteen in some neutral tone that is in harmony with the rugs and furnishings of the rooms that are to be divided. they should be double, usually, and a faded gilt gimp may be used as an outline or as a binding. there are also excellent fabrics reproducing old brocades and even old tapestries, but it is well to be careful about using these fabrics. there are machine-made "tapestries" of foliage designs in soft greens and tans and browns on a dark blue ground that are very pleasing. many of these stuffs copy in color and design the verdure tapestries, and some of them have fine blues and greens suggestive of gobelin. these stuffs are very wide and comparatively inexpensive. i thoroughly advise a stuff of this kind, but i heartily condemn the imitations of the old tapestries that are covered with large figures and intricate designs. these old tapestries are as distinguished for their colors, their textures, and their very crudities as for their supreme beauty of coloring. it would be foolish to imitate them. as for windows and their curtains--i could write a book about them! a window is such a gay, animate thing. by day it should be full of sunshine, and if it frames a view worth seeing, the view should be a part of it. by night the window should be hidden by soft curtains that have been drawn to the side during the sunshiny hours. in most houses there is somewhere a group of windows that calls for an especial kind of curtain. if these windows look out over a pleasant garden, or upon a vista of fields and trees, or even upon a striking sky-line of housetops, you will be wise to use a thin, sheer glass curtain through which you can look out, but which protects you from the gaze of passers-by. if your group of windows is so placed that there is no danger of people passing and looking in, then a short sash curtain of swiss muslin is all that you require, with inside curtains of some heavier fabric--chintz or linen or silk--that can be drawn at night. if you are building a new house i strongly advise you to have at least one room with a group of deep windows, made up of small panes of leaded glass, and a broad window-seat built beneath them. there is something so pleasant and mellow in leaded glass, particularly when the glass itself has an uneven, colorful quality. when windows are treated thus architecturally they need no glass curtains. they need only side curtains of some deep-toned fabric. [illustration: by permission of the butterick publishing co. black chintz used in a dressing-room] as for your single windows, when you are planning them you will be wise to have the sashes so placed that a broad sill will be possible. there is nothing pleasanter than a broad window sill at a convenient height from the floor. the tendency of american builders nowadays is to use two large glass sashes instead of the small or medium-sized panes of older times. this is very bad from the standpoint of the architect, because these huge squares of glass suggest holes in the wall, whereas the square or oblong panes with their straight frames and bars advertise their suitability. the housewife's objection to small panes is that they are harder to clean than the large ones, but this objection is not worthy of consideration. if we really wish to make our houses look as if they were built for permanency we should consider everything that makes for beauty and harmony and hominess. there is nothing more interesting than a cottage window sash of small square panes of glass unless it be the diamond-paned casement window of an old english house. such windows are obviously windows. the huge sheets of plate glass that people are so proud of are all very well for shops, but they are seldom right in small houses. i remember seeing one plate glass window that was well worth while. it was in the mountain studio of an artist and it was fully eight by ten feet--one unbroken sheet of glass which framed a marvelous vista of mountain and valley. it goes without saying that such a window requires no curtain other than one that is to be drawn at night. the ideal treatment for the ordinary single window is a soft curtain of some thin white stuff hung flat and full against the glass. this curtain should have an inch and a half hem at the bottom and a narrow hem at the sides. it should be strung on a small brass rod, and should be placed as close to the glass as possible, leaving just enough space for the window shade beneath it. the curtain should hang in straight folds to the window sill, escaping it by half an inch or so. i hope it is not necessary for me to go into the matter of lace curtains here. i feel sure that no woman of really good taste could prefer a cheap curtain of imitation lace to a simple one of white swiss-muslin. i have never seen a house room that was too fine for a swiss-muslin curtain, though of course there are many rooms that would welcome no curtains whatever wherein the windows are their own excuse for being. lace curtains, even if they may have cost a king's ransom, are in questionable taste, to put it mildly. use all the lace you wish on your bed linen and table linen, but do not hang it up at your windows for passers-by to criticize. [illustration: printed linen curtains over rose-colored silk] many women do not feel the need of inside curtains. indeed, they are not necessary in all houses. they are very attractive when they are well hung, and they give the window a distinction and a decorative charm that is very valuable. i am using many photographs that show the use of inside curtains. you will observe that all of these windows have glass curtains of plain white muslin, no matter what the inside curtain may be. chintz curtains are often hung with a valance about ten or twelve inches deep across the top of the window. these valances should be strung on a separate rod, so that the inside curtains may be pulled together if need be. the ruffled valance is more suitable for summer cottages and bedrooms than for more formal rooms. a fitted valance of chintz or brocade is quite dignified enough for a drawing-room or any other. in my bedroom i have used a printed linen with a flat valance. this printed linen is in soft tones of rose and green on a cream ground. the side curtains have a narrow fluted binding of rose-colored silk. under these curtains are still other curtains of rose-colored shot silk, and beneath those are white muslin glass curtains. with such a window treatment the shot silk curtains are the ones that are drawn together at night, making a very soft, comforting sort of color arrangement. you will observe in this photograph that the panels between doors and windows are filled with mirrors that run the full length from the molding to the baseboard. this is a very beautiful setting for the windows, of course. it is well to remember that glass curtains should not be looped back. inside curtains may be looped when there is no illogical break in the line. it is absurd to hang up curtains against the glass and then draw them away, for glass curtains are supposed to be a protection from the gaze of the passers-by. if you haven't passers-by you can pull your curtains to the side so that you may enjoy the out-of-doors. do not lose sight of the fact that your windows are supposed to give you sunshine and air; if you drape them so that you get neither sunshine nor air you might as well block them up and do away with them entirely. to me the most amazing evidence of the advance of good taste is the revival of chintzes, printed linens, cottons and so forth, of the eighteenth century. ten years ago it was almost impossible to find a well-designed cretonne; the beautiful chintzes as we know them were unknown. now there are literally thousands of these excellent fabrics of old and new designs in the shops. the gay designs of the printed cottons that came to us from east india, a hundred years ago, and the fantastic chintzes known as chinese chippendale, that were in vogue when the dutch east india company supplied the world with its china and fabrics; the dainty french _toiles de jouy_ that are reminiscent of marie antoinette and her bewitching apartments, and the printed linens of old england and later ones of the england of william morris, all these are at our service. there are charming cottons to be had at as little as twenty cents a yard, printed from old patterns. there are linens hand-printed from old blocks that rival cut velvet in their lustrous color effect and cost almost as much. there are amazing fabrics that seem to have come from the land of the arabian nights--they really come from austria and are dubbed "futurist" and "cubist" and such. some of them are inspiring, some of them are horrifying, but all of them are interesting. old-time chintzes were usually very narrow, and light in ground, but the modern chintz is forty or fifty inches wide, with a ground of neutral tone that gives it distinction, and defies dust. when i began my work as a decorator of houses, my friends, astonished and just a little amused at my persistent use of chintz, called me the "chintz decorator." the title pleased me, even though it was bestowed in fun, for my theory has always been that chintz, when properly used, is the most decorative and satisfactory of all fabrics. at first people objected to my bringing chintz into their houses because they had an idea it was poor and mean, and rather a doubtful expedient. on the contrary, i feel that it is infinitely, better to use good chintzes than inferior silks and damasks, just as simple engravings and prints are preferable to doubtful paintings. the effect is the thing! one of the chief objections to the charming fabric was that people felt it would become soiled easily, and would often have to be renewed, but in our vacuum-cleaned houses we no longer feel that it is necessary to have furniture and hangings that will "conceal dirt." we refuse to _have_ dirt! of course, chintzes in rooms that will have hard wear should be carefully selected. they should be printed on linen, or some hard twilled fabric, and the ground color should be darker than when they are to be used in bedrooms. many of the newer chintzes have dark grounds of blue, mauve, maroon or gray, and a still more recent chintz has a black ground with fantastic designs of the most delightful colorings. the black chintzes are reproductions of fabrics that were in vogue in . they are very good in rooms that must be used a great deal, and they are very decorative. some of them suggest old cut velvets--they are so soft and lustrous. my greatest difficulty in introducing chintzes here was to convert women who loved their plush and satin draperies to a simpler fabric. they were unwilling to give up the glories they knew for the charms they knew not. i convinced them by showing them results! my first large commission was the colony club, and i used chintzes throughout the club: chintzes of cool grapes and leaves in the roof garden, hand-blocked linens of many soft colors in the reading-room, rose-sprigged and english posy designs in the bedrooms, and so on throughout the building. now i am using more chintz than anything else. it is as much at home in the new york drawing-room as in the country cottage. i can think of nothing more charming for a room in a country house than a sitting-room furnished with gray painted furniture and a lovely chintz. [illustration: straight hangings of rose and yellow shot silk] not long ago i was asked to furnish a small sea-shore cottage. the whole thing had to be done in a month, and the only plan i had to work on was a batch of chintz samples that had been selected for the house. i extracted the colorings of walls, woodwork, furniture, etc., from these chintzes. instead of buying new furniture i dragged down a lot of old things that had been relegated to the attic and painted them with a dull ground color and small designs adapted from the chintzes. the lighting fixtures, wall brackets, candle sticks, etc.--were of carved wood, painted in polychrome to match the general scheme. one chintz in particular i would like to have every woman see and enjoy. it had a ground of old blue, patterned regularly with little persian "pears," the old rug design, you know. the effect of this simple chintz with white painted walls and furniture and woodwork and crisp white muslin glass curtains was delicious. the most satisfactory of all chintzes is the _toile de jouy_. the designs are interesting and well drawn, and very much more decorative than the designs one finds in ordinary silks and other materials. the chintzes must be appropriate to the uses of the room, well designed, in scale with the height of the ceilings, and so forth. it is well to remember that self-color rugs are most effective in chintz rooms. wilton rugs woven in carpet sizes are to be had now at all first class furniture stores. painted furniture is very popular nowadays and is especially delightful when used in chintz rooms. the furniture we see now is really a revival and reproduction of the old models made by angelica kaufman, heppelwhite, and other furniture-makers of their period. the old furniture is rarely seen outside of museums nowadays, but it has been an inspiration to modern decorators who are seeking ideas for simple and charming furniture. a very attractive room can be made by taking unfinished pieces of furniture--that is, furniture that has not been stained or painted--and painting them a soft field color, and then adding decorations of bouquets or garlands, or birds, or baskets, reproducing parts of the design of the chintz used in the room. of course, many of these patterns could be copied by a good draftsman only, but others are simple enough for anyone to attempt. for instance, i decorated a room in soft cream, gray, yellow and cornflower blue. the chintz had a cornflower design that repeated all these colors. i painted the furniture a very soft gray, and then painted little garlands of cornflowers in soft blues and gray-greens on each piece of furniture. the walls were painted a soft cream color. the carpet rug of tan was woven in one piece with a blue stripe in the border. the color illustrations of this book will give you a very good idea of how i use chintzes and painted furniture. one of the illustrations shows the use of a black chintz in the dressing-room of a city house. the chintz is covered with parrots which make gorgeous splashes of color on the black ground. the color of the foliage and leaves is greenish-blue, which shades into a dozen blues and greens. this greenish-blue tone has been used in the small things of the room. the chintz curtains are lined with silk of this tone, and the valance at the top of the group of windows is finished with a narrow silk fringe of this greenish-blue. the small candle shades, the shirred shade of the drop-light, and the cushion of the black lacquer chair are also of this blue. the walls of the room are a deep cream in tone, and there are a number of old french prints from some eighteenth century fashion journals hung on the cream ground. the dressing-table is placed against the windows, over the radiator, so that there is light and to spare for dressing. half curtains of white muslin are shirred on the sashes back of the dressing-table. the quaint triplicate mirror is of black lacquer decorated with chinese figures in gold, and the little, three-cornered cabinet in the corner is also of black and gold. the chintz is used as a covering for the dressing-seat. another illustration shows the writing-corner of the bedroom which leads into this dressing-room. the walls and the rose-red carpet are the same in both rooms, as you see. this bedroom depends absolutely on the rose and blue chintz for its decoration. there is a quaint bed painted a pale gray, with rose-red taffeta coverlet. the bed curtains are of the chintz lined with the rose-red silk. there are several white-enamel chairs upholstered with the chintz, and there is a comfortable french couch with a kidney table of mahogany beside it. the corner of the room shown in the illustration is the most convenient writing-place. the desk is placed at right angles to the wall between the two windows. the small furnishings of the writing-desk repeat the queer blues and the rose-red of the chintz. a very comfortable stool with a cushion of old velvet is an added convenience. the chintz curtains at the windows hang in straight, full folds. a flat valance, cut the length of the design of the chintz, furnishes the top of the two windows. some windows do not need these valances, but these windows are very high and need the connecting line of color. the long curtains are lined with the rose-red silk, which also shows in a narrow piping around the edges. [illustration: muslin glass curtains in the washington irving house] the other two color illustrations are of the most popular room i have done, a bedroom and sitting room combined. everyone likes the color plan of soft greens, mauve and lavender. there is a large day bed of painted wood, with mattress, springs and cushions covered with a chintz of mauve ground and gay birds. the rug is a self-toned rug of very soft green, and the walls are tinted with the palest of greens. the woodwork is white, and the furniture is painted a greenish-gray that is just a little deeper than pearl. a darker green line of paint outlines all the furniture, which is further decorated with prim little garlands of flowers painted in dull rose, blue, yellow and green. the mauve chintz is used for the curtains, and for the huge armchair and one or two painted chairs. there is a little footstool covered with brocaded violet velvet, with just a thread of green showing on the background. the lighting fixtures are of carved wood, painted in soft colors to match the garlands on the furniture, with shirred shades of lavender silk. two lamps made of quaint old green jars with lavender decorations have shirred shades of the same silk. one of these lamps is used on the writing-table and the other on the little chest of drawers. this little chest of drawers, by the way, is about the simplest piece of furniture i can think of, for any girl who can use her brushes at all. an ordinary chest of drawers should be given several coats of paint--pale yellow, green or blue, as may be preferred. then a thin stripe of a darker tone should be painted on it. this should be outlined in pencil and then painted with a deeper tone of green color; for instance, an orange or brown stripe should be used on pale yellow, and dark green or blue on the pale green. a detail of the wall paper or the chintz design may be outlined on the panels of the drawers and on the top of the chest by means of a stencil, and then painted with rather soft colors. the top of the chest should be covered with a piece of plate glass which will have the advantage of showing the design of the cover and of being easily cleaned. old-fashioned glass knobs add interest to this piece of furniture. a mirror with a gilt frame, or an unframed painting similar to the one shown in the illustration would be very nice above the chest of drawers. [illustration: here are many lighting fixtures harmoniously assembled in a drawing-room] viii the problem of artificial light in all the equipment of the modern house, i think there is nothing more difficult than the problem of artificial light. to have the light properly distributed so that the rooms may be suffused with just the proper glow, but never a glare; so that the base outlets for reading-lamps shall be at convenient angles, so that the wall lights shall be beautifully balanced,--all this means prodigious thought and care before the actual placing of the lights is accomplished. in domestic architecture light is usually provided for some special function; to dress by, to read by, or to eat by. if properly considered, there is no reason why one's lighting fixtures should not be beautiful as well as utilitarian. however, it is seldom indeed that one finds lights that serve the purposes of utility and beauty. i have rarely, i might say never, gone into a builder's house (and indeed i might say the same of many architects' houses) but that the first things to require changing to make the house amenable to modern american needs were the openings for lighting fixtures. usually, side openings are placed much too near the trim of a door or window, so that no self-respecting bracket can be placed in the space without encroaching on the molding. another favorite mistake is to place the two wall openings in a long wall or large panel so close together that no large picture or mirror or piece of furniture can be placed against that wall. there is also the tendency to place the openings too high, which always spoils a good room. i strongly advise the woman who is having a house built or re-arranged to lay out her electric light plan as early in the game as possible, with due consideration to the uses of each room. if there is a high chest of drawers for a certain wall, the size of it is just as important in planning the lighting fixtures for that wall as is the width of the fireplace important in the placing of the lights on the chimney-breast. i advise putting a liberal number of base openings in a room, for it costs little when the room is in embryo. later on, when you find you can change your favorite table and chair to a better position to meet the inspiration of the completed room and that your reading-lamp can be moved, too, because the outlet is there ready for it, will come the compensating moments when you congratulate yourself on forethought. there are now, fortunately, few communities in america that have not electric power-plants. indeed, i know of many obscure little towns of a thousand inhabitants that have had the luxury of electric lights for years, and have as yet no gas or water-works! miraculously, also, the smaller the town the cheaper is the cost of electricity. this is not a cut-and-dried statement, but an observation from personal experience. the little town's electricity is usually a byproduct of some manufacturing plant, and current is often sold at so much per light per month, instead of being measured by meter. it is pleasant to think that many homes have bridged the smelly gap between candles and electricity in this magic fashion. gas light is more difficult to manage than electricity, for there is always the cumbersome tube and the necessity for adding mechanical accessories before a good clear light is secured. gas lamps are hideous, for some obscure reason, whereas there are hundreds of simple and excellent wall fixtures, drop lights and reading lamps to be bought already equipped for electricity. the electric wire is such an unobtrusive thing that it can be carried through a small hole in any good vase, or jar, and with a suitable shade you have an attractive and serviceable reading light. candlesticks are easily equipped for electricity and are the most graceful of all fixtures for dressing-tables, bedside tables, tea tables, and such. it is well to remember that if a room is decorated in dark colors the light will be more readily absorbed than in a light-colored room, and you should select and place your lighting-fixtures accordingly. bead covers, fringes and silk shades all obscure the light and re-absorb it, and so require a great force of light to illuminate properly. the subject of the selection of lighting-fixtures is limitless. there are so many fixtures to be had nowadays--good, bad and indifferent--that it were impossible to point out the merits and demerits of them all. there are copies of all the best lamps and lanterns of old europe and many new designs that grew out of modern american needs. there are louis xvi lanterns simple enough to fit well into many an american hallway, that offer excellent lessons in the simplicity of the master decorators of old times. contrast one of these fine old lanterns with the mass of colored glass and beads and crude lines and curves of many modern hall lanterns. i like a ceiling bowl of crystal or alabaster with lights inside, for halls, but the expense of such a bowl is great. however, i recently saw a reproduction of an old alabaster bowl made of soft, cloudy glass, not of alabaster, which sold at a fraction of the price of the original, and it seemed to meet all the requirements. of course, one may easily spend as much money on lighting-fixtures as on the remainder of the house, but that is no reason why people who must practise economy should admit ugly fixtures into their homes. there are always good and bad fixtures offered at the lowest and highest prices. you have no defense if you build your own house. if you are making the best of a rented house or an apartment, that is different. but good taste is sufficient armor against the snare of gaudy beads and cheap glass. [illustration: detail of a fine old french fixture of hand-wrought metal] there was recently an exhibition in new york of the craftsmanship of the students of a certain school of design. there were some really beautiful lanterns and wall brackets and reading lamps shown, designed and executed by young women who are self supporting by day and can give only a few evening hours, or an occasional day, to the pursuit of their avocation. one hanging lantern of terra cotta was very fine indeed, and there were many notable fixtures. there must be easily tens of thousands of young people who are students in the various schools of design, manual training high schools and normal art schools. why doesn't some far-seeing manufacturer of lighting-fixtures give these young people a chance to adapt the fine old french and italian designs to our modern needs? why not have your daughter or son copy such an object that has use and beauty, instead of encouraging the daubing of china or the piercing of brass that leads to nothing? and if you haven't a daughter or son, encourage the young artisan, your neighbor, who is trying to "find himself." let him copy a few good old fixtures for you. they will cost no more than the gaudy vulgar fixtures that are sold in so many shops. the photograph shown on page illustrates the possibility of using a number of lighting-fixtures in one room. the room shown is my own drawing-room. you will observe that in this picture there are many different lights. the two old french fixtures of wrought gilt, which flank the mantel mirror, hold wax candles. the two easy chairs have little tables beside them holding three-pronged silver candlesticks. there is also a small table holding an electric reading-lamp, made of a chinese jar, with a shade of shirred silk. the chandelier is a charming old french affair of gracefully strung crystal globules. for a formal occasion the chandelier is lighted, but when we are few, we love the fire glow and candlelight. if we require a stronger light for reading there is the lamp. the photograph here given may suggest a superfluous number of lights, but the room itself does not. the wall fixtures are of gilt, you see, the candlesticks of silver, the chandelier of crystal and the lamp of chinese porcelain and soft colored silk; so one is not conscious of the many lights. if all the lights were screened in the same way the effect would be different. i use this picture for this very reason--to show how many lights may be assembled and used in one place. in considering the placing of these lights, the firelight was not forgotten, nor the effect of the room by day when the sunlight floods in and these many fixtures become objects of decorative interest. a lamp, or a wall fixture, or a chandelier, or a candlestick, must be beautiful in itself--beautiful by sunlight,--if it is really successful. the soft glow of night light may make commonplace things beautiful, but the final test of a fixture is its effect in relation to the other furnishings of the room in sunlight. [illustration: lighting fixtures inspired by adam mirrors] the picture on page shows the proper placing of wall fixtures when a large picture is the chief point of interest. these wall fixtures are particularly interesting because they are in the style of the adam mirrors that hang on the recessed wall spaces flanking the chimney wall. this photograph is a lesson in the placing of objects of art. the large painting is beautifully spaced between the line of the mantel shelf and the lower line of the cornice. the wall fixtures are correctly placed, and anyone can see why they would be distressingly out of key if they were nearer the picture, or nearer the line of the chimney wall. the picture was considered as an important part of the chimney-piece before the openings for the fixtures were made. another good lamp is shown on the small table in this picture. there is really a reading-lamp beside a comfortable couch, which cannot be seen in the picture. this lamp, like the one in the drawing-room, is made from a porcelain vase, with a shirred silk shade on a wire frame. an electric light cord is run through a hole bored for it. if electricity were not available, an oil receptacle of brass could be fitted into the vase and the beauty of the lamp would be the same. there are so many possibilities for making beautiful lamps of good jars and vases that it is surprising the shops still sell their frightful lamps covered with cabbage roses and dragons and monstrosities. a blue and white ginger jar, a copper loving-cup, or even a homely brown earthenware bean-pot, will make a good bowl for an oil or electric lamp, but of the dreadful bowls sold in the shops for the purpose the less said the better. how can one see beauty in a lurid bowl and shade of red glass! better stick to wax candles the rest of your life than indulge in such a lamp! i know people plead that they have to buy what is offered; they cannot find simple lamps and hanging lanterns at small prices and so they _must_ buy bad ones. the manufacturer makes just the objects that people demand. so long as you accept these things, just so long will he make them. if all the women who complain about the hideous lighting-fixtures that are sold were to refuse absolutely to buy them, a few years would show a revolution in the designing of these things. there has been of late a vulgar fashion of having a huge mass of colored glass and beads suspended from near-brass chains in the dining-rooms of certain apartments and houses. these monstrous things are called "domes"--no one knows why. for the price of one of them you could buy a three pronged candlestick, equipped for electricity, for your dining-room table. it is the sight of hundreds of these dreadful "domes" in the lamp shops that gives one a feeling of discouragement. the humblest kitchen lamp of brass and tin would be beautiful by contrast. when all is said and done, we must come back to wax candles for the most beautiful light of all. electricity is the most efficient, but candlelight is the most satisfying. for a drawing-room, or any formal room where a clear light is not required, wax candles are perfect. there are still a few houses left where candlesticks are things of use and are not banished to the shelves as curiosities. certainly the clear, white light of electricity seems heaven-sent when one is dressing or working, but for between-hours, for the brief periods of rest, the only thing that rivals the comfort of candlelight is the glow of an open fire. ix halls and staircases in early days the hall was the large formal room in which the main business of the house was transacted. it played the part of court-room, with the lord of the manor as judge. it was used for dining, living, and for whatever entertainment the house afforded. the stairs were not a part of it: they found a place as best they could. from the times of the primitive ladder of the adobe dwelling to the days of the spiral staircase carried up in the thickness of the wall, the stairway was always a primitive affair, born of necessity, with little claim to beauty. with the renaissance in italy came the forerunner of the modern entrance hall, with its accompanying stair. considerations of comfort and beauty began to be observed. the italian staircase grew into a magnificent affair, "l'escalier d'honneur," and often led only to the open galleries and _salons de parade_ of the next floor. i think the finest staircases in all the world are in the genoese palaces. the grand staircase of the renaissance may still be seen in many fine italian palaces, notably in the bargello in florence. this staircase has been splendidly reproduced by mrs. gardner in fenway court, her italian palace in boston. this house is, by the way, the finest thing of its kind in america. mrs. gardner has the same far-seeing interest in the furtherance of an american appreciation of art as had the late pierpont morgan. she has assembled a magnificent collection of objects of art, and she opens her house to the public occasionally and to artists and designers frequently, that they may have the advantage of studying the treasures. to return to our staircases: in france the intermural, or spiral, staircase was considered quite splendid enough for all human needs, and in the finest châteaux of the french renaissance one finds these practical staircases. possibly in those troublous times the french architects planned for an aristocracy living under the influence of an inherited tradition of treachery and violence, they felt more secure in the isolation and ready command of a small, narrow staircase where one man well nigh single-handed could keep an army at bay. a large wide staircase of easy ascent might have meant many uneasy moments, with plots without and treachery within. gradually, however, the old feudal entrance gave way to its sub-divisions of guardroom, vestibule, and salon. england was last to capitulate, and in the great tudor houses still extant one finds the entrance door opening directly into the hall. often in these english houses there was a screen of very beautiful carved wood, behind which was the staircase. inigo jones introduced the palladian style into england, and so brought in the many-storied central salon which served as means of access to all the house. the old english halls and staircases designed by inigo jones would be perfect for our more elaborate american country houses. the severe beauty of english paneling and the carving of newel-post and spindles are having a just revival. the pendulum swings--and there is nothing new under the sun! wooden staircases with carved wooden balustrades were used oftenest in england, while in the french châteaux marble stairs with wrought-iron stair-rails are generally found. the perfection to which the art of iron work may be carried is familiar to everyone who knows the fairy-like iron work of jean l'amour in the stanislas palace at nancy. this staircase in the hôtel de ville is supreme. if you are ever in france you should see it. it has been copied often by american architects. infinite thought and skill were brought to bear on all the iron work door-handles, lanterns, and so forth. the artistic excellence of this work has not been equaled since this period of the eighteenth century. the greatest artists of that day did not think it in the least beneath their dignity and talent to devote themselves to designing the knobs of doors, the handles of commodes, the bronzes for the decorations of fireplaces, the shaping of hinges and locks. they were careful of details, and that is the secret of their supremacy. nowadays, we may find a house with a beautiful hall, but the chances are it is spoiled by crudely designed fittings. i have written somewhat at length of the magnificent staircases of older countries and older times than our own, because somehow the subject is one that cannot be considered apart from its beginnings. all our halls and stairs, pretentious or not, have come to us from these superb efforts of masterly workmen, and perhaps that is why we feel instinctively that they must suggest a certain formality, and restraint. this feeling is indirectly a tribute to the architects who gave us such notable examples. we do not, however, have to go abroad for historic examples of stately halls and stairs. there are fine old houses scattered all through the old thirteen states that cannot be surpassed for dignity and simplicity. one of the best halls in america is that of "westover," probably the most famous house in virginia. this old house was built in by colonel byrd on the james river, where so many of the colonial aristocrats of virginia made their homes. the plan of the hall is suggestive of an old english manor house. the walls are beautifully paneled from an old english plan. the turned balusters are representative of the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century. the fine old jacobean chairs and tables have weathered two centuries, and are friendly to their new neighbors, oriental rugs older than themselves. the staircase has two landings, on the first of which stands an old grandfather's-clock, marking the beginning of a custom that obtains to this day. this hall is characteristic of american houses of the colonial period, and indeed of the average large country house of to-day, for the straightaway hall, cutting the house squarely in two, is so much a part of our architecture that we use it as a standard. it is to be found, somewhat narrower and lower of ceiling, in new england farmhouses and in eastern city houses. the southern house of ante-bellum days varied the stair occasionally by patterning the magnificent winding staircases of old england, but the long hall open at both ends, and the long stair, with one or two landings, is characteristic of all old american houses. the customary finish for these old halls was a landscape wall paper, a painted wall broken into panels by molding, a high white wainscoting with white plaster above, or possibly a gay figured paper of questionable beauty. mahogany furniture was characteristic of all these halls--a grandfather's-clock, a turn-top table, a number of dignified chairs, and a quaint old mirror. sometimes there was a fireplace, but oftener there were doors opening evenly into various rooms of the first floor. these things are irreproachable to-day. why did we have to go through the period of the walnut hat-rack and shiny oak hall furniture, only to return to our simplicities? [illustration: the staircase in the bayard thayer house] when i planned the main hall of the colony club i determined to make it very colonial, very american, very inviting and comfortable, the sort of hall you like to remember having seen in an old virginia house. one enters from the street into a narrow hall that soon broadens into a spacious and lofty living-hall. the walls are, of course, white, the paneled spaces being broken by quaint old colonial mirrors and appropriate lighting-fixtures. there is a great fireplace at one end of the hall, with a deep, chintz-covered davenport before it. there are also roomy chairs covered with the same delightful chintz, a green and white glazed english chintz that is as serviceable as it is beautiful. besides the chintz-covered chairs, there are two old english chairs covered with english needlework. these chairs are among the treasures of the club. there are several long mahogany tables, and many small tea tables. the rugs are of a spring green--i can think of no better name for it. in modern english and american houses of the smaller class the staircase is a part of an elongated entrance hall, and there is often no vestibule. in many of the more important new houses the stairs are divided from the entrance hall, so that one staircase will do for the servants, family and all, and the privacy of the entrance hall will be secured. in my own house in new york, you enter the square hall directly, and the staircase is in a second hall. this entrance hall is a real breathing-space, affording the visitor a few moments of rest and calm after the crowded streets of the city. the hall is quite large, with a color-plan of black and white and dark green. you will find a description of this hall in another chapter. i have used this same plan in many other city houses, with individual variations, of course. the serene quality of such a hall is very valuable in the city. if you introduced a lot of furniture the whole thing would be spoiled. i used an old porcelain stove, creamy and iridescent in glaze, in such a hall in an uptown house very similar to my own. the stove is very beautiful in itself, but it was used for use as well as beauty. it really holds a fire and furnishes an even heat. the stove was flanked by two pedestals surmounted with baskets spilling over with fruits, carved from wood and gilded and painted in polychrome. everything in this hall is arranged with precision of balance. the stove is flanked by two pedestals. the niche that holds the stove and the corresponding niche on the other wall, which holds a statue, are flanked by narrow panels holding lighting-fixtures. the street wall is broken by doors and its two flanking windows. the opposite wall has a large central panel flanked by two glass doors, one leading to the stairway and the other to a closet, beneath it. everything is "paired," with resulting effect of great formality and restraint. very little furniture is required: a table to hold cards and notes, two low benches, and a wrought iron stand for umbrellas. the windows have curtains of italian linen, coarse homespun stuff that is very lovely with white walls and woodwork. there are no pictures on the wall, but there are specially designed lighting-fixtures in the small panels that frame the niches. in several of the finer houses that have been built recently, notably that of mrs. o.h.p. belmont, the staircase is enclosed, and is in no way an architectural feature, merely a possible means of communication when needed. this solution of the staircase problem has no doubt brought about our modern luxury of elevators. in another fine private house recently built the grand staircase only goes so far as the formal rooms of the second floor, and a small iron staircase enclosed in the wall leads to the intimate family rooms of the bedroom floor. the advantage of this gain in space can easily be appreciated. all the room usually taken up by the large wall of the staircase halls, and so forth, can be thrown into the bedrooms upstairs. the illustrations of the bayard thayer hall and staircase speak for themselves. here lighting-fixtures, locks, hinges, have been carefully planned, so that the smallest part is worthy of the whole. this hall is representative of the finer private houses that are being built in america to-day. i had the pleasure of working with the architect and the owners here, and so was able to fit the decorations and furnishings of the hall to the house and to the requirements of the people who live in it. the present tendency of people who build small houses is to make a living-room of the hall. i am not in favor of this. i think the hall should be much more formal than the rest of the house. it is, after all, of public access, not only to the living-rooms but to the street. the servant who answers the front door must of necessity constantly traverse it, so must anyone--the guest or tradesman--admitted to the house. the furniture should be severe and architectural in design. a column or pedestal surmounted with a statue, a fountain, an old chest to hold carriage-rugs, a carved bench, a good table, a standing desk, may be used in a large house. nothing more is admissible. in a small house a well-shaped table, a bench or so, possibly a wall clock, will be all that is necessary. the wall should be plain in treatment. the stair carpet should be plain in color. the floor should be bare, if in good condition, with just a small rug for softness at the door. a tiled floor is especially beautiful in a hall, if you can afford it. if your house happens to have the hall and living-room combined, and no vestibule, you can place a large screen near the entrance door and obtain a little more privacy. a standing screen of wooden panels is better than a folding screen, for the folding screen is rarely well-built, and will be blown down by the draft of the open door. a standing screen may be made by any carpenter, and painted or stained to match the woodwork of the room. a straight bench or settle placed against it will make the screened space seem more like a vestibule. another objection to the staircase leading from the living-room of a small house is that such an arrangement makes it almost impossible to heat the house properly in winter. i have seen so many bewildered people whose spacious doorless downstairs rooms were a joy in summer, shivering all winter long in a polar atmosphere. the stair well seems to suck all the warmth from the living-room, and coal bills soar. above all, don't try to make your hall "pretty." remember that a hall is not a living-room, but a thoroughfare open and used by all the dwellers in the house. don't be afraid of your halls and stairs looking "cold." it is a good idea to have one small space in your house where you can go and sit down and be calm and cool! you can't keep the rest of the house severe and cool looking, but here it is eminently appropriate and sensible. the visitor who enters a white and green hall and gets an effect of real reserve and coolness is all the more appreciative of the warmth and intimacy of the living-rooms of the house. after all, for simple american houses there is nothing better than a straightaway staircase of broad and easy treads, with one or two landings. there may be a broad landing with a window and window-seat, if there is a real view, but the landing-seat that is built for no especial purpose is worse than useless. it is not at all necessary to have the stairs carpeted, if the treads are broad enough, and turned balusters painted white with a mahogany hand rail are in scheme. such a staircase adds much to the home-quality of a house. x the drawing-room a drawing-room is the logical place for the elegancies of family life. the ideal drawing-room, to my mind, contains many comfortable chairs and sofas, many softly shaded lights by night, and plenty of sunshine by day, well-balanced mirrors set in simple paneled walls, and any number of small tables that may be brought out into the room if need be, and an open fire. the old idea of the drawing-room was a horrible apartment of stiffness and formality and discomfort. no wonder it was used only for weddings and funerals! the modern drawing-room is intended, primarily, as a place where a hostess may entertain her friends, and it must not be chill and uninviting, whatever else it may be. it should not be littered up with personal things--magazines, books and work-baskets and objects that belong in the living-room--but it welcomes flowers and _objets d'art_, collections of fans, or miniatures, or graceful mirrors, or old french prints, or enamels, or porcelains. it should be a place where people may converse without interruption from the children. most houses, even of the smaller sort, have three day rooms--the dining-room, the parlor and the sitting-room, as they are usually called. people who appreciate more and more the joy of living have pulled hall and sitting-room together into one great family meeting place, leaving a small vestibule, decreased the size of the dining-room and built in many windows, so that it becomes almost an outdoor room, and given the parlor a little more dignity and serenity and its right name--the drawing-room. we use the terms drawing-room and _salon_ interchangeably in america--though we are a bit more timid of the _salon_--but there is a subtle difference between the two that is worth noting. the withdrawing room of old england was the quiet room to which the ladies retired, leaving their lords to the freer pleasures of the great hall. indeed, the room began as a part of my lady's bedroom, but gradually came into its proper importance and took on a magnificence all its own. the _salon_ of france also began as a part of the great hall, or _grande salle_. then came the need for an apartment for receiving and so the great bed chamber was divided into two parts, one a real sleeping-room and the other a _chambre de parade,_ with a great state bed for the occasional visitors of great position. the great bed, or _lit de parade_, was representative of all the salons of the time of louis xiii. gradually the owners of the more magnificent houses saw the opportunity for a series of salons, and so the state apartment was divided into two parts: a _salon de famille_, which afforded the family a certain privacy, and the _salon de compagnie_, which was sacred to a magnificent hospitality. and so the salon expanded until nowadays we use the word with awe, and appreciate its implication of brilliant conversation and exquisite decoration, of a radiant hostess, an amusing and distinguished circle of people. the word has a graciousness, a challenge that we fear. if we have not just the right house we should not dare risk belittling our pleasant drawing-room by dubbing it "salon." in short, a drawing-room may be a part of any well regulated house. a salon is largely a matter of spirit and cleverness. a drawing-room has no place in the house where there is no other living-room. indeed, if there are many children, and the house is of moderate size, i think a number of small day rooms are vastly better than the two usual rooms, living-room and drawing-room, because only in this way can the various members of the family have a chance at any privacy. the one large room so necessary for the gala occasions of a large family may be the dining-room, for here it will be easy to push back tables and chairs for the occasion. if the children have a nursery, and mother has a small sitting-room, and father has a little room for books and writing, a living-room may be eliminated in favor of a small formal room for visitors and talk. [illustration: the drawing-room should be intimate in spirit] no matter how large your drawing-room may be, keep it intimate in spirit. there should be a dozen conversation centers in a large room. there should be one or more sofas, with comfortable chairs pulled up beside them. no one chair should be isolated, for some bashful person who doesn't talk well anyway is sure to take the most remote chair and make herself miserable. i have seen a shy young woman completely changed because she happened to sit upon a certain deep cushioned sofa of rose-colored damask. whether it was the rose color, or the enforced relaxation the sofa induced, or the proximity of some very charming people in comfortable chairs beside her, or all of these things--i don't know! but she found herself. she found herself gay and happy and unafraid. i am sure her personality flowered from that hour on. if she had been left to herself she would have taken a stiff chair in a far corner, and she would have been miserable and self-conscious. i believe most firmly in the magic power of inanimate objects! don't litter your drawing-room with bric-a-brac. who hasn't seen what i can best describe as a souvenir drawing-room, a room filled with curiosities from everywhere! i shall never forget doing a drawing-room for a woman of no taste. i persuaded her to put away her heavy velvets and gilt fringes and to have one light and spacious room in the house. she agreed. we worked out a chintz drawing-room that was delicious. i was very happy over it and you can imagine my amazement when she came to me and said, "but miss de wolfe, what am i to do with my blue satin tidies?" in my own drawing-room i have so many objects of art, and yet i think you will agree with me that the room has a great serenity. over the little desk in one corner i have my collection of old miniatures and fans of the golden days of the french court. there are ever so many vases and bowls for flowers, _but they are used_. there are dozens of lighting-fixtures, brackets, and lamps, and a chandelier, and many candlesticks, and they are used, also. somehow, when a beautiful object becomes a useful object, it takes its place in the general scheme of things and does not disturb the eye. the ideal drawing-room has a real fireplace, with a wood fire when there is excuse for it. an open fire is almost as great an attribute to a drawing-room as a tactful hostess; it puts you at ease, instantly, and gives you poise. and just as an open fire and sunshine make for ease, so do well placed mirrors make for elegance. use your mirrors as decorative panels, not only for the purpose of looking at yourself in them, and you will multiply the pleasures of your room. i have the wall space between mantel and frieze-line filled with a large mirror, in my new york drawing-room, and the two narrow panels between the front windows are filled with long narrow mirrors that reflect the color and charm of the room. whenever you can manage it, place your mirror so that it will reflect some particularly nice object. given plenty of chairs and sofas, and a few small tables to hold lights and flowers, you will need very little other furniture in the drawing-room. you will need a writing-table, but a very small and orderly one. the drawing room desk may be very elegant in design and equipment, for it must be a part of the decoration of the room, and it must be always immaculate for the visitor who wants to write a note. the members of the family are supposed to use their own desks, leaving this one for social emergencies. a good desk is a godsend in a drawing-room, it makes a room that is usually cold and formal at once more livable and more intimate. in my own drawing-room i have a small french writing-table placed near a window, so that the light falls over one's left shoulder. the small black lacquer desks that are now being reproduced from old models would be excellent desks for drawing-rooms, because they not only offer service, as all furniture should, but are beautiful in themselves. many of the small tables of walnut and mahogany that are sold as dressing-tables might be used as writing-tables in formal rooms, if the mirrors were eliminated. [illustration: the fine formality of well-placed paneling] there is a great difference in opinion as to the placing of the piano in the drawing-room. i think it belongs in the living-room, if it is in constant use, though of course it is very convenient to have it near by the one big room, be it drawing-room or dining-room, when a small dance is planned. i am going to admit that in my opinion there is nothing more abused than the piano, i have no piano in my own house in new york. i love music--but i am not a musician, and so i do not expose myself to the merciless banging of chance callers. besides, my house is quite small and a good piano would dwarf the other furnishings of my rooms. i think pianos are for musicians, not strummers, who spoil all chance for any real conversation. if you are fortunate enough to have a musician in your family, that is different. go ahead and give him a music room. musicians are not born every day, but lovers of music are everywhere, and i for one am heartily in favor of doing away with the old custom of teaching every child to bang a little, and instead, teaching him to _listen_ to music. oh, the crimes that are committed against music in american parlors! i prefer the good mechanical cabinet that offers us "canned" music to the manual exercise of people who insist on playing wherever they see an open piano. of course the mechanical instrument is new, and therefore, subject to much criticism from a decorative standpoint, but the music is much better than the amateur's. we are still turning up our noses a little at the mechanical piano players, but if we will use our common sense we must admit that a new order of things has come to pass, and the new "canned" music is not to be despised. certainly if the instrument displeases you, you can say so, but if a misguided friend elects to strum on your piano you are helpless. so i have no piano in my new york house. i have a cabinet of "canned" music that can be turned on for small dances when need be, and that can be hidden in a closet between times. why not? but suppose you have a piano, or need one: do give it a chance! its very size makes it tremendously important, and if you load it with senseless fringed scarfs and bric-a-brac you make it the ugliest thing in your room. give it the best place possible, against an inside wall, preferably. i saw a new house lately where the placing of the piano had been considered by the architect when the house was planned. there was a mezzanine floor overhanging the great living-room, and one end of this had been made into a piano alcove, a sort of modern minstrel gallery. the musician who used the piano was very happy, for your real musician loves a certain solitude, and those of us who listened to his music in the great room below were happy because the maker of the music was far enough away from us. we could appreciate the music and forget the mechanics of it. for a concert, or a small dance, this balcony music-room would be most convenient. another good place for the piano is a sort of alcove, or small room opening from the large living or drawing-room, where the piano and a few chairs may be placed. of course if you are to have a real music-room, then there are great possibilities. a piano may be a princely thing, properly built and decorated. the old spinets and harpsichords, with their charming inlaid cases, were beautiful, but they gave forth only tinkly sounds. now we have a magnificent mechanism, but the case which encloses it is too often hideous. there is an old double-banked harpsichord of the early eighteenth century in the morgan collection at the metropolitan museum that would be a fine form for a piano, if it would hold the "works." it is long and narrow, fitting against the wall so that it really takes up very little room. the case is painted a soft dark gray and outlined in darker gray, and the panels and the long top are in soft colors. the legs are carved and pointed in polychrome. this harpsichord was made when the beauty of an object was of as real importance as the mechanical perfection. occasionally one sees a modern piano that has been decorated by an artist. sir edward burne-jones, sir alma tadema, and many of the other english artists of our generation have made beautiful pianos. sir robert lorimer recently designed a piano that was decorated, inside and out, by mrs. traquair. from time to time a great artist interests himself in designing and decorating a piano, but the rank and file, when they decide to build an extraordinary piano, achieve lumpy masses of wood covered with impossible nymphs and too-realistic flowers, pianos suggestive of thin and sentimental tunes, but never of _music_. when you are furnishing your music-room or drawing-room, be careful always of your colors. remember that not only must the room be beautiful in its broad spaces and long lines and soft colors, but it must be a background for the gala gowns of women. i once saw a music-room that was deliberately planned as a background to the gay colors of women's gowns and the heavy black masses of men's evening clothes, a soft shimmering green and cream room that was incomplete and cold when empty of the color of costume. such a room must have an architectural flavor. the keynote must be elegant simplicity and aristocratic reserve. walls broken into panels, and panels in turn broken by lighting-fixtures, a polished floor, a well-considered ceiling, any number of chairs, and the room is furnished. this room, indeed, may evolve into a _salon_. xi the living-room the living-room! shut your eyes a minute and think what that means: a room to _live_ in, suited to all human needs; to be sick or sorry or glad in, as the day's happenings may be; where one may come back from far-reaching ways, for "east or west, hame's best." listen a minute while i tell you how i see such a room: big and restful, making for comfort first and always; a little shabby here and there, perhaps, but all the more satisfactory for that--like an old shoe that goes on easily. lots of light by night, and not too much drapery to shut out the sunlight by day. big, welcoming chairs, rather sprawly, and long sofas. a big fire blazing on the open hearth. perhaps, if we are very lucky we may have some old logs from long since foundered ships, that will flame blue and rose and green. he must indeed be of a poor spirit who cannot call all sorts of visions from such a flame! [illustration: the living-room in the c.w. harkness house at morristown, new jersey] there should be a certain amount of order, because you cannot really rest in a disorderly place, but there should be none of the formality of the drawing-room. formality should be used as a sort of foundation on which the pleasant workaday business of the living-room is planned. the living-room should always have a flavor of the main hobby of the family, whether it be books, or music, or sport, or what not. if you live in the real country there should be nothing in the room too good for all moods and all weather--no need to think of muddy boots or wet riding-clothes or the dogs that have run through the dripping fields. i wonder if half the fathers and mothers in creation know just what it means later on to the boys and girls going out from their roof-tree to have the memory of such a living-room? a living-room may be a simple place used for all the purposes of living, or it may be merely an official clearing-house for family moods, one of a dozen other living apartments. the living-room in the modern bungalow, for instance, is often dining-room, library, hall, music-room, filling all the needs of the family, while in a large country or city house there may be the central family room, and ever so many little rooms that grow out of the overflow needs--the writing-room, the tea room that is also sun and breakfast room, the music-room and the library. in more elaborate houses there are also the great hall, the formal drawing-room and music-room, and the intimate boudoir. to all these should be given a goodly measure of comfort. whether it be one or a dozen rooms, the spirit of it must be the same--it must offer comfort, order, and beauty to be worth living in. just as when a large family is to be considered i believe in one big meeting-room and a number of smaller rooms for special purposes, so i believe that when a family is very small there should be one great living-room and no other day room. two young people who purpose to live in a small cottage or a bungalow will be wise to have this one big room that will serve for dining-room, living-room, and all. the same house divided into a number of tiny rooms would suffocate them: there would be no breathing-space. in furnishing such a room it is well to beware of _sets_ of things: of six dining-room chairs, of the conventional dining-table, serving-table, and china closet. i advocate the use of a long table--four by seven feet is not too long--and a number of good chairs that are alike in style, but not _exactly_ alike. the chairs should not be the conventional dining-chairs. the idea that the only dining-room chair possible is a perfectly straight up and down stiff-backed chair is absurd. in a large house where there is a family dining-room the chairs should be alike, but in an informal living-room the chairs may be perfectly comfortable and useful between meals and serve the purposes of dining-room chairs when necessary. for instance, with a long oak table built on the lines of the old english refectory tables you might have a long bench of oak and cane; a large high back chair with arms of the stuart order, that is, with graceful, turned legs, carved frame work, and cane insets; two cromwellian chairs covered in some good stuff; and two or three straight oak-and-cane chairs of a simple type. these chairs may be used for various purposes between meals, and will not give the room the stiff and formal air that straight-backed chairs invariably produce. one could imagine this table drawn up to a window-seat, with bench and chairs beside it, and a dozen cheerful people around it. there will be little chance of stiffness at such a dining-table. it should be remembered that when a part of the living-room is used for meals, the things that suggest dining should be kept out of sight between meals. all the china and so forth should be kept in the pantry or in kitchen cupboards. the table may be left bare between meals. in a room of this kind the furniture should be kept close to the walls, leaving all the space possible for moving around in the center of the room. the book shelves should be flat against the wall; there should be a desk, not too clumsy in build near the book shelves or at right angles to some window; there should be a sofa of some kind near the fireplace with a small table at the head of it, which may be used for tea or books or what not. if there is a piano, it should be very carefully placed so that it will not dominate the room, and so that the people who will listen to the music may gather in the opposite corner of the room. of course, a living-room of this kind is the jolliest place in the world when things go smoothly, but there are times when a little room is a very necessary place to retreat. this little room may be the study, library, or a tea room, but it is worth while sacrificing your smallest bedroom in order to have one small place of retreat. if you can have a number of living-rooms, you can follow more definite schemes of decoration. if you have a little enclosed piazza you can make a breakfast room or a trellis room of it, or by bringing in many shelves and filling them with flowers you can make the place a delightful little flower box of a room for tea and talk. of course, if you live in the real country you will be able to use your garden and your verandas as additional living-rooms. with a big living-porch, the one indoor living-room may become a quiet library, for instance. but if you haven't a garden or a sun-room, you should do all in your power to bring the sunshine and gaiety into the living-room, and take your books and quiet elsewhere. a library eight by ten feet, with shelves all the way around and up and down, and two comfortable chairs, and one or two windows, will be a most satisfactory library. if the room is to be used for reading smallness doesn't matter, you see. we americans love books--popular books!--and we have had sense enough to bring them into our living-rooms, and enjoy them. but when you begin calling a room a library it should mean something more than a small mahogany bookcase with a hundred volumes hidden behind glass doors. i think there is nothing more amusing than the unused library of the _nouveau riche_, the pretentious room with its monumental bookcases and its slick area of glass doors and its thousands of unread volumes, caged eternally in their indecent newness. some day when you have nothing better to do visit the _de luxe_ book shops of some department store, and then visit a dusky old second hand shop, and you will see what books can do! in the _de luxe_ shop they are leathern covered things, gaudy and snobbish in their newness. in the old book shop they are books that have lived, books that invite you to browse. you'd rather have them with all their germs and dust than the soulless tomes of uncut pages. you can judge people pretty well by their books, and the wear and tear of them. open shelves are good enough for any house in these days of vacuum cleaners. in the bayard thayer house i had the pleasure of furnishing a wonderful library of superb paneled walls of mahogany of a velvety softness, not the bright red wood of commerce. the open bookshelves were architecturally planned, they filled shallow recesses in the wall, and when the books were placed upon them they formed a glowing tapestry of bindings, flush with the main wall. i think the nicest living-room i know is the reading room of the colony club. i never enjoyed making a room more, and when the club was first opened i was delighted to hear one woman remark to another: "doesn't it make you feel that it has been loved and lived in for years?" the room is large and almost square. the walls are paneled in cream and white, with the classic mantel and mirror treatment of the adam period. the large carpet rug is of one tone, a soft green blue. the bookcases which run around the walls are of mahogany, as are the small, occasional tables, and the large table in the center of the room. in this room i have successfully exploded the old theory that all furniture in a well planned room must be of the same kind! in this room there are several marlborough chairs, a davenport and a semi-circular fireside seat upholstered in a soft green leather, several chairs covered in a chintz of bird and blossom design, and other chairs covered with old english needle-work. the effect is not discord, but harmony. perhaps it is not wise to advise the use of many colors and fabrics unless one has had experience in the combining of many tones and hues, but if you are careful to keep your walls and floors in subdued tones, you may have great license in the selecting of hangings and chair coverings and ornament. i gave great attention to the details of this room. under the simple mantel shelf there is inset a small panel of blue and white wedgwood. on the mantel there are two jars of chinese porcelain, and between them a bronze jardiniere of the adam period; four figures holding a shallow, oblong tray, which is filled with flowers. the lamp on the center-table is made of a hawthorn jar, with a flaring shade. there are many low tables scattered through the room and beside every chair is a reading-lamp easily adjusted to any angle. the fireplace fittings are simple old brasses of the colonial period. there is only one picture in this room, and that is the portrait of a long gone lady, framed in a carved gilt frame, and hung against the huge wall-mirror which is opposite the fireplace end of the room. i believe, given plenty of light and air, that comfortable chairs and good tables go further toward making a living-room comfortable than anything else. in the harkness living-room you will see this theory proven. there are chairs and tables of all sizes, from the great sofas to the little footstools, from the huge italian tables to the little table especially made to hold a few flower pots. wherever there is a large table there is a long sofa or a few big chairs; wherever there is a lone chair there is a small table to hold a reading-light, or flowers, or what not. the great size of the room, the fine english ceiling of modeled plaster, the generous fireplace with its paneled over-mantel, the groups of windows, all these architectural details go far toward making the room a success. the comfortable chairs and sofas and the ever useful tables do the rest. so many people ask me: how shall i furnish my living-room? what paper shall i use on the walls? what woodwork and curtains--and rugs? one woman asked me what books she should buy! your living-room should grow out of the needs of your daily life. there could be no two living-rooms exactly alike in scheme if they were lived in. you will have to decide on the wall colors and such things, it is true, but the rest of the room should grow of itself. you will not make the mistake of using a dark paper of heavy figures if you are going to use many pictures and books, for instance. you will not use a gay bed-roomy paper covered with flowers and birds. you will know without being told that your wall colors must be neutral: that your woodwork must be stained and waxed, or painted some soft tone of your wall color. then, let the rugs and curtains and things go until you decide you have to have them. the room will gradually find itself, though it may take years and heartache and a certain self-confession of inadequacy. it will express your life, if you use it, so be careful of the life you live in it! xii sitting-room and boudoir in some strange way the word _boudoir_ has lost its proper significance. people generally think of it as a highfalutin' name for the bedroom, or for a dressing-room, whereas really a proper _boudoir_ is the small personal sitting-room of a woman of many interests. it began in old france as the private sitting-room of the mistress of the house, a part of the bedroom suite, and it has evolved into a sort of office _de luxe_ where the house mistress spends her precious mornings, plans the routine of her household for the day, writes her letters, interviews her servants, and so forth. the boudoir has a certain suggestion of intimacy because it is a personal and not a general room, but while it may be used as a lounging-place occasionally, it is also a thoroughly dignified room where a woman may receive her chosen friends when she pleases. nothing more ridiculous has ever happened than the vogue of the so-called "boudoir cap," which is really suited only to one's bedroom or dressing-room. such misnomers lead to a mistaken idea of the real meaning of the word. some of the eighteenth century boudoirs were extremely small. i recall one charming little room in an old french house that was barely eight feet by eleven, but it contained a fireplace, two windows, a day bed, one of those graceful desks known as a _bonheur du jour_, and two arm-chairs. an extremely symmetrical arrangement of the room gave a sense of order, and order always suggests space. one wall was broken by the fireplace, the wall spaces on each side of it being paneled with narrow moldings. the space above the mantel was filled with a mirror. on the wall opposite the fireplace there was a broad paneling of the same width filled with a mirror from baseboard to ceiling. in front of this mirror was placed the charming desk. on each side of the long mirror were two windows exactly opposite the two long panels of the mantel wall. the two narrow end walls were treated as single panels, the day bed being placed flat against one of them, while the other was broken by a door which led to a little ante-chamber. old gilt appliques holding candles flanked both mantel mirror and desk mirror. two of those graceful chairs of the louis seize period and a small footstool completed the furnishing of this room. [illustration: miss anne morgan's louis xvi. boudoir] the boudoir should always be a small room, because in no other way can you gain a sense of intimacy. here you may have all the luxury and elegance you like, you may stick to white paint and simple chintzes, or you may indulge your passion for pale-colored silks and lace frills. here, of all places, you have a right to express your sense of luxury and comfort. the boudoir furnishings are borrowed from both bedroom and drawing-room traditions. there are certain things that are used in the bedroom that would be ridiculous in the drawing-room, and yet are quite at home in the boudoir. for instance, the _chaise-longue_ is part of the bedroom furnishing in most modern houses, and it may also be used in the boudoir, but in the drawing-room it would be a violation of good taste, because the suggestion of intimacy is too evident. nothing is more comfortable in a boudoir than a day bed. it serves so many purposes. in my own house my boudoir is also my sitting-room, and i have a large louis xv day bed there which may be used by an overnight guest if necessary. in a small house the boudoir fitted with a day bed becomes a guest-room on occasion. i always put two or three of these day beds in any country house i am doing, because i have found them so admirable and useful in my own house. as you will see by the photographs, this bed in no way resembles an ordinary bed in the daytime, and it seems to me to be a much better solution of the extra-bed problem than the mechanical folding-bed, which is always hideous and usually dangerous. a good day bed may be designed to fit into any room. this one of mine is of carved walnut, a very graceful one that i found in france. in a small sitting-room in an uptown house, an illustration of which is shown, i had a day bed made of white wood that was painted to match the chintzes of the room. the mattress and springs were covered with a bird chintz on a mauve ground, and the pillows were all covered with the same stuff. the frame of the bed was painted cream and decorated with a dull green line and small garlands of flowers extracted from the design of the chintz. when the mattress and springs have been properly covered with damask, or chintz, or whatever you choose to use, there is no suggestion of the ordinary bed. i suppose there isn't a more charming room in new york than miss anne morgan's louis xvi boudoir. the everyday sitting-room of a woman of many interests, it is radiant with color and individuality, as rare rugs are radiant, as jewels are radiant. the cream walls, with their carved moldings and graceful panelings, are a pleasant background for all this shimmering color. the carvings and moldings are pointed in blue. the floor is covered with a persian rug which glows with all the soft tones of the old persian dye-pots. the day bed, a few of the chairs, and the chest of drawers, are of a soft brown walnut. there are other chairs covered with louis xvi tapestries, brocade and needlework, quite in harmony with the modern chintz of the day bed and the hangings. above the day bed there is a portrait of a lady, hung by wires covered with shirred blue ribbons, and this blue is again used in an old porcelain lamp jar on the bedside table. the whole room might have been inspired by the lady of the portrait, so essentially is it the room of a fastidious woman. but to go back to my own boudoir: it is really sitting-room, library, and rest-room combined, a home room very much like my down-town office in the conveniences it offers. in the early morning it is my office, where i plan the day's routine and consult my servants. in the rare evenings when i may give myself up to solid comfort and a new book it becomes a haven of refuge after the business of the day. when i choose to work at home with my secretary, it is as business-like a place as my down-town office. it is a sort of room of all trades, and good for each of them. the walls of the room are pretty well filled with built-in bookshelves, windows, chimney-piece, and doors, but there is one long wall space for the day bed and another for the old secretary that holds my porcelain figurines. the room is really quite small, but by making the furniture keep its place against the walls an effect of spaciousness has been obtained. the walls of the room are painted the palest of egg-shell blue-green. the woodwork is ivory white, with applied decorations of sculptured white marble. the floor is entirely covered with a carpet rug of jade green velvet, and there is a smaller persian rug of the soft, indescribable colors of the orient. the day bed, of which i spoke in an earlier paragraph, is covered with an old brocade, gray-green figures on a black ground. a large armchair is also covered with the brocade, and the window curtains, which cannot be seen in the picture, are of black chintz, printed with birds of pale greens and blues and grays, with beaks of rose-red. there is always a possibility for rose-red in my rooms, i love it so. i manage the other colors so that they will admit a chair or a stool or a bowl of rose color. in this room the two chairs beside the couch are covered with rose-colored damask, and this brings out the rose in the rug and in the chintz, and accents the deep red note of the leathern book-bindings. the rose red is subordinated to the importance of the book-bindings in this room, but there is still opportunity for its use in so many small things. in this room, you will notice, i have used open shelves for my books, and the old secretary which was once a combination desk and bookcase, is used for the display of my little treasures of porcelain and china, and its drawers are used for papers and prints. the built in shelves have cupboards beneath them for the flimsy papers and pamphlets that do not belong on open shelves. if the same room were pressed into service as a guest room i should use the drawers in the secretary instead of the usual chest of drawers, and the day bed for sleeping. [illustration: miss morgan's louis xvi. _lit de repos_] the writing-table is placed at right angles to one of the book-filled panels between the front windows. i have used a writing-table in this room because i like tables better than heavy desks, and because in this small apartment a desk would seem heavy and ponderous. the fittings of the desk are of dark red leather, like that of many of the book-bindings, and the personal touch that makes the desk _mine_ is a bowl of roses. between the two windows in the shallow recess, i have placed an aquarium, a recent acquisition that delights my soul. the aquarium is simply an oblong glass box mounted on a teak stand, with a tracery of teak carving outlining the box, which is the home of the most gorgeous fan-tailed goldfish. there are water plants in the box, too, and funny little chinese temples and dwarf trees. i love to house my little people happily--my dogs and my birds and my fish. wee toi, my little chinese dog, has a little house all his own, an old chinese lacquer box with a canopy top and little gold bells. it was once the shrine of some little chinese god, i suppose, but wee toi is very happy in it, and you can see that it was meant for him in the beginning. it sits by the fireplace and gives the room an air of real hominess. i was so pleased with the aquarium and the chinese lacquer bed for wee toi that i devised a birdcage to go with them, a square cage of gilt wires, with a black lacquer pointed canopy top, with little gilt bells at the pointed eaves. the cage is fixed to a shallow lacquer tray, and is the nicest place you can imagine for a whistling bullfinch to live in. i suppose i could have a persian cat on a gorgeous cushion to complete the place, but i can't admit cats into the room. i plan gorgeous cushions for _other_ people's "little people," when they happen to be cats. miss marbury's sitting-room is on the next floor, exactly like mine, architecturally, but we have worked them out differently. i think there is nothing more interesting than the study of the different developments of a series of similar rooms, for instance, a dozen drawing-rooms, twelve stories deep, in a modern apartment house! each room is left by the builder with the same arrangement of doors and windows, the same wall spaces and moldings, the same opportunity for good or bad development. it isn't often our luck to see all twelve of the rooms, but sometimes we see three or four of them, and how amazingly different they are! how amusing is the suggestion of personality, or lack of it! now in these two sitting-rooms in our house the rooms are exactly the same in size, in exposure, in the placing of doors and windows and fireplaces, and we have further paralleled our arrangement by placing our day beds in the same wall space, but there the similarity ends. miss marbury's color plan is different: her walls are a soft gray, the floor is covered in a solid blue carpet rug, rather dark in tone, the chintz also has a black ground, but the pattern is entirely different in character from the room below. there is a day bed, similar to mine, but where my bed has been upholstered with brocade, miss marbury's has a loose slip cover of black chintz. the spaces between the windows in my room are filled with bookshelves, and in miss marbury's room the same spaces are filled with mirrors. the large wall-space that is background to my old secretary is in her room given up to long open bookshelves of mahogany. my over-mantel is mirrored, and hers is filled with an old painting. the recessed spaces on each side of the chimney breast hold small semi-circular tables of marquetry, with a pair of long adam mirrors hanging above them. another adam mirror hangs above the bookshelves on the opposite wall. these mirrors are really the most important things in the room, because the moldings and lighting-fixtures and picture frames have been made to harmonize with them. the lighting-fixtures are of wood carved in the adam manner and painted dark blue and gold. the writing-table has been placed squarely in front of the center window, in which are hung miss marbury's bird cages. there are a number of old french prints on the wall. the whole room is quieter in tone than my room, which may be because her chosen color is old-blue, and mine rose-red. in a small house where only one woman's tastes have to be considered, a small downstairs sitting-room may take the place of the more personal boudoir, but where there are a number of people in the household a room connecting with the bedroom of the house mistress is more fortunate. here she can be as independent as she pleases of the family and the guests who come and go through the other living-rooms of the house. here she can have her counsels with her children, or her tradespeople, or her employees, without the distractions of chance interruptions, for this one room should have doors that open _and_ close, doors that are not to be approached without invitation. the room may be as austere and business-like as a down-town office, or it may be a nest of comfort and luxury primarily planned for relaxation, but it must be so placed that it is a little apart from the noise and flurry of the rest of the house or it has no real reason-for-being. whenever it is possible, i believe the man of the house should also have a small sitting-room that corresponds to his wife's boudoir. we americans have made a violent attempt to incorporate a room of this kind in our houses by introducing a "den" or a "study," but somehow the man of the house is never keen about such a room. a "den" to him means an airless cubby-hole of a room hung with pseudo-turkish draperies and papier-mâché shields and weapons, and he has a mighty aversion to it. who could blame him? and as for the study, the average man doesn't want a study when he wants to work; he prefers to work in his office, and he'd like a room of his own big enough to hold all his junk, and he'd like it to have doors and windows and a fireplace. the so-called study is usually a heavy, cheerless little room that isn't any good for anything else. the ideal arrangement would be a room of average size opening from his bedroom, a room that would have little suggestion of business and a great flavor of his hobbies. his wife's boudoir must be her office also, but he doesn't need a house office, unless he be a writer, or a teacher, or some man who works at home. after all, i think the painters and illustrators are the happiest of all men, because they _have_ to have studios, and their wives generally recognize the fact, and give them a free hand. the man who has a studio or a workshop all his own is always a popular man. he has a fascination for his less fortunate friends, who buzz around him in wistful admiration. xiii a light, gay dining-room first of all, i think a dining-room should be light, and gay. the first thing to be considered is plenty of sunshine. the next thing is the planning of a becoming background for the mistress of the house. the room should always be gay and charming in color, but the color should be selected with due consideration of its becomingness to the hostess. every woman has a right to be pretty in her own dining-room. i do not favor the dark, heavy treatments and elaborate stuff hangings which seem to represent the taste of most of the men who go in for decorating nowadays. nine times out of ten the dining-room seems to be the gloomiest room in the house. i think it should be a place where the family may meet in gaiety of spirit for a pause in the vexatious happenings of the day. i think light tones, gay wallpapers, flowers and sunshine are of more importance than storied tapestries and heavily carved furniture. these things are all very well for the house that has a small dining-room and a gala dining-room for formal occasions as well, but there are few such houses. we new yorkers have been so accustomed to the gloomy basement dining-rooms of the conventional brown-stone houses of the late eighties we forgot how nice a dining-room can be. even though the city dining-room is now more fortunately placed in the rear of the second floor it is usually overshadowed by other houses, and can be lightened only by skilful use of color in curtains, china, and so forth. therefore, i think this is the one room in the city house where one can afford to use a boldly decorative paper. i like very much the chinese rice-papers with their broad, sketchy decorations of birds and flowers. these papers are never tiresomely realistic and are always done in very soft colors or in soft shades of one color, and while if you analyze them they are very fantastic, the general effect is as restful as it is cheerful. you know you can be most cheerful when you are most rested! the quaint landscape papers which are seen in so many new england dining-rooms seem to belong with american colonial furniture and white woodwork, prim silver and gold banded china. these landscape papers are usually gay in effect and make for cheer. there are many new designs less complicated than the old ones. then, too, there are charming foliage papers, made up of leaves and branches and birds, which are very good. while we may find color and cheer in these gay papers for gloomy city dining-rooms, if we have plenty of light we may get more distinguished results with paneled walls. a large dining-room may be paneled with dark wood, with a painted fresco, or tapestry frieze, and a ceiling with carved or painted beams, or perhaps one of those interesting cream-white ceilings with plaster beams judiciously adorned with ornament in low relief. given a large dining-room and a little money, you can do anything: you can make a room that will compare favorably with the traditional rooms on which we build. you have a right to make your dining-room as fine as you please, so long as you give it its measure of light and air. but one thing you must have: simplicity! it may be the simplicity of a marble floor and tapestried walls and a painted ceiling, it may be the simplicity of white paint and muslin and fine furniture, but simplicity it must have. the furniture that is required in a dining-room declares itself: a table and chairs. you can bring side tables and china closets into it, or you can build in cupboards and consoles to take their place, but there is little chance for other variation, and so the beginning is a declaration of order and simplicity. [illustration: a georgian dining-room in the william iselin house] the easiest way to destroy this simplicity is to litter the room with displays of silver and glass, to dot the walls with indifferent pictures. if you are courageous enough to let your walls take care of themselves and to put away your silver and china and glass, the room will be as dignified as you could wish. remember that simplicity depends on balance and space. if the walls balance one another in light and shadow, if the furniture is placed formally, if walls and furniture are free from mistaken ornament, the room will be serene and beautiful. in most other rooms we avoid the "pairing" of things, but here pairs and sets of things are most desirable. two console tables are more impressive than one. there is great decorative value in a pair of mirrors, a pair of candlesticks, a pair of porcelain jars, two cupboards flanking a chimney-piece. you would not be guilty of a pair of wall fountains, or of two wall clocks, just as you would not have two copies of the same portrait in a room. but when things "pair" logically, pair them! they will furnish a backbone of precision to the room. the dining-room in the iselin house is a fine example of stately simplicity. it is extremely formal, and yet there is about it none of the gloominess one associates with new york dining-rooms. the severely paneled walls, the fine chimney-piece with an old master inset and framed by a grinling gibbons carving, the absence of the usual mantel shelf, the plain dining-table and the fine old lion chairs all go to make up a georgian room of great distinction. the woman who cannot afford such expensive simplicity might model a dining-room on this same plan and accomplish a beautiful room at reasonable expense. paneled walls are always possible; if you can't afford wood paneling, paint the plastered wall white or cream and break it into panels by using a narrow molding of wood. you can get an effect of great dignity by the use of molding at a few cents a foot. a large panel would take the place of the grinling gibbons carving, and a mirror might be inset above the fireplace instead of the portrait. the dining-table and chairs might give place to good reproductions of chippendale, and the marble console to a carpenter-made one painted to match the woodwork. the subject of proper furniture for a dining-room is usually settled by the house mistress before her wedding bouquet has faded, so i shall only touch on the out-of-ordinary things here. everyone knows that a table and a certain number of chairs and a sideboard of some kind "go together." the trouble is that everyone knows these things _too_ well, and dining-room conventions are so binding that we miss many pleasant departures from the usual. my own dining-room in new york is anything but usual, and yet there is nothing undignified about it. the room was practically square, so that it had a certain orderly quality to begin with. the rooms of the house are all rather small, and so to gain the greatest possible space i have the door openings at the extreme end of the wall, leaving as large a wall space as possible. you enter this room, then, through a door at the extreme left of the south wall of the room. another door at the extreme right of the same wall leads to a private passage. the space left between the doors is thereby conserved, and is broken into a large central panel flanked by two narrow panels. the space above the doors is also paneled. this wall is broken by a console placed under the central panel. above it one of the mennoyer originals, which you may remember in the washington irving dining-room, is set in the wall, framed with a narrow molding of gray. the walls and woodwork of the room are of exactly the same tone of gray--darker than a silver gray and lighter than pewter. everything, color, balance, proportion, objects of art, has been uniformly considered. continuing, the east wall is broken in the center by the fireplace, with a mantel of white and gray marble. a large mirror, surmounted with a bas-relief in black and white, fills the space between mantel shelf and cornice. this mirror and bas-relief are framed with the narrow carved molding painted gray. here again there is the beauty of balance: two italian candlesticks of carved and gilded wood flank a marble bust on the mantel shelf. there is nothing more. on the right of the mirror, in a narrow panel, there is a wall clock of carved and gilded wood which also takes its place as a part of the wall, and keeps it. the north wall is broken by two mirrors and a door leading to the service-pantry. a large, four-fold screen, made of an uncut tapestry, shuts off the door. we need all the light the windows give, so there are no curtains except the orange-colored taffeta valances at the top. i devised sliding doors of mirrors that are pulled out of the wall at night to fill the recessed space of the windows. ventilation is afforded by the open fireplace, and by mechanical means. you see we do not occupy this house in summer, so the mirrored windows are quite feasible. the fourth wall has no openings, and it is broken into three large paneled spaces. a console has the place of honor opposite the fireplace, and above it there is a mirror like that over the mantel. in the two side panels are the two large mennoyers. there are five of these in the room, the smaller ones flanking the chimney piece. you see that the salvation of this room depends on this careful repetition and variation of similar objects. color is brought into the room in the blue and yellow of the chinese rug, in the chairs, and in the painted table. the chairs are painted a creamy yellow, pointed with blue, and upholstered with blue and yellow striped velvet. i do not like high-backed chairs in a dining-room. their one claim to use is that they make a becoming background, but this does not compensate for the difficulties of the service when they are used. an awkward servant pouring soup down one's back is not an aid to digestion, or to the peace of mind engendered by a good dinner. [illustration: mrs. ogden armour's chinese-paper screen] [illustration: mrs. james warren lane's painted dining-table] the painted table is very unusual. the legs and the carved under-frame are painted cream and pointed with blue, like the chairs, but the top is as gay as an old-fashioned garden, with stiff little medallions, and urns spilling over with flowers, and conventional blossoms picked out all over it. the colors used are very soft, blue and cream being predominant. the table is covered with a sheet of plate glass. this table is, of course, too elaborate for a simple dining-room, but the idea could be adapted and varied to suit many color and furniture schemes. painted furniture is a delight in a small dining-room. in the colony club i planned a very small room for little dinners that is well worth reproducing in a small house. this little room was very hard to manage because there were no windows! there were two tiny little openings high on the wall at one end of the room, but it would take imagination to call them windows. the room was on the top floor, and the real light came from a skylight. you can imagine the difficulty of making such a little box interesting. however, there was one thing that warmed my heart to the little room: a tiny ante-room between the hall proper and the room proper. this little ante-room i paneled in yellowish tan and gray. i introduced a sofa covered with an old brocade just the color of dried rose leaves--ashes of roses, the french call it--and the little ante-room became a fitting introduction to the dining-room within. the walls of the rooms were paneled in a delicious color between yellow and tan, the wall proper and the moldings being this color, and the panels themselves filled with a gray paper painted in pinky yellows and browns. these panels were done by hand by a man who found his inspiration in the painted panels of an old french ballroom. as the walls were unbroken by windows there was ample space for such decoration. a carpet of rose color was chosen, and the skylight was curtained with shirred silk of the same rose. the table and chairs were of painted wood, the chairs having seats of the brocade used on the ante-room sofa. the table was covered with rose colored brocade, and over this, cobwebby lace, and over this, plate glass. there are two consoles in the room, with small cabinets above which hold certain _objets d'art_ in keeping with the room. under the two tiny windows were those terrible snags we decorators always strike, the radiators. wrongly placed, they are capable of spoiling any room. i concealed these radiators by building two small cabinets with panels of iron framework gilded to suggest a graceful metal lattice, and lined them with rose-colored silk. i borrowed this idea from a fascinating cabinet in an old french palace, and the result is worth the deception. the cabinets are nice in themselves, and they do not interfere with the radiation of the heat. i have seen many charming country houses and farm houses in france with dining-rooms furnished with painted furniture. somehow they make the average american dining-room seem very commonplace and tiresome. for instance, i had the pleasure of furnishing a little country house in france and we planned the dining-room in blue and white. the furniture was of the simplest, painted white, with a dark blue line for decoration. the corner cupboard was a little more elaborate, with a gracefully curved top and a large glass door made up of little panes set in a quaint design. there were several drawers and a lower cupboard. the drawers and the lower doors invited decorations a little more elaborate than the blue lines of the furniture, so we painted on gay little medallions in soft tones of blue, from the palest gray-blue to a very dark blue. the chair cushions were blue, and the china was blue sprigged. three little pitchers of dark-blue luster were on the wall cupboard shelf and a mirror in a faded gold frame gave the necessary variation of tone. a very charming treatment for either a country or small city dining-room is to have corner cupboards of this kind cutting off two corners. they are convenient and unusual and pretty as well. they can be painted in white with a colored line defining the panels and can be made highly decorative if the panels are painted with a classic or a chinese design. the decoration, however, should be kept in variations of the same tone as the stripe on the panels. for instance, if the stripe is gray, then the design should be in dark and light gray and blue tones. the chairs can be white, in a room of this kind, with small gray and blue medallions and either blue and white, or plain blue, cushions. another dining-room of the same sort was planned for a small country house on long island. here the woodwork was a deep cream, the walls the same tone, and the ceiling a little lighter. we found six of those prim duxbury chairs, with flaring spindle-backs, and painted them a soft yellow-green. the table was a plain pine one, with straight legs. we painted it cream and decorated the top with a conventional border of green adapted from the design of the china--a thick creamy danish ware ornamented with queer little wavy lines and figures. i should have mentioned the china first, because the whole room grew from that. the rug was a square of velvet of a darker green. the curtains were soft cream-colored net. one wall was made up of windows, another of doors and a cupboard, and against the other two walls we built two long, narrow consoles that were so simple anyone could accomplish them: simply two wide shelves resting on good brackets, with mirrors above. the one splendid thing in the room was a curtain of soft green damask that was pulled at night to cover the group of windows. everything else in the room was bought for a song. [illustration: the private dining-room in the colony club] i have said much of cupboards and consoles because i think they are so much better than the awkward, heavy "china closets" and "buffets" and sideboards that dominate most dining-rooms. the time has come when we should begin to do fine things in the way of building fitment furniture, that is, furniture that is actually or apparently a part of the shell of the room. it would be so much better to build a house slowly, planning the furniture as a part of the architectural detail. with each succeeding year the house would become more and more a part of the owner, illustrating his life. of course, this would mean that the person who planned the developing of the house must have a certain architectural training, must know about scale and proportion, and something of general construction. certainly charming things are to be created in this way, things that will last, things immeasurably preferable to the cheap jerry-built furniture which so soon becomes shabby, which has to be so constantly renewed. people accept new ideas with great difficulty, and my only hope is that they may grow to accept the idea of fitment furniture through finding the idea a product of their own; a personal discovery that comes from their own needs. i have constantly recommended the use of our native american woods for panelings and wall furniture, because we have both the beautiful woods of our new world and tried and proven furniture of the old world, and what couldn't we achieve with such material available? why do people think of a built-in cupboard as being less important than a detached piece of furniture? isn't it a braggart pose, a desire to show the number of things you can buy? of course it is a very foolish pose, but it is a popular one, this display of objects that are ear-marked "expensive." it is very easy to build cupboards on each side of a fireplace, for instance, making the wall flush with the chimney-breast. this is always good architectural form. one side could have a desk which opens beneath the glass doors, and the other could have cupboards, both presenting exactly the same appearance when closed. fitted corner cupboards, triangular or rounded, are also excellent in certain dining rooms. wall tables, or consoles, may be of the same wood as the woodwork or of marble, or of some dark polished wood. there are no more useful pieces of furniture than consoles, and yet we only see them in great houses. why? because they are simple, and we haven't yet learned to demand the simple. i have had many interesting old console-tables of wrought iron support and marble tops copied, and i have designed others that were mere semi-circles of white painted wood supported by four slender legs, but whether they be marble or pine the effect is always simple. there are charming consoles that have come to us from the eighteenth century, consoles made in pairs, so that they may stand against the wall as serving-tables, or be placed together to form one round table. this is a very good arrangement where people have one large living room or hall in which they dine and which also serves all the purpose of daily intercourse. this entirely removes any suggestion of a dining-room, as the consoles may be separated and stand against the wall during the day. many modern houses are being built without the conventional dining-room we have known so long, there being instead an open-air breakfast room which may be glazed in winter and screened in summer. people have come to their senses at last, and realize that there is nothing so pleasant as eating outdoors. the annual migration of americans to europe is responsible for the introduction of this excellent custom. french houses are always equipped with some outdoor place for eating. some of them have, in addition to the inclosed porch, a fascinating pavilion built in the garden, where breakfast and tea may be served. modern mechanical conveniences and the inexpensive electric apparatus make it possible to serve meals at this distance from the house and keep them hot in the meantime. one may prepare one's own coffee and toast at table, with the green trees and flowers and birds all around. eating outdoors makes for good health and long life and good temper, everyone knows that. the simplest meal seems a gala affair when everyone is radiant and cheerful, whereas a long and elaborate meal served indoors is usually depressing. xiv the bedroom in olden times people rarely slept in their bedrooms, which were mostly _chambres de parade_, where everyone was received and much business was transacted. the real bedroom was usually a smallish closet nearby. these _chambres de parade_ were very splendid, the beds raised on a dais, and hung with fine damasks and tapestries--tapestries thick with bullion fringes. the horror of fresh air felt by our ancestors was well illustrated here. no draughts from ill-constructed windows or badly hung doors could reach the sleeper in such a bed. [illustration: an old painted bed of the louis xvi. period] this was certainly different from our modern ideas of hygiene: in those days furniture that could not be hastily moved was of little importance. the bed was usually a mere frame of wood, made to be covered with valuable hangings which could easily be packed and carried away on occasions that too often arose in the troublous days of the early middle ages. the benches and tables one sees in many foreign palaces to-day are covered with gorgeous lengths of velvet and brocade. this is a survival of the custom when furniture was merely so much baggage. with the early eighteenth century, however, there came into being _les petits appartements_, in which the larger space formerly accorded the bedroom was divided into ante-chamber, salon or sitting-room, and the bedroom. very often the bed was placed in an alcove, and the heavy brocades and bullion embroideries were replaced by linen or cotton hangings. when oberkampf established himself at jouy in france took first place in the production of these printed linens and cottons. this was the beginning of the age of chintz and of the delightful decorative fabrics that are so suited to our modern ideas of hygiene. it seems to me there are no more charming stuffs for bedroom hangings than these simple fabrics, with their enchantingly fanciful designs. think of the changes one could have with several sets of curtains to be changed at will, as marie antoinette used to do at the petit trianon. how amusing it would be in our own modern houses to change the bed coverings, window curtains, and so forth, twice or three times a year! i like these loose slip covers and curtains better than the usual hard upholstery, because if properly planned the slips can be washed without losing their color or their lines. charming eighteenth century prints that are full of valuable hints as to furniture and decorations for bedrooms can be found in most french shops. the series known as "_moreau le jeun_" is full of suggestion. some of the interiors shown are very grand, it is true, but many are simple enough to serve as models for modern apartments. a set of these pictures will do much to give one an insight into the decoration of the eighteenth century, a vivid insight that can be obtained in no other way, perhaps. i do not like the very large bedrooms, dear to the plans of the american architect. i much prefer the space divided. i remember once arriving at the ritz hotel in london and being given temporarily a very grand royal suite, overlooking the park, until the smaller quarters i had reserved should be ready for me. how delighted i was at first with all the huge vastness of my bedroom! my appreciation waned, however, after a despairing morning toilet spent in taking many steps back and forth from dressing-table to bathroom, and from bathroom to hang-closets, and i was glad indeed, when, at the end of several hours, i was comfortably housed in my smaller and humbler quarters. i think the ideal bedroom should be planned so that a small ante-chamber should separate it from the large outside corridor. the ideal arrangement is an ante-chamber opening on the boudoir, or sitting-room, then the bedroom, with its dressing-room and bath in back. this outer chamber insures quiet and privacy, no matter how small it may be. it may serve as a clothes-closet, by filling the wall with cupboards, and concealing them with mirrored doors. the ante-chamber need not be a luxury, if you plan your house carefully. it is simply a little well of silence and privacy between you and the hall outside. [illustration: miss crocker's louis xvi. bed] to go on with my ideal bedroom: the walls, i think, should be simply paneled in wood, painted gray or cream or white, but if wood cannot be afforded a plastered wall, painted or distempered in some soft tone, is the best solution. you will find plain walls and gay chintz hangings very much more satisfying than walls covered with flowered papers and plain hangings, for the simple reason that a design repeated hundreds of times on a wall surface becomes very, very tiresome, but the same design in a fabric is softened and broken by the folds of the material, and you will never get the annoying sense of being impelled to count the figures. one of the bedrooms illustrated in this book shows an elizabethan paper that does not belong to the "busy" class, for while the design is decorative in the extreme you are not aware of an emphatic repeat. this is really an old chintz design, and is very charming in blues and greens and grays on a cream ground. i have seen bedrooms papered with huge scrolls and sea shells, many times enlarged, that suggest the noisy and methodical thumping of a drum. i cannot imagine anyone sleeping calmly in such a room! this bedroom is eminently suited to the needs of a man. the hangings are of a plain, soft stuff, accenting one of the deep tones of the wall covering, and the sash curtains are of white muslin. the furniture is of oak, of the jacobean period. the bed is true to its inspiration, with turned legs and runners, and slatted head and foot boards. the legs and runners of the bed were really inspired by the chairs and tables of the period. this is an excellent illustration of the modern furniture that may be adapted from old models. it goes without saying that the beds of that period were huge, cumbersome affairs, and this adapted bed is really more suitable to modern needs in size and weight and line than an original one. there are so many inspirations for bedrooms nowadays that one finds it most difficult to decide on any one scheme. one of my greatest joys in planning the colony club was that i had opportunity to furnish so many bedrooms. and they were small, pleasant rooms, too, not the usual impersonal boxes that are usually planned for club houses and hotels. i worked out the plan of each bedroom as if i were to live in it myself, and while they all differed in decorative schemes the essentials were the same in each room: a comfortable bed, with a small table beside it to hold a reading light, a clock, and a telephone; a _chaise-longue_ for resting; a long mirror somewhere; a dressing table with proper lights and a glass covered top; a writing table, carefully equipped, and the necessary chairs and stools. some of the bedrooms had no connecting baths, and these were given wash stands with bowls and pitchers of clear glass. most of these bedrooms were fitted with mahogany four post beds, pie crust tables, colonial highboys, gay chintzes, and such, but there were several rooms of entirely different scheme. [illustration: a colony club bedroom] perhaps the most fascinating of them all is the bird room. the walls are covered with an oriental paper patterned with marvelous blue and green birds, birds of paradise and paroquets perched on flowering branches. the black lacquer furniture was especially designed for the room. the rug and the hangings are of jade green. i wonder how this seems to read of--i can only say it is a very gay and happy room to live in! there is another bedroom in pink and white, which would be an adorable room for a young girl. the bed is of my own design, a simple white painted metal bed. there is a _chaise-longue_, upholstered in the pink and white striped chintz of the room. the same chintz is used for window hangings, bed spread, and so forth. there is a little spindle legged table of mahogany, and another table at the head of the bed which contains the reading light. there is also a little white stool, with a cushion of the chintz, beside the bed. the dressing-table is so simple that any girl might copy it--it is a chintz-hung box with a sheet of plate glass on top, and a white framed mirror hung above it. the electric lights in this room are cleverly made into candlesticks which are painted to match the chintz. the writing-table is white, with a mahogany chair in front of it. another bedroom has a narrow four post bed of mahogany, with hangings of china blue sprigged with small pink roses. there was another in green and white. in every case these bedrooms were equipped with rugs of neutral and harmonious tone. the dressing-tables were always painted to harmonize with the chintzes or the furniture. wherever possible there was an open fireplace. roomy clothes closets added much to the comfort of each room, and there was always a couch of delicious softness, or a _chaise-longue,_ and lounging chairs which invited repose. [illustration: by permission of the butterick publishing co. mauve chintz in a dull-green room] nothing so nice has happened in a long time as the revival of painted furniture, and the application of quaint designs to modern beds and chairs and chests. you may find inspiration in a length of chintz, in an old fan, in a faded print--anywhere! the main thing is to work out a color plan for the background--the walls, the furniture, and the rugs--and then you can draw or stencil the chosen designs wherever they seem to belong, and paint them in with dull tones and soft colors, rose and buff and blue and green and a little bit of gray and cream and black. or, if you aren't even as clever as that (and you probably _are!_) you can decorate your painted furniture with narrow lines of color: dark green on a light green ground; dark blue on yellow; _any_ color on gray or cream--there are infinite possibilities of color combinations. in one of the rooms shown in the illustrations the posy garlands on the chest of drawers were inspired by a lamp jar. this furniture was carefully planned, as may be seen by the little urns on the bedposts, quite in the manner of the brothers adam, but delightful results may be obtained by using any simple modern cottage furniture and applying fanciful decorations. be wary of hanging many pictures in your bedroom. i give this advice cheerfully, because i know you will hang them anyway (i do) but i warn you you will spoil your room if you aren't very stern with yourself. somehow the pictures we most love, small prints and photographs and things, look spotty on our walls. we must group them to get a pleasant effect. keep the framed photographs on the writing table, the dressing table, the mantel, etc., but do not hang them on your walls. if you have small prints that you feel you must have, hang them flat on the wall, well within the line of vision. they should be low enough to be _examined_, because usually such pictures are not decorative in effect, but exquisite in detail. the fewer pictures the better, and in the guest-room fewer still! i planned a guest-room for the top floor of a new york house that is very successful. the room was built around a pair of appliques made from two old chinese sprays of metal flowers. i had small electric light bulbs fitted among the flowers, mounted them on carved wood brackets on each side of a good mantel mirror and worked out the rest of the room from them. the walls were painted bluish green, the woodwork white. just below the molding at the top of the room there was a narrow border (four inches wide) of a mosaic-like pattern in blue and green. the carpet rug is of a blue-green tone. the hangings are of an alluring _chinoiserie_ chintz, and there are several chinese color prints framed and hanging in the narrow panels between the front windows. the furniture is painted a deep cream pointed with blue and green, and the bed covering is of a pale turquoise taffeta. another guest room was done in gentian blue and white, with a little buff and rose-color in small things. this room was planned for the guests of the daughter of the house, so the furnishings were naively and adorably feminine. the dressing-table was made of a long, low box, with a glass top and a valance so crisp and flouncing that it suggested a young lady in crinoline. the valance was of chintz in gentian blue and white. the white mirror frame was decorated with little blue lines and tendrils. surely any girl would grow pretty with dressing before such an enchanting affair! and simple--why, she could hinge the mirrors together, and make the chintz ruffle, and enamel the shelves white, and do every bit of it except cut the plate glass. of course the glass is very clean and nice, but an enameled surface with a white linen cover would be very pleasant. the same blue and white chintz was used for the hangings and bed coverings. everything else in the room was white except the thick cream rug with its border of blue and rose and buff, and the candlesticks and appliques which repeated those colors. [illustration: mrs. frederick havemeyer's chinoiserie chintz bed] [illustration: mrs. payne whitney's green feather chintz bed] there is a chintz i love to use called the green feather chintz. it is most decorative in design and color, and such an aristocratic sort of chintz you can use it on handsome old sofas and your post beds that would scorn a more commonplace chintz. mrs. payne whitney has a most enchanting bed covered with the green feather chintz, one of those great beds that depend entirely on their hangings for effect, for not a bit of the wooden frame shows. mrs. frederick havemeyer has a similar bed covered with a _chinoiserie_ chintz. these great beds are very beautiful in large rooms, but they would be out of place in small ones. there are draped beds, however, that may be used in smaller rooms. i am showing a photograph of a bedroom in the crocker house in burlingame, california, where i used a small draped bed with charming effect. this bed is placed flat against the wall, like a sofa, and the drapery is adapted from that of a louis xvi room. the bed is of gray painted wood, and the hangings are of blue and cream chintz lined with blue taffetas. i used the same idea in a rose and blue bedroom in a new york house. in this case, however, the bed was painted cream white and the large panels of the head and foot boards were filled with a rose and blue chintz. the bedspread was of deep rose colored taffetas, and from a small canopy above the bed four curtains of the rose and blue chintz, lined with the taffetas, are pulled to the four corners of the bed. this novel arrangement of draperies is very satisfactory in a small room. in my own house the bedrooms open into dressing-rooms, so much of the usual furniture is not necessary. my own bedroom, for instance, is built around the same old breton bed i had in the washington irving house. the bed dominates the room, but there are also a _chaise-longue_, several small tables, many comfortable chairs, and a real fireplace. the business of dressing takes place in the dressing-room, so there is no dressing-table here, but there are long mirrors filling the wall spaces between windows and doors. miss marbury's bedroom is just over mine, and is a sunshiny place of much rose and blue and cream. her rooms are always full of blue, just as my rooms are always full of rose color. this bedroom has cream woodwork and walls of a bluish-gray, cream painted furniture covered with a mellow sort of rose-and-cream chintz, and a persian rug made up of blue and cream. the curtains at the windows are of plain blue linen bordered with a narrow blue and white fringe. the lighting-fixtures are of carved wood, pointed in polychrome. the most beautiful thing in the room is a fifteenth century painting, the madonna of bartolomeo montagna, which has the place of honor over the mantel. i haven't said a word about our nice american colonial bedrooms, because all of you know their beauties and requirements as well as i. the great drawback to the stately old furniture of our ancestors is the space it occupies. haven't you seen a fine old four post bed simply overflowing a poor little room? fortunately, the furniture-makers are designing simple beds of similar lines, but lighter build, and these beds are very lovely. the owner of a massive old four-post bed is justly proud of it, but our new beds are built for a new service and a new conception of hygiene, and so must find new lines and curves that will be friendly to the old dressing tables and highboys and chests of drawers. when we are fortunate enough to inherit great old houses, of course we will give them proper furniture--if we can find it. i remember a house in new orleans that had a full dozen spacious bedrooms, square, closetless chambers that opened into small dressing-rooms. one of them, i remember, was absolutely bare of wall and floor, with a great napoleon bed set squarely in the center of it. there was the inevitable mosquito net canopy, here somehow endowed with an unexpected dignity. one felt the room had been made for sleeping, and nothing _but_ sleeping, and while the bed was placed in the middle of the floor to get all the air possible, its placing was a master stroke of decoration in that great white walled room. it was as impressive as a royal bed on a dais. we are getting more sensible about our bedrooms. there is no doubt about it. for the last ten years there has been a dreadful epidemic of brass beds, a mistaken vogue that came as a reaction from the heavy walnut beds of the last generation. white painted metal beds came first, and will last always, but they weren't good enough for people of ostentatious tastes, and so the vulgar brass bed came to pass. why we should suffer brass beds in our rooms, i don't know! the plea is that they are more sanitary than wooden ones. hospitals must consider sanitation first, last, and always, and they use white iron beds. and why shouldn't white iron beds, which are modest and unassuming in appearance, serve for homes as well? the truth is that the glitter of brass appeals to the untrained eye. but that is passing. go into the better shops and you will see! recently there was a spasmodic outbreak of silver-plated beds, but i think there won't be a vogue for this newest object of bad taste. it is a little too much! if your house is clean and you intend to keep it so, a wooden bed that has some relation to the rest of your furniture is the best bed possible. otherwise, a white painted metal one. there is never an excuse for a brass one. indeed, i think the three most glaring errors we americans make are rocking-chairs, lace curtains, and brass beds. [illustration: my own bedroom is built around a breton bed] xv the dressing-room and the bath dressing-rooms and closets should be necessities, not luxuries, but alas! our architects' ideas of the importance of large bedrooms have made it almost impossible to incorporate the proper closets and dressing-places a woman really requires. in the foregoing chapter on bedrooms i advised the division of a large bedroom into several smaller rooms: ante-chamber, sitting-room, sleeping-room, dressing-room and bath. the necessary closets may be built along the walls of all these little rooms, or, if there is sufficient space, one long, airy closet may serve for all one's personal belongings. of course, such a suite of rooms is possible only in large houses. but even in simple houses a small dressing-room can be built into the corner of an average-sized bedroom. in france every woman dresses in her _cabinet de toilette_; it is one of the most important rooms in the house. no self-respecting french woman would dream of dressing in her sleeping-room. the little _cabinet de toilette_ need not be much larger than a closet, if the closets are built ceiling high, and the doors are utilized for mirrors. such an arrangement makes for great comfort and privacy. here i find that most of my countrywomen dress in their bedrooms. i infinitely prefer the separate dressing-room, which means a change of air, and which can be thoroughly ventilated. if one sleeps with the bedroom windows wide open, it is a pleasure to have a warm dressing-room to step into. i think the first thing to be considered about a dressing-room is its utility. here no particular scheme of decoration or over-elaboration of color is in place. everything should be very simple, very clean and very hygienic. the floors should not be of wood, but may be of marble or mosaic cement or clean white tiles, with a possible touch of color. if the dressing-room is bathroom also, there should be as large a bath as is compatible with the size of the room. the combination of dressing-room and bathroom is successful only in those large houses where each bedroom has its bath. i have seen such rooms in modern american houses that were quite as large as bedrooms, with the supreme luxury of open fireplaces. think of the comfort of having one's bath and of making one's toilet before an open fire! this is an outgrowth of our passion for bedrooms that are so be-windowed they become sleeping-porches, and we may leave their chill air for the comfortable warmth of luxurious dressing-rooms. [illustration: by permission of the butterick publishing co. furniture painted with chintz designs] if i were giving advice as to the furnishing of a dressing-room, in as few words as possible, i should say: "put in lots of mirrors, and then more mirrors, and then more!" indeed, i do not think one can have too many mirrors in a dressing-room. long mirrors can be set in doors and wall panels, so that one may see one's self from hat to boots. hinged mirrors are lovely for sunny wall spaces, and for the tops of dressing-tables. i have made so many of them. one of green and gold lacquer was made to be used on a plain green enameled dressing-table placed squarely in the recess of a great window. i also use small mirrors of graceful contour to light up the dark corners of dressing-rooms. have your mirrors so arranged that you get a good strong light by day, and have plenty of electric lights all around the dressing-mirrors for night use. in other words, know the worst before you go out! in my own dressing-room the lights are arranged just as i used to have them long ago in my theater dressing-room when i was on the stage. i can see myself back, front and sides before i go out. really, it is a comfort to be on friendly terms with your own back hair! i lay great stress on the mirrors and plenty of lights, and yet more lights. oh, the joy, the blessing of electric light! i think every woman would like to dress always by a blaze of electric light, and be seen only in the soft luminosity of candle light--how lovely we would all look, to be sure! it is a great thing to know the worst before one goes out, so that even the terrors of the arc lights before our theaters will be powerless to dismay us. if there is room in the dressing-room, there should be a sofa with a slip cover of some washable fabric that can be taken off when necessary. this sofa may be the simplest wooden frame, with a soft pad, or it may be a _chaise-longue_ of elegant lines. the _chaise-longue_ is suitable for bedroom or dressing-room, but it is an especially luxurious lounging-place when you are having your hair done. a man came to me just before christmas, and said, "do tell me something to give my wife. i cannot think of a thing in the world she hasn't already." i asked, "is she a lady of habits?" "what!" he said, astonished. "does she enjoy being comfortable?" i asked. "well, rather!" he smiled. and so i suggested a _couvre-pieds_ for her _chaise-longue._ now i am telling you of the _couvre pieds_ because i know all women love exquisite things, and surely nothing could be more delicious than my _couvre-pieds._ literally, it is a "cover for the feet," a sort of glorified and diminutive coverlet, made of the palest of pink silk, lined with the soft long-haired white fur known as mountain tibet, and interlined with down. the coverlet is bordered with a puffing of french lace, and the top of it is encrusted with little flowers made of tiny french picot ribbons, and quillings of the narrowest of lace. it is supposed to be thrown over your feet, fur side down, when you are resting or having your hair done. [illustration: miss morgan's louis xvi. dressing-room] you may devise a little coverlet for your own sofa, whether it be in your bedroom, your boudoir, or your dressing-room, that will be quite as useful as this delectable _couvre-pieds_. i saw some amusing ones recently, made of gay austrian silks, lined with astonishing colors and bound with puffings and flutings of ribbon of still other colors. a coverlet of this kind would be as good as a trip away from home for the woman who is bored and wearied. no matter how drab and commonplace her house might be, she could devise a gay quilt of one of the enchanting new stuffs and wrap herself in it for a holiday hour. one of the most amusing ones was of turquoise blue silk, with stiff flowers of violet and sulphur yellow scattered over it. the flowers were quite large and far apart, so that there was a square expanse of the turquoise blue with a stiff flower at each corner. the lining was of sulphur yellow silk, and the binding was a puffing of violet ribbons. the color fairly made me gasp, at first, but then it became fascinating, and finally irresistible. i sighed as i thought of the dreary patchwork quilts of our great-grandmothers. how they would have marveled at our audacious use of color, our frank joy in it! of course the most important thing in the dressing-room is the dressing-table. i place my dressing-tables _against_ a group of windows, not near them, whenever it is possible. i have used plate glass tops on many of them, and mirrors for tops on others, for you can't have too many mirrors or too strong a light for dressing. we must see ourselves as others will see us. my own dressing-table contains many drawers, one of which is fitted with an ink-well, a tray for pens and pencils, and a sliding shelf on which i write. this obviates going into another room to answer hurried notes when one is dressing. beside the dressing-table stands the tall hat-stand for the hat i may be wearing that day. when the maid prepares the dress that is to be worn, she puts the hat that goes with the toilette on the tall single stand. another idea is the little hollow table on casters that can easily be slipped under the dressing-table, where it is out of the way. all the little ugly things that make one lovely can be kept in this table, which can have a lid if desired, and even a lock and key. i frequently make them with a glass bottom, as they do not get stained or soiled, and can be washed. there are lots of little dodges that spell comfort for the dressing-room of the woman who wants comfort and can have luxury. there is the hot-water towel-rack, which is connected with the hot-water system of the house and which heats the towels, and incidentally the dressing-room. this a boon if you like a hot bath sheet after a cold plunge on a winter's morning. another modern luxury is a wall cabinet fitted with glass shelves for one's bottles and sponges and powders. there seems to be no end to the little luxuries that are devised for the woman who makes a proper toilet. who can blame her for loving the business of making herself attractive, when every one offers her encouragement? a closet is absolutely necessary in the dressing-room, and if space is precious every inch of its interior may be fitted with shelves and drawers and hooks, so that no space is wasted. the outside of the closet door may be fitted with a mirror, and narrow shelves just deep enough to hold one's bottles, may be fitted on the inside of the door. if the closet is very shallow, the inner shelves should be hollowed out to admit the bottle shelves when the door is closed. otherwise the bottles will be smashed the first time a careless maid slams the door. this bottle closet has been one of my great successes in small apartments, where bathroom and dressing-room are one, and where much must be accomplished in a small space. in the more modern apartments the tub is placed in a recess in the wall of the bathroom, leaving more space for dressing purposes. this sort of combination dressing-room should have waterproof floor and wall, and no fripperies. there should be a screen large enough to conceal the tub, and a folding chair that may be placed in the small closet when it is not in use. when the bathroom is too small to admit a dressing-table and chair and the bedroom is quite large, a good plan is the building of a tiny room in one corner of the bedroom. of course this little dressing-box must have a window. i have used this plan many times with excellent results. another scheme, when the problem was entirely different, and the dressing-room was too large for comfort, was to line three walls of it with closets, the fourth wall being filled with windows. these closets were narrow, each having a mirrored panel in its door. this is the ideal arrangement, for there is ample room for all one's gowns, shoes, hats, veils, gloves, etc., each article having its own specially planned shelf or receptacle. the closets are painted in gay colors inside, and the shelves are fitted with thin perfumed pads. they are often further decorated with bright lines of color, which is always amusing to the woman who opens a door. hat stands and bags are covered with the same chintzes employed in the dressing-room proper. certain of the closets are fitted with the english tray shelves, and each tray has its sachet. the hangers for gowns are covered in the chintz or brocade used on the hat stands. this makes an effective ensemble whether brocades or printed cottons are used, if the arrangement is orderly and full of gay color. [illustration: miss marbury's chintz-hung dressing-table] one of the most successful gown closets i have done is a long narrow closet with a door at each end, really a passageway between a bedroom and a boudoir. long poles run the length of the closet, with curtains that enclose a passage from door to door. back of these curtains are long poles that may be raised or lowered by pulleys. each gown is placed on its padded hanger, covered with its muslin bag, and hung on the pole. the pole is then drawn up so that the tails of the gowns will not touch the dust of the floor. this is a most orderly arrangement for the woman of many gowns. the straightaway bathroom that one finds in apartments and small houses is difficult to make beautiful, but may be made airy and clean-looking, which is more important. i had to make such a bathroom a little more attractive recently, and it was a very pleasant job. i covered the walls with a waterproof stuff of white, figured with a small black polkadot. the woodwork and the ceiling were painted white. all around the door and window frames i used a two-inch border of ivy leaves, also of waterproof paper, and although i usually abominate borders i loved this one. a plain white framed mirror was also painted with green ivy leaves, and a glass shelf above the wash bowl was fitted with glass bottles and dishes with labels and lines of clear green. white muslin curtains were hung at the window, and a small white stool was given a cushion covered with green and white ivy patterned chintz. the floor was painted white, and a solid green rug was used. the towels were cross-stitched with the name of the owner in the same bright green. the room, when finished, was cool and refreshing, and had cost very little in money, and not so very much in time and labor. i think that in country houses where there is not a bathroom with each bedroom there should be a very good washstand provided for each guest. when a house party is in progress, for instance, and every one comes in from tennis or golf or what not, eager for a bath and fresh clothes, washstands are most convenient. why shouldn't a washstand be just as attractively furnished as a dressing-table? just because they have been so ugly we condemn them to eternal ugliness, but it is quite possible to make the washstand interesting to look upon as well as serviceable. it isn't necessary to buy a "set" of dreadful crockery. you can assemble the necessary things as carefully as you would assemble the outfit for your writing-table. go to the pottery shops, the glass shops, the silversmiths, and you will find dozens of bowls and pitchers and small things. a clear glass bowl and pitcher and the necessary glasses and bottles can be purchased at any department store. the french peasants make an apple-green pottery that is delightful for a washstand set. so many of the china shops have large shallow bowls that were made for salad and punch, and pitchers that were made for the dining-table, but there is no reason why they shouldn't be used on the washstand. i know one wash basin that began as a russian brass pan of flaring rim. with it is used an old water can of hammered brass, and brass dishes glass lined, to hold soaps and sponges. it is only necessary to desire the unusual thing, and you'll get it, though much searching may intervene between the idea and its achievement. the washstand itself is not such a problem. a pair of dressing-tables may be bought, and one fitted up as a washstand, and the other left to its usual use. in the colony club there are a number of bathrooms, but there are also washstands in those rooms that have no private bath. each bathroom has its fittings planned to harmonize with the connecting bedroom, and the clear glass bottles are all marked in the color prevailing in the bedroom. each bathroom has a full-length mirror, and all the conveniences of a bathroom in a private house. in addition to these rooms there is a long hall filled with small _cabinets de toilette_ which some clever woman dubbed "prinkeries." these are small rooms fitted with dressing-tables, where out-of-town members may freshen their toilets for an occasion. these little prinkeries would be excellent in large country houses, where there are so many motoring guests who come for a few hours only, dust-laden and travel-stained, only to find that all the bedrooms and dressing-rooms in the house are being used by the family and the house guests. a description of the pool of the colony club is hardly within the province of this chapter, but so many amazing americans are building themselves great houses incorporating theaters and roman baths, so many women are building club houses, so many others are building palatial houses that are known as girls' schools, perhaps the swimming-pool will soon be a part of all large houses. this pool occupies the greater part of the basement floor of the club house, the rest of the floor being given over to little rooms where one may have a shampoo or massage or a dancing lesson or what not before or after one's swim. the pool is twenty-two by sixty feet, sunken below the level of the marble floor. the depth is graded from four feet to deep water, so that good and bad swimmers may enjoy it. the marble margin of floor surrounding the pool is bordered with marble benches, placed between the white columns. the walls of the great room are paneled with mirrors, so that there are endless reflections of columned corridors and pools and shimmering lights. the ceiling is covered with a light trellis hung with vines, from which hang great greenish-white bunches of grapes holding electric lights. one gets the impression of myriads of white columns, and of lights and shadows infinitely far-reaching. surely the old romans knew no pleasanter place than this city-enclosed pool. xvi the small apartment this is the age of the apartment. not only in the great cities, but in the smaller centers of civilization the apartment has come to stay. modern women demand simplified living, and the apartment reduces the mechanical business of living to its lowest terms. a decade ago the apartment was considered a sorry makeshift in america, though it has been successful abroad for more years than you would believe. we americans have been accustomed to so much space about us that it seemed a curtailment of family dignity to give up our gardens, our piazzas and halls, our cellars and attics, our front and rear entrances. now we are wiser. we have just so much time, so much money and so much strength, and it behooves us to make the best of it. why should we give our time and strength and enthusiasm to drudgery, when our housework were better and more economically done by machinery and co-operation? why should we stultify our minds with doing the same things thousands of times over, when we might help ourselves and our friends to happiness by intelligent occupations and amusements? the apartment is the solution of the living problems of the city, and it has been a direct influence on the houses of the towns, so simplifying the small-town business of living as well. of course, many of us who live in apartments either have a little house or a big one in the country for the summer months, or we plan for one some day! so hard does habit die--we cannot entirely divorce our ideas of home from gardens and trees and green grass. but i honestly think there is a reward for living in a slice of a house: women who have lived long in the country sometimes take the beauty of it for granted, but the woman who has been hedged in by city walls gets the fine joy of out-of-doors when she _is_ out of doors, and a pot of geraniums means more to her than a whole garden means to a woman who has been denied the privilege of watching things grow. the modern apartment is an amazing illustration of the rapid development of an idea. the larger ones are quite as magnificent as any houses could be. i have recently furnished a chicago apartment that included large and small salons, a huge conservatory, and a great group of superb rooms that are worthy of a palace. there are apartment houses in new york that offer suites of fifteen to twenty rooms, with from five to ten baths, at yearly rentals that approximate wealth to the average man, but these apartments are for the few, and there are hundreds of thousands of apartments for the many that have the same essential conveniences. one of the most notable achievements of the apartment house architects is the duplex apartment, the little house within a house, with its two-story high living room, its mezzanine gallery with service rooms ranged below and sleeping rooms above, its fine height and spaciousness. most of the duplex apartments are still rather expensive, but some of them are to be had at rents that are comparatively low--rents are always comparative, you know. fortunately, although it is a far cry financially from the duplex apartment to the tidy three-room flat of the model tenements, the "modern improvements" are very much the same. the model tenement offers compact domestic machinery, and cleanliness, and sanitary comforts at a few dollars a week that are not to be had at any price in many of the fine old houses of europe. the peasant who has lived on the plane of the animals with no thought of cleanliness, or indeed of anything but food and drink and shelter, comes over here and enjoys improvements that our stately ancestors of a few generations ago would have believed magical. enjoys them--they do say he puts his coal in the bath tub, but his grandchildren will be different, perhaps! but enough of apartments in general. this chapter is concerned with the small apartment sought by you young people who are beginning housekeeping. you want to find just the proper apartment, of course, and then you want to decorate and furnish it. let me beg of you to demand only the actual essentials: a decent neighborhood, good light and air, and at least one reasonably large room. don't demand perfection, for you won't find it. make up your mind just what will make for your happiness and comfort, and demand that. you can make any place livable by furnishing it wisely. and, oh, let me beg of you, don't buy your furniture until you have found and engaged your apartment! it is bad enough to buy furniture for a house you haven't seen, but an apartment is a place of limitations, and you can so easily mar the place by buying things that will not fit in. an apartment is so dependent upon proper fittings, skilfully placed, that you may ruin your chances of a real home if you go ahead blindly. before you sign your lease, be sure that the neighborhood is not too noisy. be sure that you will have plenty of light and air and heat. you can interview the other tenants, and find out about many things you haven't time or the experience to anticipate. be sure that your landlord is a reasonable human being who will consent to certain changes, if necessary, who will be willing for you to build in certain things, who will co-operate with you in improving his property, if you go about it tactfully. be sure that the woodwork is plain and unpretentious, that the lighting-fixtures are logically placed, and of simple construction. (is there anything more dreadful than those colored glass domes, with fringes of beads, that landlords so proudly hang over the imaginary dining-table?) be sure that the plumbing is in good condition, and beware the bedroom on an air shaft--better pay a little more rent and save the doctor's bills. beware of false mantels, and grotesque grille-work, and imitation stained glass, and grained woodwork. you couldn't be happy in a place that was false to begin with. having found just the combination of rooms that suggests a real home to you, go slowly about your decorating. it is almost imperative that the woodwork and walls should have the same finish throughout the apartment, unless you wish to find yourself living in a crazy-quilt of unfriendly colors. i have seen four room apartments in which every room had a different wall paper and different woodwork. the "parlor" was papered with poisonous-looking green paper, with imitation mahogany woodwork; the dining-room had walls covered with red burlap and near-oak woodwork; the bedroom was done in pink satin finished paper and bird's-eye maple woodwork, and the kitchen was bilious as to woodwork, with bleak gray walls. could anything be more mistaken? you can make the most commonplace rooms livable if you will paint all your woodwork cream, or gray, or sage green, and cover your walls with a paper of very much the same tone. real hard wood trim isn't used in ordinary apartments, so why not do away with the badly-grained imitation and paint it? you can look through thousands of samples of wall papers, and you will finally have to admit that there is nothing better for every day living than a deep cream, a misty gray, a tan or a buff paper. you may have a certain license in the papering of your bedrooms, of course, but the living-rooms--hall, dining-room, living-room, drawing-room, and so forth--should be pulled together with walls of one color. in no other way can you achieve an effect of spaciousness--and spaciousness is the thing of all other things most desirable in the crowded city. you must have a place where you can breathe and fling your arms about! when you have it really ready for furnishing, get the essentials first; do with a bed and a chest of drawers and a table and a few chairs, and add things gradually, as the rooms call for them. make the best of the opportunities offered for built-in furniture before you buy another thing. if you have a built-in china closet in your dining-room, you can plan a graceful built-in console-table to serve as a buffet or serving-table, and you will require only a good table--not too heavily built--and a few chairs for this room. there is rarely a room that would not be improved by built-in shelves and inset mirrors. of course, i do not advise you to spend a lot of money on someone else's property, but why not look the matter squarely in the face? this is to be your home. you will find a number of things that annoy you--life in any city furnishes annoyances. but if you have one or two reasonably large rooms, plenty of light and air, and respectable surroundings, make up your mind that you will not move every year. that you will make a home of this place, and then go ahead and _treat_ it as a home! if a certain recess in the wall suggests bookshelves, don't grudge the few dollars necessary to have the bookshelves built in! you can probably have them built so that they can be removed, on that far day when this apartment is no longer your home, and if you have a dreadful wall paper don't hide behind the silly plea that the landlord will not change it. go without a new gown, if necessary, and pay for the paper yourself. few apartments have fireplaces, and if you are fortunate enough to find one with a real fireplace and a simple mantel shelf you will be far on the way toward making a home of your group of rooms. of course your apartment is heated by steam, or hot air, or something, but an open fire of coal or wood will be very pleasant on chilly days, and more important still your home will have a point of departure--the hearth. if the mantel shelf is surmounted by one of those dreadful monstrosities made up of gingerbread woodwork and distressing bits of mirrors, convince your landlord that it will not be injured in the removing, and store it during your residence here. have the space above the mantel papered like the rest of the walls, and hang one good picture, or a good mirror, or some such thing above your mantel shelf, and you will have offered up your homage to the spirit of the hearth. when you do begin to buy furniture, buy compactly, buy carefully. remember that you will not require the furniture your mother had in a sixteen-room house. you will have no hall or piazza furnishings to buy, for instance, and therefore you many put a little more into your living-room things. the living-room is the nucleus of the modern apartment. sometimes it is studio, living-room and dining-room in one. sometimes living-room, library and guest-room, by the grace of a comfortable sleeping-couch and a certain amount of drawer or closet space. at any rate, it will be more surely a living-room than a similar room in a large house, and therefore everything in it should count for something. do not admit an unnecessary rug, or chair, or picture, lest you lose the spaciousness, the dignity of the room. an over-stuffed chair will fill a room more obviously than a grand piano--if the piano is properly, and the chair improperly placed. in one of the illustrations of this chapter you will observe a small sitting-room in which there are dozens of things, and yet the effect is quiet and uncrowded. the secretary against the plain wall serves as a cabinet for the display of a small collection of fine old china, and the drawers serve the chance guest--for while this is library and sitting-room, it has a most comfortable couch bed, and may be used as a guest-room as well. [illustration: a corner of my own boudoir] the bookshelves are built high on each side of the mantel and between the windows, thus giving shelf room to a goodly collection of books, with no appearance of heaviness. the writing-table is placed at right angles to the windows, so that the light may fall on the writer's left shoulder. there is a couch bed--over three feet wide, in this room, with frame and mattress and pillows covered in a dark brocaded stuff, and a fireside chair, a small chair at the head of the couch and a low stool all covered with the same fabric. it really isn't a large room, and yet it abundantly fills a dozen needs. i think it unwise to try to work out a cut-and-dried color plan in a small apartment. if your floors and walls are neutral in tone you can introduce dozens of soft colors into your rooms. don't buy massive furniture for your apartment! remember that a few good chairs of willow will be less expensive and more decorative than the heavy, stuffy chairs usually chosen by inexperienced people. indeed, i think one big arm chair, preferably of the wing variety, is the only big chair you will require in the living-room. a fireside chair is like a grandfather's clock; it gives so much dignity to a room that it is worth a dozen inferior things. suppose you have a wing chair covered with dull-toned corduroy, or linen, or chintz; a large willow chair with a basket pocket for magazines or your sewing things; a stool or so of wood, with rush or cane seats; and a straight chair or so--perhaps a painted windsor chair, or a rush-bottomed mahogany chair, or a low-back chair of brown oak--depending on the main furniture of the room, of course. you won't need anything more, unless you have space for a comfortable couch. if you have mahogany things, you will require a little mahogany table at the head of the couch to hold a reading-lamp--a sewing-table would be excellent. a pie-crust or turn top table for tea, or possibly a "nest" of three small mahogany tables. a writing table or book table built on very simple lines will be needed also. if you happen to have a conventional writing-desk, a gate-leg table would be charming for books and things. the wing chair and willow chairs, and the hour-glass chinese chairs, will go beautifully with mahogany things or with oak things. if most of your furniture is to be oak, be sure and select well-made pieces stained a soft brown and waxed. oak furniture is delightful when it isn't too heavy. a large gate-leg table of dark brown oak is one of the most beautiful tables in the world. with it you would need a bench of oak, with cane or rush seat; a small octagonal, or butterfly oak table for your couch end, and one or two windsor chairs. oak demands simple, wholesome surroundings, just as mahogany permits a certain feminine elegance. oak furniture invites printed linens and books and brass and copper and pewter and gay china. while mahogany may be successfully used with such things, it may also be used with brocade and fragile china and carved chairs. use chintzes in your apartment, if you wish, but do not risk the light ones in living-rooms. a chintz or printed linen of some good design on a ground of mauve, blue, gray or black will decorate your apartment adequately, if you make straight side curtains of it, and cover one chair and possibly a stool with it. don't carry it too far. if your rooms are small, have your side curtains of coarse linen or raw silk in dull blue, orange, brown, or whatever color you choose as the key color of your room, and then select a dark chintz with your chosen color dominant in its design, and cover your one big chair with that. the apartment hall is most difficult, usually long and narrow and uninteresting. don't try to have furniture in a hall of this kind. a small table near the front door, a good tile for umbrellas, etc., a good mirror--that is all. perhaps a place for coats and hats, but some halls are too narrow for a card table. the apartment with a dining-room entirely separated from the living-room is very unusual, therefore i am hoping that you will apply all that i have said about the treatment of your living-room to your dining-room as well. people who live in apartments are very foolish if they cut off a room so little used as a dining-room and furnish it as if it belonged to a huge house. why not make it a dining-and book-room, using the big table for reading, between meals, and having your bookshelves so built that they will be in harmony with your china shelves? keep all your glass and silver and china in the kitchen, or butler's pantry, and display only the excellent things--the old china, the pewter tankard, the brass caddy, and so forth,--in the dining-room. however, if you have a real dining-room in your apartment, do try to have chairs that will be comfortable, for you can't afford to have uncomfortable things in so small a space! windsor chairs and rush bottom chairs are best of all for a simple dining-room, i think, though the revival of painted furniture has brought about a new interest in the old flare-back chairs, painted with dull, soft colored posies on a ground of dull green or gray or black. these chairs would be charming in a small cottage dining-room, but they might not "wear well" in a city apartment. [illustration: built-in bookshelves in a small room] if your apartment has two small bedrooms, why not use one of them for two single beds, with a night stand between, and the other for a dressing-room? apartment bedrooms are usually small, but charming furniture may be bought for small rooms. single beds of mahogany with slender posts; beds of painted wood with inset panels of cane; white iron beds, wooden beds painted with quaint designs on a ground of some soft color--all these are excellent for small rooms. it goes without saying that a small bedroom should have plain walls, papered or painted in some soft color. flowered papers, no matter how delightful they may be, make a small room seem smaller. self-toned striped papers and the "gingham" papers are sometimes very good. the nicest thing about such modest walls is that you can use gay chintz with them successfully. use your bedrooms as sleeping-and dressing-rooms, and nothing more. do not keep your sewing things there--a big sewing-basket will add to the homelike quality of your living-room. keep the bedroom floor bare, except for a bedside rug, and possibly one or two other rugs. this, of course, does not apply to the large bedroom--i am prescribing for the usual small one. place your bed against the side wall, so that the morning light will not be directly in your eyes. a folding screen covered with chintz or linen will prove a god-send. perhaps you will have a guest-room, but i doubt it. most women find it more satisfactory and less expensive to send their guests to a nearby hotel than to keep an extra room for a guest. the guest room is impractical in a small apartment, but you can arrange to take care of an over-night guest by planning your living-room wisely. as for the kitchen--that is another story. it is impossible to go into that subject. and anyway, you will find the essentials supplied for you by the landlord. you won't need my advice when you need a broom or a coffee pot or a saucepan--you'll go buy it! xvii reproductions of antique furniture and objects of art one must have preserved many naïve illusions if one may believe in all the "antiques" that are offered in the marketplaces of the world to-day. even the greatest connoisseurs are caught napping sometimes, as in the case of the famous crown supposedly dating to the fifth century, b.c., which was for a brief period one of the treasures of the louvre. its origin was finally discovered, and great was the outcry! it had been traced to a viennese artisan, a worker in the arts and crafts. [illustration: mrs. c.w. harkness's cabinet for _objets d'art_] surely, if the great men of the louvre could be so deceived it is obvious that the amateur collector has little chance at the hands of the dealers in old furniture and other objects of art. fortunately, the greatest dealers are quite honest. they tell you frankly if the old chair you covet is really old, if it has been partially restored, or if it is a copy, and they charge you accordingly. at these dealers a small table of the louis xvi period, or a single chair covered in the original tapestry, may cost as much as a man in modest circumstances would spend on his whole house. almost everything outside these princely shops (salons is a better word) is false, or atrociously restored. please remember i am not referring to reputable dealers, but to the smaller fry, whose name is legion, in whose shops the unwary seeker after bargains is sure to be taken in. italy is, i think, the greatest workshop of fraudulent reproductions. it has an output that all europe and america can never exhaust. little children on the streets of naples still find simpletons of ardent faith who will buy scraps of old plaster and bits of paving stones that are alleged to have been excavated in pompeii. in writing about antiques it is not easy to be consistent, and any general conclusion is impossible. certain reproductions are objectionable, and yet they are certainly better than poor originals, after all. the simplest advice is the best and easiest to follow: the less a copy suggests an attempt at "artistic reproduction," the more literal and mechanical it is in its copy of the original, the better it is. a good photograph of a fine old painting is superior to the average copy in oils or watercolors. a chair honestly copied from a worm eaten original is better for domestic purpose than the original. the original, the moment its usefulness is past, belongs in a museum. a plaster cast of a great bust is better than the same object copied in marble or bronze by an average sculptor. and so it goes. think it out for yourself. it may be argued that the budding collector is as happy with a false object and a fake bauble as if he possessed the real thing, and therefore it were better to leave him to his illusions; that it is his own fault; that it is so much the worse for him if he is deceived. but--you can't leave the innocent lamb to the slaughter, if you can give him a helping hand. if he must be a collector, let him be first a collector of the many excellent books now published on old furniture, china, rugs, pewter, silver, prints, the things that will come his way. you can't begin collecting one thing without developing an enthusiasm for the contemporary things. let him study the museum collections, visit the private collections, consult recognized experts. if he is serious, he will gradually acquire the intuition of knowing the genuine from the false, the worth-while from the worthless, and once he has that knowledge, instinct, call it what you will, he can never be satisfied with imitations. the collection and association of antiques and reproductions should be determined by the collector's sense of fitness, it seems to me. every man should depend on whatever instinct for rightness, for suitability, he may possess. if he finds that he dare not risk his individual opinion, then let him be content with the things he _knows_ to be both beautiful and useful, and leave the subtler decisions for someone else. for instance, there are certain objects that are obviously the better for age, the objects that are softened and refined by a bloom that comes from usage. an old rug has a softness that a new one cannot imitate. an old copper kettle has an uneven quality that has come from years of use. a new kettle may be quite as useful, but age has given the old one a certain quality that hanging and pounding cannot reproduce. a pewter platter that has been used for generations is dulled and softened to a glow that a new platter cannot rival. what charm is to a woman, the vague thing called quality is to an object of art. we feel it, though we may not be able to explain it. an old etruscan jar may be reproduced in form, but it would be silly to attempt the reproduction of the crudenesses that gave the old jar its real beauty. in short, objects that depend on form and fine workmanship for their beauty may be successfully reproduced, but objects that depend on imperfections of workmanship, on the crudeness of primitive fabrics, on the fading of vegetable dyes, on the bloom that age alone can give, should not be imitated. we may introduce a reproduction of a fine bust into our rooms, but an imitation of a persian tile or a venetian vase is absurd on the face of it. the antiques the average american householder is interested in are the old mahogany, oak and walnut things that stand for the oldest period of our own particular history. it is only the wealthy collector who goes abroad and buys masses of old european furniture, real or sham, who is concerned with the merits and demerits of french and italian furniture. the native problem is the so-called colonial mahogany that is always alleged to be chippendale or heppelwhite, or sheraton, regardless! there must be thousands of these alleged antiques in new york shops alone! it goes without saying that only a very small part of it can be really old. as for it having been made by the men whose names it bears, that is something no reputable dealer would affirm. the chippendales, father, son and grandson, published books of designs which were used by all the furniture-makers of their day. no one can swear to a piece of furniture having been made in the workshops of the chippendales. even the pieces in the metropolitan museum are marked "chippendale style" or "in the sheraton manner," or some such way. if the furniture is in the style of these makers, and if it is really old, you will pay a small fortune for it. but even then you cannot hope to get more than you pay for, and you would be very silly to pay for a name! after all, chippendale is a sort of god among amateur collectors of american furniture, but among more seasoned collectors he is not by any means placed first. he adapted and borrowed and produced some wonderful things, but he also produced some monstrosities, as you will see if you visit the english museums. why then lend yourself to possible deception? why pay for names when museums are unable to buy them? if your object is to furnish your home suitably, what need have you of antiques? the serious amateur will fight shy of miracles. if he admires the beauty of line of a fine old heppelwhite bed or sheraton sideboard, he will have reproductions made by an expert cabinet-maker. the new piece will not have the soft darkness of the old, but the owner will be planning that soft darkness for his grandchildren, and in the meantime he will have a beautiful thing to live with. the age of a piece of furniture is of great value to a museum, but for domestic purposes, use and beauty will do. how fine your home will be if all the things within it have those qualities! look through the photographs shown on these pages: there are many old chairs and tables, but there are more new ones. i am not one of these decorators who insist on originals. i believe good reproductions are more valuable than feeble originals, unless you are buying your furniture as a speculation. you can buy a reproduction of a chippendale ladder back chair for about twenty-five dollars, but an original chair would cost at least a hundred and fifty, and then it would be "in the style and period of chippendale." it might amuse you to ask the curator of one of the british museums the price of one of the chippendales _by_ chippendale. it would buy you a tidy little acreage. stuart and cromwellian chairs are being more and more reproduced. these chairs are made of oak, the stuart ones with seats and backs of cane, the cromwellian ones with seats and backs of tapestry, needlework, corded velvet, or some such handsome fabric. these reproductions may be had at from twenty-five to seventy-five dollars each. of course, the cost of the cromwellian chairs might be greatly increased by expensive coverings. there is a graceful louis xv sofa in the petit trianon that i have copied many times. the copy is as beautiful as the original, because this sort of furniture depends upon exquisite design and perfect workmanship for its beauty. it is possible that a modern craftsman might not have achieved so graceful a design, but the perfection of his workmanship cannot be gainsaid. the frame of the sofa must be carved and then painted and guilded many times before it is ready for the brocade covering, and the cost of three hundred dollars for the finished sofa is not too much. the original could not be purchased at any price. then there is the chinese lacquer furniture of the chippendale period that we are using so much now. the process of lacquering is as tedious to-day as it ever was, and the reproductions sell for goodly sums. a tall secretary of black and gold lacquer may cost six hundred dollars. you can imagine what an eighteenth century piece would cost! the person who said that a taste for old furniture and bibelots was "worse than a passion, it was a vice," was certainly near the truth! it is an absorbing pursuit, an obsession, and it grows with what it feeds on. as in objects of art, so in old furniture, the supply will always equal the demand of the unwary. the serious amateur will fight shy of all miracles and content himself with excellent reproductions. nothing later than the furniture of the eighteenth century is included in the term, "old furniture." there are many fine cabinet makers in the early nineteenth century, but from them until the last decade the horrors that were perpetrated have never been equaled in the history of household decorations. i fancy the furniture of the mid-victorian era will never be coveted by collectors, unless someone should build a museum for the freakish objects of house furnishing. america could contribute much to such a collection, for surely the black walnut era of the nineteenth century will never be surpassed in ugliness and bad taste, unless--rare fortune--there should be a sudden epidemic of appreciation among cabinet-makers, which would result in their taking the beautiful wood in the black walnut beds and wardrobes and such and make it over into worth-while things. it would be a fine thing to release the mistreated, velvety wood from its grotesqueries, and give it a renaissance in graceful cabinets, small tables, footstools, and the many small things that could be so easily made from huge unwieldy wardrobes and beds and bureaux. the workmen of to-day have their eyes opened. they have no excuse for producing unworthy things, when the greatest private collections are loaned or given outright to the museums. the new wing of the metropolitan museum in new york houses several fine old collections of furniture, the hoentschel collection, for which the wing was really planned, having been given to the people of new york by mr. pierpont morgan. this collection is an education in the french decorative arts. then, too, there is the bolles collection of american furniture presented to the museum by mrs. russell sage. i have no quarrel with the honest dealers who are making fine and sincere copies of such furniture, and selling them as copies. there is no deception here, we must respect these men as we respect the workers of the eighteenth century: we give them respect for their masterly workmanship, their appreciation of the best things, and their fidelity to the masterpieces they reproduce. not so long ago the new york papers published the experience of a gentleman who bought a very beautiful divan in a european furniture shop. he paid for it--you may be sure of that!--and he could hardly wait for its arrival to show it to his less fortunate neighbors. within a few months something happened to the lining of the divan, and he discovered on the inside of the frame the maker's name and address. imagine his chagrin when he found that the divan had been made at a furniture factory in his own country. you can't be sorry for him, you feel that it served him right. [illustration: a banquette of the louis xv. period covered with needlework] [illustration: a chinese chippendale sofa covered with chintz] this is an excellent example of the vain collector who cannot judge for himself, but will not admit it. he has not developed his sense of beauty, his instinct for excellence of workmanship. he thinks that because he has the money to pay for the treasure, the treasure must be genuine--hasn't _he_ chosen it? i can quite understand the pleasure that goes with furnishing a really old house with objects of the period in which the house was built. a new england farmhouse, for instance, may be an inspiration to the owner, and you can understand her quest of old fashioned rush bottomed chairs and painted settles and quaint mirrors and blue homespun coverlets. you can understand the man who falls heir to a good, square old colonial house who wishes to keep his furnishings true to the period, but you cannot understand the crying need for eighteenth century furniture in a modern shingle house, or the desire for old spinning wheels and battered kitchen utensils in a spanish stucco house, or chippendale furniture in a forest bungalow. i wish people generally would study the oak and walnut furniture of old england, and use more reproductions of these honest, solid pieces of furniture in their houses. its beauty is that it is "at home" in simple american houses, and yet by virtue of its very usefulness and sturdiness it is not out of place in a room where beautiful objects of other periods are used. the long oak table that is so comfortably ample for books and magazines and flowers in your living-room may be copied from an old refectory table--but what of it? it fulfils its new mission just as frankly as the original table served the monks who used it. the soft brown of oak is a pleasure after the over-polished mahogany of a thousand rooms. i do not wish to condemn colonial mahogany furniture, you understand. i simply wish to remind you that there are other woods and models available. french furniture of the best type represents the supreme art of the cabinet-maker, and is incomparable for formal rooms, but i am afraid the time will never come when french furniture will be interchangeable with the oak and mahogany of england and america. in short, the whole thing should be a matter of taste and suitability. if you have a few fine old things that have come to you from your ancestors--a grandfather's clock, an old portrait or two--you are quite justified in bringing good reproductions of similar things into your home. the effect is the thing you are after, isn't it? then, too, you will escape the awful fever that makes any antique seem desirable, and in buying reproductions you can select really comfortable furniture. you will be independent of the dreadful vases and candelabra and steel engravings "of the period," and will feel free to use modern prints and chinese porcelains and willow chairs and anything that fits into your home. i can think of no slavery more deadly to one's sense of humor than collecting antiques indiscriminately! [illustration: the trellis room in the colony club] xviii the art of trelliage when i planned the trellis room of the colony club in new york i had hard work finding workmen who could appreciate the importance of crossing and recrossing little strips of green wood, of arranging them to form a mural decoration architectural in treatment. this trellis room was, i believe, the first in america to be so considered, though the use of trellis is as old as architecture in japan, china, arabia, egypt, italy, france and spain. the earliest examples of trellis work shown are in certain roman frescoes. in pompeii the mural paintings give us a very good idea of what some of the roman gardens were like. in the entrance hall of the house of sallust is represented a garden with trellised niches and bubbling fountains. representations that have come down to us in documents show that china and japan both employed the trellis in their decorative schemes. you will find a most daring example on your old blue willow plate, if you will look closely enough. the bridge over which the flying princess goes to her lover is a good model, and could be built in many gardens. even a tiny modern garden, yours or mine, might hold this fairy bridge. almost all arabian decorations have their basis in trellis design or arabesques filled in with the intricate tracery that covers all their buildings. if we examine the details of the most famous of the old moorish buildings that remain to us, the mosque at cordova and the alhambra at granada, we shall find them full of endless trellis suggestions. indeed, there are many documents still extant showing how admirably trellis decoration lends itself to the decoration of gardens and interiors. there are dozens of examples of niches built to hold fine busts. pavilions and summer houses, the quaint gazebos of old england, the graceful screens of trellis that terminate a long garden path, the arching gateways crowned with vines--all these may be reproduced quite easily in american gardens. the first trellis work in france was inspired by italy, but the french gave it a perfection of architectural character not found in other countries. the manuscript of the "romance of the rose," dating back to the fifteenth century, contains the finest possible example of trellis in a medieval garden. most of the old french gardens that remain to us have important trellis construction. at blois one still sees the remains of a fine trellis covering the walls of the kitchen gardens. wonderful and elaborate trellis _pavillons_, each containing a statue, often formed the centers of very old gardens. these garden houses were called gazebos in england, and _temples d'amour_ (temples of love) in france, and the statue most often seen was the god of love. in the trianon gardens at versailles there is a charming _temple d'amour_ standing on a tiny island, with four small canals leading to it. a knowledge of the history of trelliage and an appreciation of its practical application to modern needs is a conjurer's wand--you can wave it and create all sorts of ephemeral constructions that will last your time and pleasure. you may give your trellis any poetic shape your vision may take. you may dream and realize enchanting gardens, with clipped hedges and trellis walls. you may transform a commonplace porch into a gay garden room, with a few screens of trellis and many flower boxes of shrubs and vines. here indeed is a delightful medium for your fancy! trelliage and lattice work are often used as interchangeable terms, but mistakenly, for any carpenter who has the gift of precision can build a good lattice, but a trellis must have architectural character. trellis work is not necessarily flimsy construction; the light chestnut laths that were used by the old frenchmen and still remain to us prove that. always in a garden i think one must feel one has not come to the end, one must go on and on in search of new beauties and the hidden delights we feel sure must be behind the clipped hedges or the trellis walls. even when we come to the end we are not quite sure it is the end, and we steep ourselves in seclusion and quiet, knowing full well that to-morrow or to-night perhaps when the moon is up and we come back as we promise ourselves to do, surely we shall see that ideal corner that is the last word of the perfection of our dream garden--that delectable spot for which we forever seek! we can bring back much of the charm of the old-time gardens by a judicious use of trellis. it is suitable for every form of outdoor construction. a new garden can be subdivided and made livable in a few months with trellis screens, where hedges, even of the quick growing privet, would take years to grow. the entrance to the famous maze at versailles, now, alas, utterly destroyed, was in trellis, and i have reproduced in our own garden at villa trianon, in versailles, the entrance arch and doors, all in trellis. our high garden fence with its curving gate is also in trellis, and you can imagine the joy with which we watched the vines grow, climbing over the gatetop as gracefully as if they too felt the charm of the curving tracery of green strips, and cheerfully added the decoration of their leaves and tendrils. [illustration: mrs. ormond g. smith's trellis room at center island, new york] our outdoor trellis is at the end of the villa trianon garden, in line with the terrace where we take our meals. this trellis was rebuilt many times before it satisfied me, but now it is my greatest joy. the niches are planned to hold two old statues and several prim box trees. i used very much the same constructive design on one of the walls of the colony club trellis room, but there a fountain has the place of honor. formal pedestals surmounted by gracefully curved urns, box trees, statues, marble benches, fountains--all these belong to the formal outdoor trellis. the trellis is primarily suitable for garden architecture, but it may be fitted to interior uses most skilfully. pictures of the trellis room in the colony club have been shown so often it is not necessary to repeat more than one of them. the room is long and high, with a floor of large red tiles. the walls and ceiling are covered with rough gray plaster, on which the green strips of wood are laid. the wall space is entirely covered with the trellis design broken into ovals which hold lighting-fixtures--grapes and leaves in cloudy glass and green enamel. the long room leads up to the ivy-covered trellis of the fountain wall, a perfect background for the fountain, a bowl on the brim of which is poised a youthful figure, upheld by two dolphins. the water spills over into a little pool, banked with evergreens. ivy has been planted in long boxes along the wall, and climbs to the ceiling, where the plaster is left bare, save for the trellised cornice and the central trellis medallion, from which is suspended an enchanting lantern made up of green wires and ivy leaves and little white flames of electric light. the roof garden of the colony club is latticed in a simple design we all know. this is lattice, not trellis, and in no way should be confounded with the trellis room on the entrance floor. this white-painted lattice covers the wall space. growing vines are placed along the walls and clamber to the beams. the glass ceiling is supported by white beams. there are always blossoming flowers and singing birds in this room. the effect is springlike and joyous on the bleakest winter day. the room is heated by two huge stoves of green majolica brought over from germany when other heating systems failed. much of the furniture is covered with a grape-patterned chintz and a green and white striped linen. the ceiling lights are hidden in huge bunches of pale green grapes. i recently planned a most beautiful trellis room for a new york city house. the room is long and narrow, with walls divided into panels by upright classic columns. the lower wall space between the columns is covered with a simple green lattice, and the upper part is filled with little mirrors framed in narrow green moldings, arranged in a conventional design which follows the line of the trellis. one end of the room is made up of two narrow panels of the trellis with a fireplace between. on the opposite wall the middle panel is a background for a delightful wall fountain. the fretwork of mirrors which takes the place of frieze in the room is continued all around the four walls. one of the walls is filled entirely with french doors of plate glass, beneath the mirrored frieze; the other long wall has the broad, central panel cut into two doors of plate glass, and stone benches placed against the two trellised panels flanking the doors. the ceiling is divided into three great panels of trellis, and from each of the three panels a lantern is suspended. in the guinness house in new york there is a little hallway wainscoted in white with a green trellis covering the wall space above. against this simple trellis--it is really a lattice--a number of plaster casts are hung. in one corner an old marble bowl holds a grapevine, which has been trained over the walls. the floor is of white tiles, with a narrow greek border of black and white. this decoration of a little hall might be copied very easily. the architects are building nowadays many houses that have a sun-room, or conservatory, or breakfast room. the smallest cottage may have a little breakfast room done in green and white lattice, with green painted furniture and simple flower boxes. i have had furniture of the most satisfactory designs made for my trellis rooms. green painted wood with cane insets seems most suitable for the small rooms, and the marbles of the old trellised _temples d'amour_ may be replaced by cement benches in our modern trellis pavillions. there is so much of modern furniture that is refreshing in line and color, and adapted to these sun-rooms. there is a desk made by aitchen, a notable furniture designer in london, which i have used in a sun-room. the desk is painted white, and is decorated with heavy lines of dark green. the drawer front and the doors of the little cupboard are filled with cane. the knobs are of green. this desk would be nice in a white writing-room in a summer cottage, though it was planned for a trellis room. it could be used as a dressing table, with a bench or chair of white, outlined in green, and a good mirror in white and green frame. another desk i have made is called a jardiniere table, and was designed for mrs. ogden armour's garden room at lake forest. the desk, or table, is painted gray, with faint green decorations. at each end of the long top there is a sunken zinc-lined box to hold growing plants. between the flower boxes there is the usual arrangement of the desk outfit, blotter pad, paper rack, ink pots, and so forth. the spaces beneath the flower boxes are filled with shelves for books and magazines. this idea is thoroughly practicable for any garden room, and is so simple that it could be constructed by any man who knows how to use tools. [illustration: looking over the _tapis vert_ to the trellis] i had the pleasure recently of planning a trellis room for mrs. ormond-smith's house at center island, new york. here indeed is a garden room with a proper environment. it is as beautiful as a room very well can be within, and its great arched windows frame vistas of trees and water which take their place as a part of the room, ever changing landscapes that are always captivating. this trellis room is beautifully proportioned, and large enough to hold four long sofas and many chairs and tables of wicker and painted wood. the grouping of the sofas and the long tables made to fit between them is most interesting. these tables are extremely narrow and just the length of the sofas, and are built after the idea of mrs. armour's garden room desk, with flower boxes sunk in the ends. the backs of two sofas are placed against the long sides of the table, which holds a reading lamp and books in addition to its masses of flowers at the ends. two such groups divide the room into three smaller rooms, as you can see by the illustration. small tables and chairs are pulled up to the sofas, making conversation centers, or comfortable places for reading. the trellis work covers the spaces between windows and doors, and follows the contour of the arches. the ceiling is bordered with the trellis, and from a great square of it in the center a lamp is suspended. the wall panels are broken by appliques that suggest the bounty of summer, flowers and leaves and vines in wrought and painted iron. there are pedestals surmounted by marbles against some of the panels, and a carved bracket supporting a magnificent bust high on one of the wider panels. the room is classic in its fine balance and its architectural formality, and modern in its luxurious comfort and its refreshing color. surely there could be no pleasanter room for whiling away a summer day. xix villa trianon the story of the villa trianon is a fairy-tale come true. it came true because we believed in it--many fairy stories are ready and waiting to come true if only people will believe in them long enough. for many years elizabeth marbury and i had spent our summers in that charming french town, versailles, before we had any hope of realizing a home of our own there. we loved the place, with its glamour of romance and history, and we prowled around the old gardens and explored the old houses, and dreamed dreams and saw visions. one old house that particularly interested us was the villa that had once been the home of the duc de nemours, son of louis philippe. it was situated directly on the famous park of versailles which is, as everyone knows, one of the most beautiful parks in all the world. the villa had not been lived in since the occupancy of de nemours. before the villa came to de nemours it had been a part of the royal property that was portioned out to mesdames de france, the disagreeable daughters of louis xv. you will remember how disagreeable they were to marie antoinette, and what a burden they made her life. i wish our house had belonged to more romantic people; madame du barry or madame de pompadour would have suited me better! how many, many times we peeped through the high iron railing at this enchanted domain, sleeping like the castle in the fairy tale. the garden was overgrown with weeds and shrubbery, the house was shabby and sadly in need of paint. we sighed and thought how happy would be our fortune if we might some day penetrate the mysteries of the tangled garden and the abandoned villa. little did we dream that this would one day be our home. we first went to versailles as casual summer visitors and our stay was brief. we loved it so much that the next summer we went again, this time for the season, and found ourselves members of a happy pension family. then we decided to rent an apartment of our own, for the next year, and soon we were considering the leases of houses, and finally we arrived at the supreme audacity of negotiating for the purchase of one. we had a great friend in versailles, victorien sardou, the novelist and playwright so honored by the people of france. his wonderful house at marly le roi was a constant joy to us, and made us always more eager for a permanent home of our own in the neighborhood. sardou was as eager for the finding of our house as we were, and it was he who finally made it possible for us to buy our historic villa. he did everything for us, introduced us to his friends, wonderful and brilliant people, gave us liberally of his charm and knowledge, and finally gave us the chance to buy this old house and its two acres of gardens. the negotiations for the house were long and tedious. our offer was an insult, a joke, a ridiculous affair to the man who had the selling of it! he laughed at us, and demanded twice the amount of our offer. we were firm, outwardly, and refused to meet him halfway, but secretly we spent hours and hours in the old house, sitting patiently on folding camp-stools, and planning the remaking of the house as happily as children playing make-believe. i remember vividly the three of us, miss marbury, sardou, and i, standing in the garden on a very rainy day. sardou was bounding up and down, saying: "buy it, buy it! if you don't buy it before twelve o'clock to-morrow i will buy it myself!" we were standing there soaking wet, perfectly oblivious to the downpour, wondering if we dared do such an audacious thing as to purchase property so far from our american anchorage. [illustration: a fine old console in the villa trianon] well, we bought it, and at our own price, practically, and for eight years we have been restoring the house and gardens to their seventeenth century beauty. sardou was our neighbor, and his wonderful château at marly, overlooking the valley and terraces of st. germain, was a never-failing surprise to us, so full was it of beauty and charm, so flavored with the personality of its owner. sardou was of great help to us when we finally purchased our house. his fund of information never failed us, there seemed to be no question he could not answer. he was quite the most erudite man i have ever known. he had as much to say about the restoration of our house as we. he introduced us to monsieur de nolhac, the conservator of the château de versailles, who gave us the details of our villa as it had been a century and a half ago, and helped us remake the garden on the lines of the original one. he loaned us pictures and documents, and we felt we were living in a modern version of the sleeping beauty, with the sleeping villa for heroine. our house had always been called "villa trianon," and so we kept the name, but it should not be confused with the grand trianon or the petit trianon. of course everyone knows about the park at versailles, but everyone forgets, so i shall review the history of the park briefly, that you may appreciate our thrills when we really owned a bit of it. louis xiv selected versailles as the site for the royal palace when it was a swampy, uninteresting little farm. louis xiii had built a château there in , but had done little to beautify the flat acres surrounding it. louis the magnificent lavished fortunes on the laying out of his new park. the grand trianon was built for madame de main tenon in , and from this time on, for a full century, the park of versailles was the most famous royal residence in the world. the petit trianon was built by louis xv for madame du barry. later, during the reign of louis xvi, marie antoinette, who was then queen, tiring of court etiquette and scorning the stately rooms of versailles, persuaded her husband to make over to her the petit trianon. here she built a number of little rustic cottages, where she and the ladies of her court, dressed in calicoes, played at being milkmaids. they had a little cottage called the "laiterie," where the white cows with their gilded horns were brought in to be milked. here, too, little plays were presented in a tiny theater where only the members of the court were admitted. the queen and her brother, comte de provence, were always the chief actors. our villa adjoins the park proper. in our deeds to the two acres there is a clause which reserves a right-of-way for the king! the deed is worded like the old lease that dates back to , and so one day we may have to give a king a right-of-way through our garden, if france becomes a monarchy again. anyone who knows french people at all knows how dearly they cherish the dream of a monarchy. [illustration: the broad terrace connects house and garden] one of the small houses we found on our small estate had once been a part of the _hameau_ of marie antoinette. we have had this little house rebuilt and connected with the villa, and now use it as a guest house. it is very charming, with its walls covered with lattices and ivy. villa trianon, like most french houses, is built directly on the street, leaving all the space possible for the garden. the façade of the villa is very simple, it reminds you of the square houses of the american colonial period, except that there is no "front porch," as is inevitable with us in america. the entrance gate and the stone wall that surround the place give an interest that our detached and hastily built american houses lack. the wall is really a continuation of the façade of the villa, and is surmounted by a black iron railing. vines and flowers that have flourished and died and flourished again for over a century climb over the wall and through the graceful railing, and give our home an air of permanence that is very satisfying. after all, that is the secret of europe's fascination for us americans--the ever-present suggestion of permanence. we feel that houses and gardens were planned and built for centuries, not for the passing pleasure of one brief lifetime. we people them with ghosts that please us, and make histories for them that are always romantic and full of happiness. the survival of an old house and its garden through centuries of use and misuse is always an impressive and dramatic discovery to us: it gives us courage to add our little bit to the ultimate beauty and history, it gives us excuse to dream of the fortunate people who will follow us in other centuries, and who will, in turn, bless us for our part in the remaking of one old house and garden. there was much to do! we hardly knew where to begin, the house was in such wretched condition. the roof was falling in, and the debris of years was piled high inside, but the walls and the floors were still very beautiful and as sound as ever, structurally. we had the roof restored, the debris removed, and the underbrush weeded out of the garden, and then we were ready to begin the real business of restoration. the house is very simply planned. there is a broad hall that runs straight through it, with dining-room and servants' hall on the right, and four connecting salons on the left. these salons are charming rooms, with beautiful panelings and over-doors, and great arches framed in delicate carvings. first comes the writing-room, then the library, then the large and small salons. the rooms opening on the back of the house have long french windows that open directly upon the terrace, where we have most of our meals. the note of the interior of the house is blue, and there are masses of blue flowers in the garden. the interior woodwork is cream, pointed with blue, and there are blues innumerable in the rugs and curtains and _objets d'art_. there must be a hundred different shades of blue on this living-floor, i think. we have tried to restore the rooms to a louis xv scheme of decoration. the tables and cabinets are of the fine polished woods of the period. some of the chairs are roomy affairs of carved and painted wooden frames and brocade coverings, but others are modern easychairs covered in new linens of old designs, linens that were designed for just such interiors when oberkampf first began his designing at jouy. the mirrors and lighting-fixtures are, of course, designed to harmonize with the carvings of the woodwork. monsieur de nolhac and sardou were most helpful to us when such architectural problems had to be solved. we have not used the extravagant lace curtains that seem to go with brocades and carvings, because we are modern enough not to believe in lace curtains. and we find that the thin white muslin ones give our brocades and tapestries a chance to assert their decorative importance. somehow, lace curtains give a room such a dressed-up-for-company air that they quite spoil the effect of beautiful fabrics. we have a few fine old savonnerie carpets that are very much at home in this house, and so many interesting eighteenth century prints we hardly know how to use them. our bedrooms are very simple, with their white panelings and chintz hangings. we have furnished them with graceful and feminine things, delicately carved mirror frames and inlaid tables, painted beds, and chests of drawers of rosewood or satinwood. we feel that the ghosts of the fair ladies who live in the park would adore the bedrooms and rejoice in the strange magic of electric lights. if the ghosts should be confronted with the electric lights their surprise would not be greater than was the consternation of our builders when we demanded five bathrooms. they were astounded, and assured us it was not necessary, it was not possible. indeed, it seemed that it was hardly legal to give one small french house five american bathrooms. we fought the matter out, and got them, however. we determined to make the house seem a part of the garden, and so we built a broad terrace across the rear of the villa. you step directly from the long windows of the salon and dining-room upon the terrace, and before you is spread out our little garden, and back of that, through an opening in the trees, a view of the château, our never-failing source of inspiration. the terrace is built of tiles on a cement foundation. vines are trained over square column-like frames of wire, erected at regular intervals. between the edge of the terrace and the smooth green lawn there is a mass of blue flowers. we have a number of willow chairs and old stone tables here, and you can appreciate the joy of having breakfast and tea on the terrace with the birds singing in the boughs of the trees. i have written at length in the other chapters of my ideas of house-furnishing, and in this one i want to give you my ideas of garden guilding. true, we had the old garden plan to work from, and trees two hundred years old, and old vine-covered walls. who couldn't accomplish a perfect garden with such essentials, people said! well, it wasn't so easy as it seems. you can select furnishings for a room with fair success, because you can see and feel textures, and colors, and the lines of the furniture and curtains. but gardens are different--you cannot make grass and flowers grow just so on short notice! you plant and dig and plant again, before things grow as you have visualized them. there was a double ring of trees in one corner of our domain, enclosing the _salle de verdure_, or outdoor drawing-room. in the center of this enchanted circle there was a statue by clodion, a joyous nymph, holding a baby faun in her arms. there were several old stone benches under the trees that must have known the secrets of the famous ladies of the eighteenth century courts. the _salle de verdure_ looked just as it did when the little daughters of louis xv came here to have their afternoon cakes and tea, so we did not try to change this bit of our garden. my idea of making over the place was to leave the part of the garden against the stone walls in the rear in its tangled, woodsy state, and to build against it a trellis that would be in line with the terrace. between the trellis and the terrace there was to be a smooth expanse of greensward, bordered with flowers. it seemed very simple, but i hereby confess that i built and tore down the trellis three times before it pleased me! i had to make it worthy of the statue by pradier that was given us by sardou, and finally it was done to please me. painted a soft green, with ivy growing over it, and a fountain flanked by white marbles outlined against it, this trellis represents (to me, at least) my best work. the _tapis vert_ occupies the greater part of the garden, and it is bordered by gravel walks bordered in turn with white flowerbeds. between the walks and the walls there are the groups of trees, the statues with green spaces about them, the masses of evergreen trees, and finally the great trees that follow the lines of the wall. indeed, the _tapis vert_ is like the arena of an ample theater, with the ascending flowers and shrubs and trees representing the ascending tiers of seats. one feels that all the trees and flowers look down upon the central stretch of greensward, and perhaps there is a fairy ring here where plays take place by night. nothing is impossible in this garden. certainly the fairies play in the enchanted ring of the trees of the _salle de verdure_. we are convinced of that. so formal is the _tapis vert_, with its blossoming borders of larkspur and daisies and its tall standard roses, you are surprised to find that that part of the garden outside this prim rectangle has mysteries. there are winding paths that terminate in marble seats. there is the _pavilion_, a little house built for outdoor musicales, with electric connections that make breakfast and tea possible here. there is the guest house, and the motor house--quite as interesting as any other part of the garden. and everywhere there are blue and white and rose-colored flowers, planted in great masses against the black-green evergreens. we leave america early in june, tired out with the breathless business of living, and find ourselves in our old-world house and garden. we fall asleep to the accompaniment of the tiny piping of the little people in bur garden. we awake to the matins of the birds. we breakfast on the stone terrace, with boughs of trees and clouds for our roof, and as we look out over the masses of blue flowers and the smooth green _tapis vert_, over the arched trelliage with its fountains and its marbles, the great trees back of our domain frame the supremely beautiful towers of the château le magnificent, and we are far happier than anyone deserves to be in this wicked world! xx notes on many things a little talk on clocks. the selection of proper clocks for one's house is always long-drawn-out, a pursuit of real pleasure. clocks are such necessary things the thoughtless woman is apt to compromise, when she doesn't find exactly the right one. how much wiser and happier she would be if she decided to depend upon an ordinary alarm clock until the proper clock was discovered! if she made a hobby of her quest for clocks she would find much amusement, many other valuable objects by-the-way, and finally exactly the right clocks for her rooms. everyone knows the merits and demerits of the hundreds of clocks of commerce, and it isn't for me to go into the subject of grandfather-clocks, bracket clocks, and banjo clocks, when there are so many excellent books on the subject. i plead for the graceful clocks of old france, the _objets d'art_ so lovingly designed by the master sculptors of the eighteenth century. i plead particularly for the wall clocks that are so conspicuous in all good french houses, and so unusual in our own country. [illustration: a proper writing-table in the drawing-room.] just as surely as our fine old english and american clocks have their proper niches, so the french clocks belong inevitably in certain rooms. you may never find just the proper clock for this room, but that is your fault. there are hundreds of lovely old models available. why shouldn't some manufacturer have them reproduced? i feel that if women generally knew how very decorative and distinguished a good wall clock may be, the demand would soon create a supply of these beautiful objects. it would be quite simple for the manufacturers to make them from the old models. the late mr. pierpont morgan gave to the metropolitan museum the magnificent hoentschel collection of _objets d'art_, hoping to stimulate the interest of american designers and artisans in the fine models of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. there are some very fine examples of wall clocks in this collection which might be copied in carved wood by the students of manual training schools, if the manufacturers refuse to be interested. wall clocks first came into france in the early part of the seventeenth century, and are a part of the furnishing of all the fine old french houses. a number of the most interesting clocks i have picked up were the wooden models which served for the fine bronze clocks of the eighteenth century. the master designer first worked out his idea in wood before making the clock in bronze, and the wooden models were sold for a song. i have one of these clocks in my dining-room. it is as much a part of the wall decoration as the lights or the mirrors. the wall clocks i like best are fixed directly on the wall, the dial glass opening so that the clock may be wound with a key. you will notice such a clock in the photograph of one of my dining-rooms. this fine old clock is given the place of honor in the main panel of the wall, above the console table. i often use such a clock in a dining-room, just as i use the fine old french mantel clocks in my drawing-rooms. you will observe a very quaint example of the empire period in the illustration of my drawing-room mantel. this clock is happily placed, for the marble of the mantel, the lighting-fixtures near by and the fine little bronze busts are all in key with the exquisite workmanship of the clock. in another room in my house, a bedroom, there is a beautiful little french clock that is the only object allowed on the mantel shelf. the beautiful carving of the mirror frame back of it seems a part of the clock, a deliberate background for it. this is one of the many wall clocks which were known as bracket clocks, the bracket being as carefully designed and carved as the clock itself. most of the clocks we see nowadays grew out of the old bracket models. the american clockmakers of the eighteenth century made many of those jolly little wall clocks called wag-on-the-wall. these clocks may be still picked up in out-of-the-way towns. in construction they are very much like the old cuckoo clock which has come to us from switzerland, and the tile clock which comes from holland. these clocks with long, exposed weights and pendulum, have not the dignity of the french wall clocks, which were as complete in themselves as fine _bas reliefs_, and of even greater decorative importance. every room in my house has its clock, and to me these magic little instruments have an almost human interest. they seem always friendly to me, whether they mark off the hours that weigh so heavily and seem never-ending, or the happy hours that go all too quickly. i love clocks so much myself that it always astonishes me to go into a room where there is none, or, if there is, it is one of those abortive, exaggerated, gilded clocks that are falsely labeled "french" and sold at a great price in the shops. somehow, one never expects a clock of this kind to keep time--it is bought as an ornament and if it runs at all it wheezes, or gasps, or makes a dreadful noise, and invariably stops at half-past three. i am such a crank about good clocks that i take my own with me, even on a railway train. i think i have the smallest clock in the world which strikes the hours. there are many tiny clocks made which strike if one touches a spring, but my clock always strikes of itself. cartier, who designed and made this extraordinary timepiece, assures me that he has never seen so small a clock which strikes. it is very pleasant to have this little clock with its friendly chime with me when i am in some desolate hotel or some strange house. there are traveling clocks in small leather cases which can be bought very cheaply indeed now, and one of these clocks should be a part of everyone's traveling equipment. the humble nickeled watch with a leather case is infinitely better than the pretentious clocks, monstrosities of marble and brass and bad taste. a corner for writing. one of my greatest pleasures, when i am planning the furnishing of a house, is the selection and equipment of the necessary writing-tables. every room in every house has its own suggestion for an original treatment, and i enjoy working out a plan for a writing-corner that will offer maximum of convenience, and beauty and charm, for in these busy days we need all these qualities for the inspiration of a pleasant note. you see, i believe in proper writing-tables, just as i believe in proper chairs. i have so many desks in my own house that are in constant use, perhaps i can give you my theory best by recording my actual practice of it. i have spoken of the necessity of a desk in the hallway, and indeed, i have said much of desks in other rooms, but i have still to emphasize my belief in the importance of the equipment of desks. of course, one needs a desk in one's own room. here there is infinite latitude, for there are dozens of delightful possibilities. i always place my desks near the windows. if the wall space is filled, i place an oblong table at right angles to a window, and there you are. in my own private sitting-room i have a long desk so placed, in my own house. in a guest-room i furnished recently, i used a common oblong table of no value, painting the legs a soft green and covering it with a piece of sage-green damask. this is one of the nicest writing-tables i know, and it could be copied for a song. the equipment of it is what counts. i used two lamps, dull green jars with mauve silk shades, a dark green leather rack for paper and envelopes, and a great blotter pad that will save the damask from ink-spots. the small things are of green pottery and crystal. in a young girl's bedroom i used a sweet little desk of painted wood, a desk that has the naïve charm of innocence. i do hope it inspires the proper love-letters. i always make provision for writing in dressing-rooms--a sliding shelf in the dressing-table, and a shallow drawer for pencils and paper--and i have adequate writing facilities in the servants' quarters, so that there may be no excuse for forgetting orders or messages. this seems to me absolutely necessary in our modern domestic routine: it is part of the business principle we borrow from the efficient office routine of our men folk. the dining-room and the bathrooms are the only places where the writing-table, in one form or another, isn't required. i like the long flat tables or small desks much better than the huge roll-top affairs or the heavy desks built after the fashion of the old _armoire_. if the room is large enough, a secretary after an eighteenth century model will be a beautiful and distinguished piece of furniture. i have such a secretary in my own sitting-room, a chest of drawers surmounted by a cabinet of shelves with glass doors, but i do not use it as a desk. i use the shelves for my old china and porcelains, and the drawers for pamphlets and the thousand and one things that are too flimsily bound for bookshelves. of course, if one has a large correspondence and uses one's home as an office, it is better to have a large desk with a top which closes. i prefer tables, and i have them made big enough to hold all my papers, big enough to spread out on. there are dozens of enchanting small desks that are exactly right for guest-rooms, the extremely feminine desks that come from old france. one of the most fascinating ones is copied from a _bureau de toilette_ that belonged to marie antoinette. in those days the writing of letters and the making of a toilet went together. this old desk has a drawer filled with compartments for toilet things, powders and perfumes and patches, and above this vanity-drawer there is the usual shelf for writing, and compartments for paper and letters. the desk itself suggests brocade flounces and powdered hair, so exquisitely is it constructed of tulipwood and inlaid with other woods of many colors. then there are the small desks made by modern furniture-makers, just large enough to hold a blotting-pad, a paper rack, and a pair of candlesticks. there is always a shallow drawer for writing materials. such a desk may be decorated to match the chintzes of any small bedroom. if it isn't possible for you to have a desk in each guest-room, there should be a little writing-room somewhere apart from the family living-room. if you live in one of those old-fashioned houses intersected by great halls with much wasted space on the upper floors, you may make a little writing-room of one of the hall-ends, and screen it from the rest of the hall with a high standing screen. if you have a house of the other extreme type, a city house with little hall bedrooms, use one of these little rooms for a writing-room. you will require a desk well stocked with stationery, and all the things the writer will need; a shelf of address books and reference books--with a dictionary, of course; many pens and pencils and fresh blotters, and so forth. of course, you may have ever so many more things, but it isn't necessary. better a quiet corner with one chair and a desk, than the elaborate library with its superb fittings where people come and go. given the proper desk, the furnishing of it is most important. the blotting-pad should be heavy enough to keep its place, and the blotting-paper should be constantly renewed. i know of nothing more offensive than dusty, ink-splotched blotting-paper. there are very good sets to be had, now, made of brass, bronze, carved wood, porcelain, silver or crystal, and there are leather boxes for holding stationery and leather portfolios to be had in all colors. i always add to these furnishings a good pair of scissors, stationery marked with the house address or the monogram of the person to whom the desk especially belongs, an almanac, and a _pincushion!_ my pincushions are as much a part of the equipment of a desk as the writing things, and they aren't frilly, ugly things. they are covered with brocade or damask or some stuff used elsewhere in the room and i assure you they are most useful. i find that pins are almost as necessary as pens in my correspondence; they are much more expedient than pigeon-holes. in country houses i think it shows forethought and adds greatly to the comfort of the guests to have a small framed card showing the arrival and departure of trains and of mails, especially if the house is a great distance from the railway-station. this saves much inquiry and time. in the paper rack there should be not only stamped paper bearing the address of the house, telephone number, and so forth, but also telegraph blanks, post cards, stamps, and so forth. very often people who have beautiful places have post cards made showing various views of the house and garden. test the efficiency of your writing-tables occasionally by using them yourself. this is the only way to be sure of the success of anything in your house--try it yourself. stools and benches. i often wonder, when i grope my way through drawing-rooms crowded and jammed with chairs and sofas, why more women do not realize the advantages of stools and benches. a well-made stool is doubly useful: it may be used to sit upon or it may be used to hold a tray, or whatever you please. it is really preferable to a small table because it is not always full of a nondescript collection of ornaments, which seems to be the fate of all small tables. it has also the advantage of being low enough to push under a large table, when need be, and it occupies much less space than a chair apparently (not actually) because it has no back. i have stools, or benches, or both in all my rooms, because i find them convenient and easily moved about, but i have noticed an amusing thing: whenever a fat man comes to see me, he always sits on the smallest stool in the room. i have many fat friends, and many stools, but invariably the fattest man gravitates to the smallest stool. the stools i like best for the drawing-room are the fine old ones, covered with needlework or brocade, but there are many simpler ones of plain wood with cane insets that are very good for other rooms. then there are the long _banquettes_, or benches, which are so nice in drawing-rooms and hallways and nicest of all in a ballroom. indeed, a ballroom needs no other movable furniture; given plenty of these long benches. they may be of the very simplest description, but when used in a fine room should be covered with a good damask or velvet or some rich fabric. i have a fine eighteenth century _banquette_ in my drawing-room, the frame being carved and gilded and the seat covered with venetian red velvet. you will find these gilded stools all over england. there are a number at hampton court palace. at hardwick there are both long and short stools, carved with the dolphin's scroll and covered with elaborate stuffs. the older the english house, the more stools are in evidence. in the early sixteenth century joint stools were used in every room. in the bedrooms they served the purposes of small tables and chairs as well. there are ever so many fine old walnut stools and the lower stools used for bed-steps to be bought in london shops that make a specialty of old english furniture, and reproductions of them may be bought in the better american shops. i often wonder why we do not see more bedside stools. they are so convenient, even though the bed be only moderately high from the floor. many of mine are only six inches high, about the height of a fat floor cushion. [illustration: a cream-colored porcelain stove in a new york house] which reminds me: the floor cushion, made of the same velvet made for carpeting, is a modern luxury we can't afford to ignore. lately i have seen such beautiful ones, about three feet long and one foot wide, covered with tapestry, with great gold tassels at the corners. the possibilities of the floor cushion idea are limitless. they take the place of the usual footstool in front of the boudoir easy chair, or beside the day bed or _chaise-longue_, or beside the large bed, for that matter. they are no longer unsanitary, because with vacuum cleaners they may be kept as clean as chair cushions. they may be made to fit into almost any room. i saw a half dozen of them in a dining-room, recently, small square hard ones, covered with the gold colored velvet of the carpet. they were not more than four or five inches thick, but that is the ideal height for an under-the-table cushion. try it. porcelain stoves. when the colony club was at last finished we discovered that the furnace heat did not go up to the roof-garden, and immediately we had to find some way of heating this very attractive and very necessary space. even from the beginning we were sadly crowded for room, so popular was the club-house, and the roof-garden was much needed for the overflow. we conferred with architects, builders and plumbers, and found it would be necessary to spend about seven thousand dollars and to close the club for about two months in order to carry the heating arrangements up to the roof. this was disastrous for a new club, already heavily in arrears and running under heavy expenses. i worried and worried over the situation, and suddenly one night an idea came to me: i remembered some great porcelain stoves i had seen in germany. i felt that these stoves were exactly what we needed, and that we should be rescued from an embarrassing situation without much trouble or expense. i was just leaving for europe, so i hurried on to the manufacturers of these wonderful stoves and found, after much difficulty, a model that seemed practicable, and not too huge in proportion. the model, unfortunately, was white with gilded garlands, far too french and magnificent for our sun-room. i persuaded them to make two of the stoves for me in green majolica, with garlands of soft-toned flowers, and finally we achieved just the stoves for the room. but my troubles were not over: when the stoves reached new york, we tried to take them up to the roof, and found them too large for the stairs. we couldn't have them lifted up by pulleys, because the glass walls of the roof garden and the fretwork at the top of the roof made it impossible for the men to get "purchase" for their pulleys. finally we persuaded a gentleman who lived next door to let us take them over the roof of his house, and the deed was accomplished. the stoves were equal to the occasion. they heated the roof garden perfectly, and were of great decorative value. encouraged by this success i purchased another porcelain stove, this time a cream-colored porcelain one, and used it in a hallway in an uptown house. it was the one thing needed to give the hall great distinction. since then i have used a number of these stoves, and i wonder why our american manufacturers do not make them. they are admirable for heating difficult rooms--outdoor porches, and draughty halls, and rooms not heated by furnaces. the stoves are becoming harder and harder to find, though i was fortunate enough to purchase one last year from the marchioness of anglesey, who was giving up her home at versailles. this stove was of white majolica with little loves in terra cotta adorning it. the new ones are less attractive, but it would be perfectly simple to have any tile manufacturer copy an old one, given the design. the charm of indoor fountains. wall fountains as we know them are introduced into our modern houses for their decorative interest and for the joy they give us, the joyous sound and color of falling water. we use them because they are beautiful and cheerful, but originally they had a most definite purpose. they were built into the walls of the dining-halls in medieval times, and used for washing the precious plate. if you look into the history of any _objet d'art_ you will find that it was first used for a purpose. all the superb masterly things that have come to us had logical beginnings. it has remained for the thoughtless designer of our times to produce things of no use and no meaning. the old designers decorated the small objects of daily use as faithfully as they decorated the greater things, the wall spaces and ceilings and great pieces of furniture, and so this little wall basin which began in such a homely way soon became a beautiful thing. europe has countless small fountains built for interior walls and for small alcoves and indoor conservatories, but we are just beginning to use them in america. american sculptors are doing such notable work, however, that we shall soon plan our indoor fountains as carefully as we plan our fireplaces. the fact that our houses are heated mechanically has not lessened our appreciation of an open fire, and running water brought indoors has the same animate charm. [illustration: fountain in the trellis room of mrs. ormond g. smith] [illustration: mr. james deering's wall fountain] i am showing a picture of the wall fountain in the entrance hall of my own new york house in east fifty-fifth street. i have had this wall fountain built as part of the architectural detail of the room, with a background of paneled mirrors. it spills over into a marble curbed pool where fat orange-colored goldfish live. i keep the fountain banked with flowers. you can imagine the pleasure of leaving the dusty city streets and entering this cool, pleasant entrance hall. our modern use of indoor fountains is perfectly legitimate: we use them to bring the atmosphere of outdoors in. in country houses we use fountains in our gardens, but in the city we have no gardens, and so we are very wise to bring in the outdoor things that make our lives a little more gay and informal. the more suggestive of out-of-doors the happier is the effect of the sun room. occasionally one sees a rare house where a glass enclosed garden opens from one of the living-rooms. there is a house in nineteenth street that has such an enclosed garden, built around a wall fountain. the garden opens out of the great two-storied music-room. lofty windows flank a great door, and fill the end of the room with a luminous composition of leaded glass. through the door you enter the garden, with its tiled floor, its glass ceiling, and its low brick retaining walls. the wall fountain is placed exactly in front of the great door, and beneath it there is a little semi-circular pool bordered with plants and glittering with goldfish. evergreens are banked against the brick walls, and flat reliefs are hung just under the glass ceiling. the garden is quite small, but takes its place as an important part of the room. it rivals in interest the massive gothic fireplace, with its huge logs and feudal fire irons. the better silversmiths are doing much to encourage the development of indoor fountains. they display the delightful fountains of our young american sculptors, fountains that would make any garden room notable. there are so many of these small bronze fountains, with pan piping his irresistible tune of outdoors; children playing with frogs or geese or lizards or turtles; gay little figures prancing in enchanted rings of friendly beasties. why don't we make use of them? +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's note: | | | | inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original | | document have been adjusted. | | | | italics is displayed as _plate xxiv_. | | small caps have been replaced with all caps. | | | | obvious typographical errors have been corrected. for | | a complete list, please see the end of this file. | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ old time wall papers we have printed signed and numbered copies of this book on french japan paper, and numbered copies on american plate paper. the type has been distributed. number. [illustration] old time wall papers an account of the pictorial papers on our forefathers' walls with a study of the historical development of wall paper making and decoration by kate sanborn [illustration] greenwich connecticut the literary collector press new york clifford & lawton union square west, new york city _sole agents_ copyright, by kate sanborn to a. s. c. the chatelaine of elm bank [illustration] introductory note if a book has ever been written on this subject it has been impossible to discover; and to get reliable facts for a history of the origin and development of the art of making wall-papers has been a serious task, although the result seems scanty and superficial. some friends may wonder at the lack of fascinating bits of gossip, stories of rosy romance and somber tragedy in connection with these papers. but those who chatted, danced, flirted, wept or plotted in the old rooms are long since dust, and although the "very walls have ears" they have not the gift of speech. but my collection of photographs is something entirely unique and will increase in value every year. the numerous photographers, to whom i have never appealed in vain, are regarded by me as not only a skillful but a saintly class of men. i am greatly indebted to miss mary m. brooks of salem and miss mary h. buckingham of boston for professional assistance. many others have most kindly helped me by offers of photographs and interesting facts concerning the papers and their histories. but i am especially indebted to mrs. frederick c. bursch, who has given much of her time to patient research, to the verification or correction of doubtful statements, and has accomplished a difficult task in arranging and describing the photographs. without her enthusiastic and skillful assistance, my collection and text would have lacked method and finish. to the many, both acquaintances and strangers, who have volunteered assistance and have encouraged when discouragement was imminent, sending bracing letters and new-old pictures, i can only quote with heartfelt thanks the closing lines of the verse written by foote, the english actor, to be posted conspicuously to attract an audience to his benefit-- like a grate full of coals i'll glow a great full house to see; and if i am not grateful, too, a great fool i shall be. [illustration] [illustration] contents i page from mud walls and canvas tents to decorative papers ii progress and improvement in the art iii earliest wall papers in america iv wall papers in historic homes v notes from here and there vi revival and restoration of old wall papers [illustration] [illustration] list of plates and illustrations plates old english figure paper--in colors. plate i rural scenes--detail in colors. ii french paper, watteau style--detail in colors. iii adventures of a gallant--reduction. iv adventures of a gallant--detail in colors. v racing paper--timothy dexter house. vi the bayeux tapestry--burial of edward. vii the bayeux tapestry--harold hearing news. viii oldest english paper--borden hall, "a." ix borden hall paper, design "b." x early english pictorial paper--chester, eng. xi old chinese paper, cultivation of tea--dedham, mass. xii-xiv early american fresco--westwood, mass. xv-xviii early stencilled paper--nantucket, mass. xix a peep at the moon--nantucket, mass. xx hand-colored figures, repeated--claremont, n. h. xxi nature scenes, repeated--salem, mass. xxii the alhambra, repeated--leicester, mass. xxiii cathedral views, repeated--ware, mass. xxiv cathedral views, repeated on architectural background--waltham, mass. xxv pictured ruins, hall and stairway--salem, mass. xxvi birds of paradise and peacocks--waltham, mass. xxvii sacred to washington--mourning paper. xxviii dorothy quincy wedding paper--quincy, mass. xxix the pantheon--king's tavern, vernon, conn. xxx canterbury bells--wayside inn, sudbury, mass. xxxi the first railway locomotive--salem, mass. xxxii rural scene from same room. xxxiii pizarro in peru--duxbury, mass. xxxiv-v tropical scenes--peabody, mass. xxxvi-vii on the bosporus--montpelier, vt. xxxviii-ix oriental scenes--stockport, n. y. xl-xliii early nineteenth century scenic paper--deerfield, mass. xliv-v same scenic paper, other examples--warner, n. h., and windsor, vt. xlvi-vii harbor scene--waterford, vt., gilmanton, n. h., and rockville, mass. xlviii the spanish fandango--same paper. xlix strolling players--same paper. l rural scenes--ashland, mass., and marblehead. li, lii french boulevard scenes--salem, mass., and nantucket, mass. liii, liv gateway and fountain, with promenaders. lv scenes from paris--salem, mass., etc. lvi, lvii bay of naples--hanover, n. h., etc. lviii-lxii cupid and psyche--panelled paper. lxiii, lxiv the adventures of telemachus--taunton, mass., etc. lxv-ix scottish scenes--same paper. lxx the olympic games--boston, mass. lxxi a tribute to homer--same paper. lxxii the shrine of vesta--same paper. lxxiii worship of athene--same paper. lxxiv oblation to bacchus--same paper. lxxv oblation to bacchus and procession before pantheon--keene, n. h. lxxvi the lady of the lake--greenbush, mass., and portsmouth, n. h. lxxvii-lxxx the seasons--hanover, n. h. lxxxi-iii illustrations. devil paper, gore mansion, waltham, mass. see end papers. devil paper, details, pages viii, , mill and boat landing--fairbanks house, dedham, mass. vii gallipoli scenes--knox mansion, thomaston, me. ix, , adventures of cupid--beverly, mass. xi, fisher maidens--draper house, n. h. x peasant scene. xi hunters and dog. xiv the gypsies--stevens house, methuen, mass. bandbox (stage-coach) and cover--spencer, mass. the grape harvest. torches and censers--thomaston, me. bandbox, volunteer fire brigade--norwich, conn. chariot race--detail of olympic games paper. horse race--newburyport, mass. [illustration] i from mud walls and canvas tents to decorative papers [illustration] i from mud walls and canvas tents to decorative papers "how very interesting! most attractive and quite unique! i supposed all such old papers had gone long ago. how did you happen to think of such an odd subject, and how ever could you find so many fine old specimens? do you know where the very first wall-paper was made?" these are faint echoes of the questions suggested by my collection of photographs of wall-papers of the past. the last inquiry, which i was unable to answer, stimulated me to study, that i might learn something definite as to the origin and development of the art of making such papers. before this, when fancying i had found a really new theme, i was surprised to discover that every one, from plato and socrates to emerson, ruskin and spencer, had carefully gleaned over the same ground, until the amount of material became immense and unmanageable. not so now. i appealed in vain to several public libraries; they had nothing at all on the subject. poole's index--that precious store-house of information--was consulted, but not one magazine article on my theme could be found. i then sent to france, england and italy, and employed professional lookers-up of difficult topics; but little could be secured. the few who had studied paper hangings were very seldom confident as to positive dates and facts. one would seem safe in starting with china, as paper was certainly invented there, and many of the earliest designs were of chinese scenes; but the honor is also claimed for japan and persia and egypt. it is difficult to decide in view of the varying testimony. i was assured by a japanese expert, who consulted a friend for the facts, that neither the chinese nor the japanese have ever used paper to cover their walls. at the present day, the inner walls of their houses are plastered white, and usually have a strip of white paper running around the bottom, about a foot and a half high. on the other hand, clarence cook, in his book, _what shall we do with our walls?_, published in , says as to the origin of wall-paper: "it may have been one of the many inventions borrowed from the east, and might be traced, like the introduction of porcelain, to the dutch trade with china and japan." and he finds that the japanese made great use of paper, their walls being lined with this material, and the divisions between the rooms made largely, if not entirely, by means of screens covered with paper or silk. japanese wall-paper does not come in rolls like ours, but in pieces, a little longer than broad, and of different sizes. he adds: _plate ii._ one of the cruder papers popular a hundred years ago; containing three groups of figures engaged in rural occupations. beside the gray ground this paper contains eleven shades of color, roughly applied, with little attention paid to register. [illustration] "what makes it more probable that our first european notion of wall-papers came from japan, is the fact that the first papers made in holland and then introduced into england and france, were printed in these small sizes [about three feet long by fifteen inches wide]. nor was it until some time in the eighteenth century that the present mode of making long rolls was adopted. these early wall-papers were printed from blocks, and were only one of many modifications and adaptations of the block printing which gave us our first books and our first wood-cuts. "the printing of papers for covering walls is said to have been introduced into spain and holland about the middle of the sixteenth century. and i have read, somewhere, that this mode of printing the patterns on small pieces of paper was an imitation of the spanish squares of stamped and painted leather with which the grandees of spain covered their walls, a fashion that spread all over europe. "we are told that wall-paper was first used in europe as a substitute for the tapestry so commonly employed in the middle ages, partly as a protection against the cold and damp of the stone walls of the houses, partly, no doubt, as an ornament." but here is something delightfully positive from a. blanchet's _essai sur l'histoire du papier et de sa fabrication_, exposition retrospective de la papetier, exposition universelle, paris, . blanchet says that paper was invented in china by tsai loon, for purposes of writing. he used fibres of bark, hemp, rags, etc. in a. d. he reported to the government on his process, which was highly approved. he was given the honorary title of marquis and other honors. the first paper book was brought to japan from corea, then a part of china, in . the conquest of turkestan by the arabs, through which they learned the manufacture of paper, came in the battle fought on the banks of the river tharaz, in july, . chinese captives brought the art to samarcand, from which place it spread rapidly to other parts of the arabian empire. damascus was one of the first places to receive it. in egypt, paper began to take the place of papyrus in the ninth century, and papyrus ceased to be used in the tenth. the arabian paper was made of rags, chiefly linen, and sized with wheat starch. european paper of the thirteenth century shows, under the microscope, fibres of flax and hemp, with traces of cotton. about , animal glue was first used for sizing. the common belief that arabian and early european paper was made of cotton is a mistake. there has never been any paper made of raw cotton, and cotton paper anywhere is exceptional. in , when the troops of abd el mounin were about to attack the capital of fez, the inhabitants covered the vault of the mihrab of the mosque with paper, and put upon this a coating of plaster, in order to preserve from destruction the fine carvings which are still the admiration of visitors. the mihrab of an arabic mosque is a vaulted niche or alcove, in which the altar stands and towards which the worshippers look while they pray. this is probably the earliest approach to the use of wall-paper and shows the excellent quality of the paper. herbert spencer states that "dolls, blue-books, paper-hangings are lineally descended from the rude sculpture paintings in which the egyptians represented the triumphs and worship of their god-kings." no doubt this is true, but the beginning of paper, and probably of wall-paper, was in china. paper made of cotton and other vegetable fibres by the chinese was obtained by the arabs in trade, through samarcand. when they captured that city, in a.d. they learned the process from chinese captives there, and soon spread it over their empire. it was known as "charta damascena" in the middle ages, and was extensively made also in northern africa. the first paper made in europe was manufactured by the moors in spain, at valencia, toledo, and xativa. at the decline of moorish power, the christians took it up, but their work was not so good. it was introduced into italy through the arabs in sicily; and the laws of alphonso, , refer to it as "cloth parchment." the earliest documents on this thick "cotton" paper date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as a deed of king roger of sicily, dated , shows. when made further north, other materials, such as rags and flax, were used. the first mention of rag paper, in a tract of peter, abbott of cluny from to , probably means woolen. linen paper was not made until in the fourteenth century. the oriental papers had no water mark,--which is really a wire mark. water-mark paper originated in the early fourteenth century, when paper-making became an european industry; and a considerable international trade can be traced by means of the water marks. the french encyclopædia corroborates blanchet's statement that the common notion that the arabic and early european papers were made of cotton is a mistake; the microscope shows rag and flax fibres in the earliest. frederic aumonier says: "from the earliest times man has longed to conceal the baldness of mud walls, canvas tents or more substantial dwellings, by something of a decorative character. skins of animals, the trophies of the chase, were probably used by our remote ancestors for ages before wall-paintings and sculptures were thought of. the extreme antiquity of both of these latter methods of wall decoration has recently received abundant confirmation from the valuable work done by the egyptian research department, at hierakonopolis, where wall-paintings have been discovered in an ancient tomb, the date of which has not yet been determined, but which is probably less than seven thousand years old; and by the discovery of ancient buildings under the scorching sand dunes of the great sahara, far away from the present boundary line of habitable and cultivated land. the painted decorations on the walls of some of the rooms in these old-world dwellings have been preserved by the dry sand, and remain almost as fresh as they were on the day they left the hand of the artist, whose bones have long since been resolved into their native dust." from the encyclopædia britannica i condense the long article on "mural decoration": there is scarcely one of the numerous branches of decorative art which has not at some time or other been applied to the ornamentation of wall-surfaces. i. reliefs sculptured in marble or stone; the oldest method of wall decoration. ii. marble veneer; the application of thin marble linings to wall surfaces, these linings often being highly variegated. iii. wall linings of glazed bricks or tiles. in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the moslems of persia brought their art to great perfection and used it on a large scale, chiefly for interiors. in the most beautiful specimens, the natural growth of trees and flowers is imitated. about a. d., this art was brought to highest perfection. iv. wall coverings of hard stucco, frequently enriched with relief and further decorated with delicate paintings in gold and colors, as at the alhambra at granada and the alcazar at seville. v. sgraffito; a variety of stucco work used chiefly in italy, from the sixteenth century down. a coat of stucco is made black by admixture of charcoal. over this a second very thin coat of white stucco is laid. the drawing is made to appear in black on a white ground, by cutting away the white skin enough to show the black undercoat. vi. stamped leather; magnificent and expensive, used during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in italy, spain, france, and later in england. vii. painted cloth. in _king henry iv._, falstaff says his soldiers are "slaves, as ragged as lazarus in the painted cloth." canvas, painted to imitate tapestry, was used both for ecclesiastical and domestic hangings. english mediæval inventories contain such items as "stayned cloth for hangings"; "paynted cloth with stories and batailes"; and "paynted cloths of beyond-sea-work." the most important existing example is the series of paintings of the triumph of julius caesar, now in hampton court. these designs were not meant to be executed in tapestry, but were complete as wall-hangings. godon, in _peinture sur toile_, says: "the painted canvasses kept at the hôtel dieu at rheims were done in the fifteenth century, probably as models for woven tapestries. they have great artistic merit. the subjects are religious." painted cloths were sometimes dyed in a manner similar to those indian stuffs which were afterwards printed and are now called chintzes. it is recorded somewhere, that the weaving industry was established at mulhouse (rixheim) by workers who left rheims at a time when laws were passed there to restrict the manufacture of painted cloths, because there was such a rage for it that agriculture and other necessary arts were neglected. viii. printed hangings and wall-papers. the printing of various textiles with dye-colors and mordaunts is probably one of the most ancient of the arts. pliny describes a dyeing process employed by the ancient egyptians, in which the pattern was probably formed by printing from blocks. the use of printed stuffs is of great antiquity among the hindus and chinese, and was practised in western europe in the thirteenth century, and perhaps earlier. the south kensington museum has thirteenth-century specimens of block-printed linen made in sicily, with beautiful designs. later, toward the end of the fourteenth century, a great deal of block-printed linen was made in flanders and was imported largely into england. tapestries as wall-hangings were used in the earliest times, and, as tiles and papers were copied from them, they must be spoken of here. one remarkable example of tapestry from a tomb in the crimea is supposed by stephani to date from the fourth century before christ. homer frequently describes tapestry hangings, as when he alludes to the cloth of purple wool with a hunting scene in gold thread, woven by penelope for ulysses. plutarch, in his life of themistocles, says, "speech is like cloth of arras, opened and put abroad, whereby the imagery doth appear in figure; whereas in thoughts they lie but as in packs." the oldest tapestry now in existence is the set of pieces known as the bayeux tapestry, preserved in the library at bayeux, near caen, in france, and said to be the work of matilda, queen of william the conqueror. these pieces measure two hundred and thirty-one feet long and twenty inches wide. it is generally believed, and stated as a fact in the various guide-books, that the bayeux tapestry was the work of queen matilda, the consort of the conqueror, assisted by her ladies. at that time, english ladies were renowned for their taste and skill in embroidery. their work was known throughout europe as english work. the conquest having brought the people of normandy and england into close intercourse, it is pointed out that on william's return to france, he must have taken with him many saxons, with their wives and daughters, in honorable attendance upon him; and that these ladies might have helped matilda and her companions in making this historical piece of needlework. many historians, however, incline to the opinion that matilda and her ladies had nothing to do with the tapestry, although it was done during her lifetime. it is amusing to note how miss strickland, in her _lives of the queens of england_, takes up the cudgels in a very vigorous manner on behalf of matilda's claim: "the archæologists and antiquaries would do well to direct their intellectual powers to more masculine objects of enquiry, and leave the question of the bayeux tapestry (with all other matters allied to needle-craft) to the decision of the ladies, to whose province it belongs. it is a matter of doubt whether one out of the many gentlemen who have disputed matilda's claim to that work, if called upon to execute a copy of either of the figures on canvas, would know how to put in the first stitch." but dr. daniel rock, in his exhaustive work on tapestries, casts the gravest doubts upon the tradition that this needlework owed its origin to matilda and her ladies: "had such a piece anywise or ever belonged to william's wife, we must think that, instead of being let stray away to bayeux, toward which place she bore no particular affection, she would have bequeathed it, like other things, to her beloved church at caen." the author points out that there is no mention of the tapestry in the queen's will, while two specimens of english needlework, a chasuble and a vestment, are left to the church of the trinity at caen, the beautiful edifice founded by her at the time when her husband founded the companion church of st. etienne in the same city. in fact, dr. rock thinks the tapestry was made in london, to the order of three men quite unknown to fame, whose names appear more than once on the tapestry itself. coming over with the conqueror, they obtained wide possessions in england, as appears from the doomsday book, and would naturally have wished to make a joint offering to the cathedral of their native city. in support of this view, it is shown that the long strip of needlework exactly fits both sides of the nave of the cathedral at bayeux, where until recent times it has hung. the tapestry has undergone so many vicissitudes that it is a matter for wonder that it has been preserved in such good condition for eight hundred years. at one time it was exhibited at the hôtel de ville, at bayeux, fixed panorama-fashion on two rollers, so that it was at the disposal of the fingers as well as the eyes of the curious. when napoleon was thinking of invading this country, he had the tapestry carried to the various towns of france and publicly exhibited, so as to arouse popular enthusiasm on behalf of his designs. in , when the prussians were thought to be in dangerous proximity to bayeux, the tapestry was taken down, enclosed in a metal cylinder, and buried in a secret place until the close of the war. now it is kept in the public library in an upright glass case, which forms the sides of a hollow parallelogram, the tapestry being carried first round the outside and then round the inside space, so that every part of it is open to inspection, while it cannot be touched or mutilated. this valuable information is given by mr. t. c. hepworth. in the old testament we find records of "hangings of fine twined linen" and "hangings of white cloth, of green, of blue, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple." shakespeare has several allusions to tapestry: as, "fly-bitten tapestry"; "worm-eaten tapestry"; "covered o'er with turkish tapestry"; "the tapestry of my dining chambers"; "it was hanged with tapestry of silk"; "in cypress chests my arras"; "hangings all of tyrian tapestry." cardinal wolsey's private accounts and inventories, still preserved, state that in he bought one hundred and thirty-two large pieces of brussels tapestry, woven with scriptural subjects and mostly made to order, so as to fit exactly the various wall spaces. among the wall-pieces, "in addition to the numerous sacred subjects are mentioned mythological scenes, romances, historical pieces and hangings of verdure," the last being decorative work, in which trees and foliage formed the main design, with accessory figures engaged in hunting, hawking and the like. we read in gibbon's rome that charles the sixth despatched, by way of hungary, arras tapestry representing the battles of the great alexander. and macaulay inquires, "where were now the brave old hangings of arras which had adorned the walls of lordly mansions in the days of elizabeth?" according to shakespeare, the arras was found convenient to conceal eaves-droppers, those planning a frolic or plotting mischief; or for a hasty lunch, as in _the woman hater_, by beaumont and fletcher: i have of yore made many a scrambling meal, in corners, behind arrases, on stairs. arras was used precisely the same as a curtain; it hung on tenters or lines from the rafters or from some temporary stay, and was opened, held up, or drawn aside, as occasion required. the writers of the day frequently mentioned these wall-hangings. evelyn, in his diary, , says, "we were conducted to the lodgings, tapestry'd with incomparable arras." scott, in _the lady of the lake_, has this couplet: in vain on gilded roof they fall, and lighten up a tapestried wall. and in _waverley_ he speaks of "remnants of tapestried hangings, window curtains and shreds of pictures with which he had bedizened his tatters." after the seventeenth century, these tapestries were used for covering furniture, as the seats and backs of sofas and arm chairs, desks and screens; and fire-screens covered with tapestry as beautiful as a painting were in vogue. in the _comedy of errors_ we recall this passage: in the desk that's covered o'er with turkish tapestry there is a purse of ducats. clarence cook says: "there was a kind of tapestry made in europe in the fifteenth century--in flanders, probably--in which there were represented gentlemen and ladies, the chatelaine and her suite walking in the park of the chateau. the figures, the size of life, seem to be following the course of a slender stream. the park in which these noble folk are stiffly disporting is represented by a wide expanse of meadow, guiltless of perspective, stretching up to the top of the piece of stuff itself, a meadow composed of leaves and flowers--bluebells, daisies, and flowers without a name--giving the effect of a close mosaic of green, mottled with colored spots. on the meadow are scattered various figures of animals and birds--the lion, the unicorn, the stag, and the rabbit. here, too, are hawks and parrots; in the upper part is a heron, which has been brought down by a hawk and is struggling with the victor, some highly ornamental drops of blood on the heron's breast showing that he is done for. and to return to the brook which winds along the bottom of the tapestry, it is curious to note that this part of the work is more real and directly natural in its treatment than the rest. the water is blue, and is varied by shading and by lines that show the movement of the stream; the plants and bushes growing along its borders are drawn with at least a conventional look of life, some violets and fleur-de-lis being particularly well done; and in the stream itself are sailing several ducks, some pushing straight ahead, others nibbling the grass along the bank, and one, at least, diving to the bottom, with tail and feet in the air." the best authority on tapestries in many lands is the exhaustive work by muntz, published in paris, - , by the société anonyme de publication périodique--three luxuriously bound and generously illustrated volumes, entitled _histoire générale de la tapisserie en italie, en allemagne, en angleterre, en espagne_. we learn here that in le françois, of rouen, incited by the chinese colored papers imported by the missionaries, tried to imitate the silk tapestries of the wealthy in a cheaper substance. he spread powdered wool of different colors on a drawing covered with a sticky substance on the proper parts. this _papier velouté_, called _tontisse_ by le françois, was exported to england, where it became known as "flock paper." the english claim a previous invention by jeremy lanyer, who, in , had used chinese and japanese processes. at any rate, the manufacture of flock papers spread in england and was given up in france. only toward the middle of the eighteenth century was the making of real colored papers (_papier peints_) begun in france and england. the first factory was set up in , but the work was not extended further until , when it was taken up by the brothers george and frederic echardt. chinese picture papers were imported into france by dutch traders and used to decorate screens, desks, chimney-pieces, etc., as early as the end of the seventeenth century. by the middle of the eighteenth, they were an important ornament of elegant interiors. in the list of the furniture given to mlle. desmares by mlle. damours, september , , is a fire-screen of china paper, mounted on wood, very simple. on july , , lazare duvaux delivered to mme. de brancas, to be sent to the dauphiness, a sheet of china paper with very beautiful vases and flowers, for making which he charged thirty livres. april , , he sold to the countess of valentinois, for one hundred and forty-four livres, six sheets of china paper, painted on gauze with landscapes and figures. may , , m. marin advertised for sale in a paris newspaper twenty-four sheets of china paper, with figures and gilt ornaments, ten feet high and three and one-half feet wide, at twenty-four livres a sheet; to be sold all together, or in lots of eight sheets each. by this time whole rooms were papered. july , , an apartment in paris was advertised to let, having a pretty boudoir with china paper in small figures representing arts and crafts, thirteen sheets, with a length of thirty-seven feet (horizontally) and height of eight feet ten inches, with gilt beaded moulding. dec. , , "for sale, at m. nicholas's, china wall-paper, glazed, blue ground, made for a room eighteen feet square, with gilt moulding." mr. aumonier says: "notwithstanding the chinese reputation for printing from wooden blocks from time immemorial, no specimens of their work produced by that process have ever come under the notice of the author, in public museums or elsewhere, and it is far more probable that early chinese works imported into europe were painted by hand, in imitation of the wondrous needlework, for which, through unknown ages, the eastern peoples have been famous. a most perfect and beautiful example of this work, of japanese origin, may be seen in the "queen's palace at the hague," called the _huis-ten-bosch_--the house-in-the-wood. this is a magnificent composition of foliage and flowers, birds and butterflies, perfect in form and beauty of tint, worked in silks on a ground of _écru_ satin. it is composed of many breadths forming one picture, starting from the ground with rock-work, and finishing at the top of the wall with light sprays of flowers, birds, butterflies and sky; the colouring of the whole so judiciously harmonized as to be an object lesson of great value to any decorator, and worth traveling many miles to study." i think that we may now safely say that china holds the honors in this matter. and as most of us grow a bit weary of continuous citations from cyclopedias, which are quoted because there is nothing less didactic to quote, and there must be a historical basis to stand on and start from, let us wander a little from heavy tomes and see some of the difficulties encountered in looking up old wall-papers to be photographed. an american artist, who has made his home in paris for years, looked over the photographs already collected, grew enthusiastic on the subject, and was certain he could assist me, for, at the retrospective exhibition held in that city in , he remembered having seen a complete exhibition of wall-papers and designs from the beginning. of course the dailies and magazines of that season would have full reports. "just send over to jack cauldwell--you know him. he is now occupying my studio, and he will gladly look it up." i wrote, and waited, but never received any response; heard later that he was painting in algiers and apparently all the hoped-for reports had vanished with him. my famously successful searcher after the elusive and recondite gave up this fruitless hunt in despair. other friends in paris were appealed to, but could find nothing. then many told me, with confidence, that there must be still some handsome old papers in the mansions of the south. and i did my best to secure at least some bits of paper, to show what had been, but i believe nearly all are gone "down the back entry of time." one lady, belonging to one of the best old families of virginia, writes me, "my brother has asked me to write to you about wall-papers. i can only recall one instance of very old or peculiar papering in the south, and my young cousin, who is a senior in the columbia school of architecture and very keen on 'colonial' details, tells me that he only knows of one. he has just been through tide-water virginia, or rather, up the james and rappahannock rivers, and he says those houses are all without paper at all, as far as he knows. "at charlestown, west virginia, there is a room done in tapestry paper in classic style, the same pattern being repeated, but this is not old, being subsequent to . the room that i have seen is wainscoted, as is the one at charlestown, and has above the wainscoting a tapestry paper also in shades of brown on a white ground. "the principal wall has a large classical design, with columns, ships and figures, not unlike the turner picture of carthage, as i remember it. this picture is not repeated, but runs into others. whether each is a panel, or they are merged into one another by foliage, i am unable to recall. i know that there is a stag hunt and some sylvan scenes. it seemed as if the paper must have been made with just such a room in mind, as the patterns seemed to fit the spaces. as the room was the usual corner parlor common to southern mansions, it was probably made for the type. i was told by a boarder in this house that the paper was old and there were similar papers in augusta county. i do not know whether these are choice and rare instances, or whether they are numerous and plentiful in other sections." all my responses from the south have been cordial and gracious and interesting, but depressing. i hear, in a vague way, of papers that i really should have--in albany and baltimore. we all know of the papers in the livingston and jumel mansions; the former are copied for fashionable residences. i heard of some most interesting and unusual papers in an old house in massachusetts, and after struggling along with what seemed almost insurmountable hindrances, was at last permitted to secure copies. the owner of the house died; the place was to be closed for six months; then it was to be turned over to the church, for a parsonage, and i agonised lest one paper might be removed at once as a scandalous presentment of an unholy theme. i was assured that in it the devil himself was caught at last, by three revengeful women, who, in a genuine tug-of-war scrimmage, had torn away all of his tail but a stub end. finally i gained a rather grudging permit for my photographer to copy the papers--"if you will give positive assurance that neither house nor walls shall be injured in the slightest degree." _plate iii._ in abrupt contrast with the preceding specimen, this old french paper is printed with great care and shows high artistic taste. the eight well-composed groups of figures that form the complete design are after the manner of watteau; the coloring is rich but quiet. seventeen shades and colors were imposed on a brown ground, and the black mesh-work added over all. [illustration] as the artist is a quiet gentleman--also an absolute abstainer--so that i could not anticipate any damage from a rough riot or a bacchanalian revel, i allowed him to cross the impressive threshold of the former home of a massachusetts governor, and the result was a brilliant achievement, as may be seen in the end papers of this book. sometimes when elated by a promise that a certain paper, eagerly desired, could be copied, i sent my man only to have the door held just a bit open, while he heard the depressing statement that madam had "changed her mind and didn't want the paper to be taken." all this is just a reminder that it is not entirely easy to get at what is sure so soon to disappear. and i mourn that i did not think years ago of securing photographs of quaint and antique papers. man has been defined as "an animal who collects." there is no hobby more delightful, and in this hunt i feel that i am doing a real service to many who have not time to devote to the rather difficult pursuit of what will soon be only a remembrance of primitive days. [illustration] [illustration] ii progress and improvement in the art [illustration] ii progress and improvement in the art if we go far enough back in trying to decide the origin of almost any important discovery, we are sure to find many claimants for the honor. it is said, on good authority, that "paper-hangings for the walls of rooms were originally introduced in china." this may safely be accepted as correct. the chinese certainly discovered how to make paper, then a better sort for wall hangings, and by chinese prisoners it was carried to arabia. travellers taking the news of the art to their homes in various countries, it soon became a subject of general interest, and variations and inventions in paper manufacture were numerous. we are apt to forget how much we owe to the chinese nation--the mariners' compass, gun-powder, paper, printing by moveable types (a daily paper has been published in pekin for twelve hundred years, printed, too, on silk). they had what we call the golden rule five hundred years before christ was born. with six times the population of the united states, they are the only people in the world who have maintained a government for three thousand years. the earliest papers we hear of anywhere were imported from china, and had chinese or indian patterns; coming first in small sheets, then in rolls. some of the more elaborate kinds were printed by hand; others were printed from blocks. these papers, used for walls, for hangings, and for screens, were called "pagoda papers," and were decorated with flowers, symbolic animals and human figures. the dutch were among the most enterprising, importing painted hangings from china and the east about the middle of the sixteenth century. perhaps these originated in persia; the word "chintz" is of persian origin, and the french name for its imitations was "perses." from the dutch, these imported hangings were soon carried to england, france, germany and other continental nations. each nation was deadly jealous in regard to paper-making, even resorting, in germany in , to solemn vows of secrecy from the workman and threats of imprisonment for betrayal of methods. two or three centuries later, the dutch prohibited the exportation of moulds under no less a penalty than death. the oldest allusion to printed wall-papers that i have found is in an account of the trial, in , of a dutch printer, herman schinkel of delft, on the charge of printing books inimical to the catholic faith. the examination showed that schinkel took ballad paper and printed roses and stripes on the back of it, to be used as a covering for attic walls. in the library of the british museum may be seen a book, printed in low dutch, made of sixty specimens of paper, each of a different material. the animal and vegetable products of which the workmen of various countries tried to manufacture paper would make a surprising list. in england, a paper-mill was set up probably a century before shakespeare's time. in the second part of _henry the sixth_ is a reference to a paper-mill. about , the campagnie des indes began to import these papers directly. they were then also called "indian" papers. august , , we find an advertisement: "for sale-- sheets of india paper, representing the cultivation of tea." such a paper, with this same theme, was brought to america one hundred and fifty years ago--a hand-painted chinese wall-paper, which has been on a house in dedham ever since, and is to-day in a very good state of preservation. of this paper i give three reproductions from different walls of the room. in _le mercure_, june, , m. prudomme advertised an assortment of china paper of different sizes; and again, in may, , that he had received many very beautiful india papers, painted, in various sizes and grounds, suitable for many uses, and including every kind that could be desired. this was the same thing that was called "china" paper five years before. the great development of the home manufacture of wall-papers, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, put an end to the importation from china. the english were probably the first importers of these highly decorative chinese papers, and quickly imitated them by printing the papers. these "_papiers anglais_" soon became known on the continent, and the french were also at work as rivals in their manufacture and use. of a book published in , called _the laws of harmonious colouring_, the author, one david r. hay, was house painter and decorator to the queen. i find that he was employed as a decorator and paper-hanger by sir walter scott, and he says that sir walter directed everything personally. mr. hay speaks of a certain indian paper, of crimson color, with a small gilded pattern upon it. "this paper sir walter did not quite approve of for a dining-room, but as he got it as a present, expressly for that purpose, and as he believed it to be rare, he would have it put up in that room rather than hurt the feelings of the donor. i observed to sir walter that there would be scarcely enough to cover the wall; he replied in that case i might paint the recess for the side-board in imitation of oak." mr. hay found afterwards that there was quite enough paper, but sir walter, when he saw the paper on the recess, heartily wished that the paper had fallen short, as he liked the recess much better unpapered. so in the night mr. hay took off the paper and painted the recess to look like paneled oak. this was in . sir walter, in a letter to a friend, speaks of "the most splendid chinese paper, twelve feet high by four wide; enough to finish the drawing-room and two bed-rooms, the color being green, with rich chinese figures." scott's own poem, _the lady of the lake_, has been a favorite theme for wall-paper. professor w. e. d. scott, the curator of ornithology at princeton college, in his recent book, _the story of a bird lover_, alludes, in a chapter about his childhood, to the papers on the walls of his grandfather's home: "as a boy, the halls interested me enormously; they have been papered with such wall-paper as i have never seen elsewhere. the entrance hall portrayed a vista of paris, apparently arranged along the seine, with ladies and gentlemen promenading the banks, and all the notable buildings, the pantheon, notre dame, and many more distributed in the scene, the river running in front. "but it was when i reached the second story that my childish imagination was exercised. here the panorama was of a different kind; it represented scenes in india--the pursuit of deer and various kinds of smaller game, the hunting of the lion and the tiger by the the natives, perched on great elephants with magnificent trappings. these views are not duplicated in the wall-paper; the scene is continuous, passing from one end of the hall to the other, a panorama rich in color and incident. i had thus in my mind a picture of india, i knew what kind of trees grew there, i knew the clothes people wore and the arms they used while hunting. to-day the same paper hangs in the halls of the old house." there are several papers of this sort, distinctly chinese, still on walls in this country. a house near portsmouth, which once belonged to governor wentworth, has one room of such paper, put on about . in boston, in a beacon street house, there is a room adorned with a paper made to order in china, with a pattern of birds and flowers, in which there is no repetition; and this is not an uncommon find. a brilliant example of this style may be seen in salem, mass. chinese papers, which were made for lining screens and covering boxes, were used in england and this country for wall-papers, and imitated both there and here. one expert tells me that the early english papers were often designed after india cottons, in large bold patterns. the first use in france of wall-papers of french manufacture was in the sixth century. vachon tells about jehan boudichon and his fifty rolls of paper for the king's bed-chamber in , lettered and painted blue; but it is evident from the context that they were not fastened on the walls, but held as scrolls by figures of angels. colored papers were used for temporary decorations at this time, as at the entrance of louis xiii. into lyons, on july , . there is nothing to show that the "_deux grans pans de papier paincts_," containing the history of the passion, and of the destruction of jerusalem from the effects of the cannon of st. peter, were permanently applied to a wall. so with another painted paper, containing the genealogy of the kings of france, among the effects of jean nagerel, archdeacon at rouen in . these pictured papers, hung up on the walls as a movable decoration, form one step in the development of applied wall-papers. in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the commonest patterns for unpictorial wall decoration were taken from the damasks and cut-velvets of sicily, florence, genoa, and other places in italy. some form of the pine-apple or artichoke pattern was the favorite, a design developed partly from oriental sources and coming to perfection at the end of the fifteenth century, copied and reproduced in textiles, printed stuffs, and wall-papers, with but little change, down to the nineteenth century. from the encyclopædia britannica, vol. xvii, i quote again: "wall-papers did not come into common use in europe until the eighteenth century, though they appear to have been used much earlier by the chinese. a few rare examples exist in england, which may be as early as the eighteenth century; these are imitations, generally in flock, of the fine old florentine and genoese cut-velvets, and hence the style of the design in no way shows the date of the paper, the same traditional patterns being reproduced for many years, with little or no change. machinery enabling paper to be made in long strips was not invented till the end of the eighteenth century, and up to that time wall-paper was painted on small squares of hand-made paper, difficult to hang, disfigured by joints, and consequently costly; on this account wall-papers were slow in superseding the older modes of mural decoration, such as wood panelling, painting, tapestry, stamped leather, and printed cloth. a little work by jackson, of battersea, printed in london in , gives some light on papers used at that time. he gives reduced copies of his designs, mostly taken from italian pictures or antique sculpture during his residence in venice. instead of flowering patterns covering the walls, his designs are all pictures--landscapes, architectural scenes, or statues--treated as panels, with plain paper or painting between. they are all printed in oil, with wooden blocks worked with a rolling press, apparently an invention of his own. they are all in the worst possible taste, and yet are offered as an improvement on the chinese papers then in vogue." in there was in paris a corporation called _dominotiers_, domino makers, which had the exclusive right to manufacture colored papers; and they were evidently not a new body. "domino" was an italian word, used in italy as early as the fifteenth century for marbled paper. french gentlemen, returning from milan and naples, brought back boxes or caskets lined with these papers, which were imitated in france and soon became an important article of trade. the foreign name was kept because of the prejudice in favor of foreign articles. but french taste introduced a change in the character of the ornament, preferring symmetrical designs to the hap-hazard effect of the marbling. they began then to print with blocks various arabesques, and to fill in the outlines with the brush. in furetiere's dictionary, of the last quarter of the seventeenth century, _dominotier_ is defined, "workman who makes marbled paper and other papers of all colors and printed with various figures, which the people used to call 'dominos'." on march , , a decree of the french king's council of state declared that the art of painting and printing paper to be used in furnishings was a dependence of the governing board of the "_marchands-papetiers-dominotiere-feuilletinere_." this domino-work was for a long time principally used by country folk and the humbler citizens of paris to cover parts of their rooms and shops; but near the end of the seventeenth century there was hardly a house in paris, however magnificent, that did not have some place adorned with some of this domino-work, with flowers, fruits, animals and small human figures. these pictures were often arranged in compartments. the dominotiers made paper tapestries also, and had the right to represent portraits, mythological scenes and old and new testament stories. at first they introduced written explanations, but the letter printers thought this an infringement of their rights; therefore it was omitted. we are told by aumonier that little precise information is to be found concerning the domino papers. "some were made from blocks of pear-tree wood, with the parts to be printed left in relief, like type. the designs were small pictures and in separate sheets, each subject complete to itself. they were executed in printing-ink by means of the ordinary printing-press. some were afterwards finished by hand in distemper colors; others were printed in oil, gold-sized and dusted over with powdered colors, which gave them some resemblance to flock papers." much is said about flock paper, and many were the methods of preparing it. here is one: "flock paper, commonly called cloth paper, is made by printing the figures with an adhesive liquid, commonly linseed oil, boiled, or litharge. the surface is then covered with the flock, or woolen dust, which is produced in manufactories by the shearing of woolen cloths, and which is dyed of the requisite colors. after being agitated in contact with the paper, the flocks are shaken off, leaving a coating resembling cloth upon the adhesive surface of the figures." the manufacture of this paper was practised, both in england and france, early in the seventeenth century. i find in the oxford dictionary the following examples of the early mention of flock cloth, which was the thing that suggested to le françois his invention of flock paper: act i of richard iii., c. , preamble: "the sellers of such course clothes, being bare of threde, usen for to powder the cast flokkys of fynner cloth upon the same." again in , act of henry viii., c. : "thei--shall (not) make or stoppe any maner kerseies with flocks." "flock, which is one of the most valuable materials used in paper staining, not only from its cost, but from its great usefulness in producing rich and velvety effects, is wool cut to a fine powder. the wool can be used in natural color or dyed to any tint. the waste from cloth manufactures furnished the chief supply, the white uniforms of the austrian soldiery supplying a considerable portion." other substances have been tried, as ground cork, flock made from kids' and goats' hair, the cuttings of furs and feathers, wood, sawdust, and, lately, a very beautiful flock made of silk, which gives a magnificent effect, but is so expensive that it can only be used for "_tentures de luxe_." mr. aumonier says: "until quite recently there were on the walls of some of the public rooms in hampton court palace several old flock papers, which had been hung so long ago that there is now no official record of when they were supplied. they were of fine, bold design, giving dignity to the apartments, and it is greatly to be regretted that some of them have been lately replaced by a comparatively insignificant design in bronze, which already shows signs of tarnishing, and which will eventually become of an unsightly, dirty black. all decorators who love their art will regret the loss of these fine old papers, and will join with the writer in the hope that the responsible authorities will not disturb those that still remain, so long as they can be kept on the walls; and when that is no longer possible, that they will have the designs reproduced in fac-simile, which could be done at a comparatively small cost. "mr. crace, in his _history of paperhangings_, says that by the combination of flock and metal, 'very splendid hangings' are produced; an opinion to which he gave practical expression some years afterwards when he was engaged in decorating the new house of parliament, using for many of the rooms rich and sumptuous hangings of this character, especially designed by the elder pugin, and manufactured for mr. crace from his own blocks." in england, in the time of queen anne, paper staining had become an industry of some importance, since it was taxed with others for raising supplies "to carry on the present war"--marlborough's campaign in the low countries against france. clarence cook, whom i am so frequently quoting because he wrote so much worth quoting, says: "one of the pleasant features of the queen anne style is its freedom from pedantry, its willingness to admit into its scheme of ornamentation almost anything that is intrinsically pretty or graceful. we can, if we choose, paint the papers and stuffs with which we cover our walls with wreaths of flowers and festoons of fruits; with groups of figures from poetry or history; with grotesques and arabesques, from rome and pompeii, passed through the brains of louis xiv's frenchmen or of anne's englishmen; with landscapes, even, pretty pastorals set in framework of wreaths or ribbon, or more simply arranged like regular spots in rows of alternate subjects." it may be interesting to remember that the pretty wall-papers of the days of queen anne and early georges were designed by nobody in particular, at a time when there were no art schools anywhere; and one can easily see that the wall-papers, the stuff-patterns and the furniture of that time are in harmony, showing that they came out of the same creative mould, and were the product of a sort of spirit-of-the-age. mica, powdered glass, glittering metallic dust or sand, silver dross, and even gold foil, were later used, and a silver-colored glimmer called cat-silver, all to produce a brilliant effect. this art was known long ago in china, and i am told of a chinese paper, seen in st. petersburg, which had all over it a silver-colored lustre. block printing and stencilling naturally belong to this subject, but, as my theme is "old time wall papers," and my book is not intended to be technical, or a book of reference as regards their manufacture, i shall not dwell on them. nor would it be wise to detail all the rival claimants for the honor of inventing a way of making wall-paper in rolls instead of small sheets; nor to give the names even of all the famous paper-makers. one, immortalized by carlyle in his _french revolution_, must be mentioned--revillon, whose papers in water colors and in flock were so perfect and so extremely beautiful that madame de genlis said they cost as much as fine gobelin tapestry. revillon had a large factory in the rue du faubourg st. antoine, paris, and in was employing three hundred hands. he was urged to incite his workmen to head the faubourg in open rebellion, but refused to listen; and angry at his inability to coerce this honorable man the envoy caused a false report to be spread about, that he intended to cut his wages one-half. _plate iv._ scenes from the life of an eighteenth century gallant form this unusual old french paper--a gaming quarrel, a duel, an elopement and other edifying episodes, framed in rococo scrolls. [illustration] this roused a furious mob, and everything was ruined, and he never recovered from the undeserved disaster. carlyle closes his description of the fatal riot with these words: "what a sight! a street choked up with lumber, tumult and endless press of men. a paper-warehouse eviscerated by axe and fire; mad din of revolt; musket volleys responded to by yells, by miscellaneous missiles, by tiles raining from roof and window, tiles, execrations and slain men!--there is an encumbered street, four or five hundred dead men; unfortunate revillon has found shelter in the bastille." england advanced in the art of paper-making during the time the french were planning the revolution, and english velvet papers became the fashion. in mme. de pompadour had her wardrobe and the passage that led to her apartments hung with english paper. in she had the bath-room of the chateau de champs papered with it, and others followed her example. but in the importation of english papers--engraved, figured, printed, painted to imitate damasks, chintzes, tapestries, and so on--was checked by a heavy tax. so at this time papers were a precious and costly possession. they were sold when the owner was leaving a room, as the following advertisements will show: dec. , . "to-let; large room, with mirror over the fire-place and paper which the owner is willing to sell." feb. , . "to-let; main body of a house, on the front, with two apartments, one having mirrors, woodwork and papers, which will be sold." when the owner of the paper did not succeed in selling it, he took it away, as it was stretched on cloth or mounted on frames. these papers were then often offered for sale in the parisian papers; we find advertised in , "the paperhangers for a room, painted green and white"; november , , "a hanging of paper lined with muslin, valued at livres"; february , , "for sale; by m. hubert, a hanging of crimson velvet paper, pasted on cloth, with gilt mouldings"; april , , " yards of apple-green paper imitating damask, livres, cost ." by , the use of wall-papers became so general that, from that time on, the phrase "decorated with wall-paper" frequently occurs in advertisements of luxurious apartments to let. before this time, mention had commonly been made, in the same manner, of the woodwork and mirrors. october , , the _journal general de france_ advertised: "to let; two houses, decorated with mirrors and papers, one with stable for five horses, carriage-houses, large garden and well, the other with three master's apartments, stable for horses, carriage-houses, etc." oct. , , "to let; pretty apartment of five rooms, second floor front, with mirrors, papers, etc." feb. , , "to let; rue montmartre, first floor apartment, with antechamber; drawing-room, papered in crimson, with mouldings; and two bed-rooms, one papered to match, with two cellars." mme. du bocage, in her _letters on england, holland, and italy_, ( ) gives an account of mrs. montague's breakfast parties: "in the morning, breakfasts agreeably bring together the people of the country and strangers, in a closet lined with painted paper of pekin, and furnished with the choicest movables of china. "mrs. montague added, to her already large house, 'the room of the cupidons', which was painted with roses and jasmine, intertwined with cupids, and the 'feather room,' which was enriched with hangings made from the plumage of almost every bird." [illustration] [illustration] iii earliest wall papers in america [illustration] iii earliest wall papers in america wall-papers of expensive styles and artistic variety were brought to america as early as . before that time, and after, clay paint was used by thrifty housewives to freshen and clean the sooty walls and ceilings, soon blackened by the big open fires. this was prepared simply by mixing with water the yellow-gray clay from the nearest claybank. in philadelphia, walls were whitewashed until about , when we find one charles hargrave advertising wall-paper, and a little later peter fleeson manufacturing paper-hangings and papir-maché mouldings at the corner of fourth and chestnut streets. those who could not afford to import papers painted their walls, either in one color or stencilled in a simple pattern, or panelled, in imitation of french papers; each panel with its own picture, large or small. these attempts at decoration ranged with the taste and skill of the artist, from fruit and floral designs and patterns copied from india prints and imported china, to more elaborate and often horrible presentments of landscapes and "waterscapes." the chimney breast, or projecting wall forming the chimney, received especial attention. in my own farm-house, which was built in colonial style in (with, as tradition says, forty pumpkin pies and two barrels of hard cider to cheer on the assisting neighbors), one of my first tasks was to have five or six layers of cheap papers dampened and scraped off. and, to my surprise, we found hand-painted flowers, true to nature and still extremely pretty, though of course scratched and faded after such heroic treatment--fuchsias in one room, carnation pinks in another, and in the front hall honeysuckle blossoms, so defaced that they suggested some of the animal tracks that mr. thompson-seton copies in his books. what an amount of painstaking and skilled work all that implied! that was a general fashion at the time the house was built, and many such hand-paintings have been reported to me. mrs. alice morse earle mentions one tavern parlor which she has seen where the walls were painted with scenes from a tropical forest. on either side of the fire-place sprang a tall palm tree. coiled serpents, crouching tigers, monkeys, a white elephant, and every form of vivid-colored bird and insect crowded each other on the walls. and she speaks of a wall-paper on the parlor of the washington tavern at westfield, massachusetts, which gives the lively scenes of a fox chase. near conway, new hampshire, there is a cottage where a room can still be seen that has been most elaborately adorned by a local artist. the mountains are evenly scalloped and uniformly green, the sky evenly blue all the way round. the trees resemble those to be found in a noah's ark, and the birds on them are certainly one-fourth as large as the trees. the painted landscapes are almost impossible to find, but i hear of one room, the walls of which are painted with small landscapes, water scenes, various animals, and trees. a sympathetic explorer has discovered another in similar style at westwood, massachusetts, near dedham. in the old "johnson house," charlestown, new hampshire, the door remains on the premises, with hatchet marks still visible, through which the indians, "horribly fixed for war," dashed in pursuit of their trembling victims. the hinges of hoop iron and latch with stringhole beneath are intact. a portion of its surface is still covered with the paint of the early settlers, made of red earth mixed with skimmed milk. a friend wrote me that her grandmother said that "before wall-paper became generally used, many well-to-do persons had the walls of the parlor--or keeping room as it was sometimes called--and spare room tinted a soft colonial yellow, with triangles, wheels or stars in dull green and black for a frieze; and above the chair-rail a narrower frieze, same pattern or similar, done in stencilling, often by home talent. "my great aunt used to tell me that when company was expected, the edge of the floor in the 'keeping room' was first sanded, then the most artistic one of the family spread it evenly with a birch broom, and with sticks made these same wheels and scallops around the edge of the room, and the never-missing pitcher of asparagus completed the adornment." on the panels of a mantel, she remembers, an artist came from new boston and painted a landscape, while in the sitting-room, across the hall, a huge vase of gayly tinted flowers was painted over the mantel. on the mantel of another house was painted the boston massacre. this was in existence only a few years ago. later came the black and white imitation of marble for the halls and stairs, and yellow floors with the stencil border in black. this was an imitation of the french. in balzac's _pierrette_ is described a pretentious provincial house, of which the stairway was "painted throughout in imitation of yellow-veined black marble." madeleine gale wynne, in _the house beautiful_, wrote most delightfully about "clay, paint and other wall furnishings," and i quote her vivid descriptions of the wall paintings she saw in deerfield and bernardston, massachusetts. "these wall paintings, like the embroideries, were derived from the india prints or the chinese and other crockery. whether the dweller in this far-off new england atmosphere was conscious of it or not, he was indebted to many ancient peoples for the way in which he intertwined his spray, or translated his flower and bud into a decorative whole. "odd and amusing are many of the efforts, and they have often taken on a certain individuality that makes a curious combination with the eastern strain. "an old house in deerfield has the remains of an interesting wall, and a partition of another done in blue, with an oval picture painted over the mantel-tree. the picture was of a blue ship in full sail on a blue ocean. "the other wall was in a small entry-way, and had an abundance of semi-conventionalized flowers done in red, black, and browns. the design was evidently painted by hand, and evolved as the painter worked. a border ran round each doorway, while the wall spaces were treated separately and with individual care; the effect was pleasing, though crude. tulips and roses were the theme. "this house had at one time been used as a tavern, and there is a tradition that this was one of several public houses that were decorated by a man who wandered through the connecticut valley during revolutionary times, paying his way by these flights of genius done in oil. tradition also has it that this man had a past; whether he was a spy or a deserter from the british lines, or some other fly-from-justice body, was a matter of speculation never determined. he disappeared as he came, but behind him he left many walls decorated with fruit and flowers, less perishable than himself. "we find his handiwork not only in deerfield, but in bernardston. there are rumors that there was also a wall of his painting in a tavern which stood on the border line between massachusetts and vermont. in connecticut, too, there are houses that have traces of his work. in bernardston, massachusetts, there is still to be seen a room containing a very perfect specimen of wall painting which is attributed to him. this work may be of later date, but no one knows its origin. "this design is very pleasing, not only because of its antiquity and associations, but because in its own way it is a beautiful and fitting decoration. the color tones are full, the figures quaintly systematic and showing much invention. "the body of the wall is of a deep cream, divided into diamond spaces by a stencilled design, consisting of four members in diamond shape; the next diamond is made up of a different set of diamonds, there being four sets in all; these are repeated symmetrically, so that a larger diamond is produced. strawberries, tulips, and two other flowers of less pronounced individuality are used, and the colors are deliciously harmonized in spite of their being in natural tints, and bright at that. now, this might have been very ugly--most unpleasing; on the contrary, it is really beautiful. "there is both dado and frieze, the latter being an elaborate festoon, the former less good, made up of straggling palms and other ill considered and constructed growths. one suspects the dado to be an out-and-out steal from some chintz, while the tulips and strawberries bear the stamp of personal intimacy. "the culminating act of imagination and art was arrived at on the chimney-breast decoration; there indeed do we strike the high-water mark of the decorator; he was not hampered either by perspective or probability. "we surmise that boston and its harbor is the subject; here are ships, horses and coaches, trees and road-ways, running like garlands which subdivide the spaces, many houses in a row, and finally a row of docile sheep that for a century have fed in unfading serenity at their cribs in inexplicable proximity to the base of the dwellings. all is fair in love, war, and decoration. "the trees are green, the houses red, the sheep white, and the water blue; all is in good tone, and i wish that it had been on my mantel space that this renegade painter had put his spirited effort." a friend told me of her vivid recollection of some frescoed portraits on the walls of the former home of a prominent quaker in minneapolis. her letter to a cousin who attends the friends' meeting there brought this answer: "i had quite a talk with uncle junius at meeting about his old house. unfortunately, the walls were ruined in a fire a few years ago and no photograph had ever been taken of them. the portraits thee asked about were in a bed-room. william penn, with a roll in his hand (the treaty, i suppose) was on one side of a window and elizabeth fry on the other. these two were life size. "then, (tell it not in gath!) there was a billiard room. here mercury, terpsichore and other gay creatures tripped around the frieze, and there was also a picture of the temple in pompeii and minerva with her owl. in the sitting room on one side of the bay window was a fisher-woman mending her net, with a lot of fish about her. on the other side of the window another woman was feeding a deer. "on the dining-room walls a number of rabbits were playing under a big fern and there was a whole family of prairie chickens, and ducks were flying about the ceiling. uncle junius said, 'it cost me a thousand dollars to have those things frescoed on, and they looked nice, too!' i suppose when the quaker preachers came to visit he locked up the billiard room and put them in the room with william penn and elizabeth fry. he seemed rather mortified about the other and said it would not do to go into a quaker book, at all!" this house was built about the middle of the nineteenth century, when minneapolis was a new town; but it undoubtedly shows the influence of the old new england which was the genial friend's boyhood home. the scores of quaker preachers and other visiting friends who accepted the overflowing hospitality of this cheerfully frescoed house seem to have had none of the scruples of massachusetts friends of an earlier date. a lady sent me a strip of hideously ugly paper in squares, the colors dark brown and old gold. she wrote me that this paper was on the walls of the parlor of their house in hampton, massachusetts. the family were friends; and once, when the quarterly meeting was held there, some of the friends refused to enter their house, as the paper was too gay and worldly. and it actually had to be taken off! after the clay paint and the hand painting came the small sheets or squares of paper, and again i was fortunate in finding in my adopted farm-house, in the "best room" upstairs, a snuff-brown paper of the "wine-glass" pattern that was made before paper was imported in rolls, and was pasted on the walls in small squares. the border looks as much like a row of brown cats sitting down as anything else. you know the family used to be called together to help cut out a border when a room was to be papered; but very few of these home-made borders are now to be found. i was told of a lady in philadelphia who grew weary of an old and sentimental pattern in her chamber, put on in small pieces and in poor condition, and begged her husband to let her take it off. but he was attached to the room, paper and all, and begged on his part that it might remain. she next visited queer old stores where papers were kept, and in one of them, in a loft, found enough of this very pattern, with cupids and doves and roses, to re-paper almost the entire room. and it was decidedly difficult so to match the two sides of the face of the little god of love as to preserve his natural expression of roguishness and merry consciousness of his power. it may interest some to learn just what drew my attention to the subject of old-time wall-papers. one, and an especially fine specimen, is associated with my earliest memories, and will be remembered to my latest day. for, although a native of new hampshire, i was born at the foot of mount vesuvius, and there was a merry dance to the music of mandolin and tambourine round the tomb of virgil on my natal morn. some men were fishing, others bringing in the catch; farther on was a picnic party, sentimental youths and maidens eating comfits and dainties to the tender notes of a flute. and old vesuvius was smoking violently. all this because the room in which i made my début was adorned with a landscape or scenic paper. fortunately, this still remains on the walls, little altered or defaced by the wear of years. when admiring it lately, the suggestion came to me to have this paper photographed at once, and also that of the seasons in the next house; these were certainly too rare and interesting to be lost. it is singular that the only papers of this sort i had ever seen were in neighboring homes of two professors at dartmouth college, and remarkable that neither has been removed: now i find many duplicates of these papers. what a keen delight it was to me as a child to be allowed to go to professor young's, to admire his white hair, which i called "pitty white fedders," and to gaze at the imposing sleighing party just above the mantel, and at the hunters or the haymakers in the fields! a good collection is always interesting, from choice old copies of first editions to lanterns, cow-bells, scissors, cup-plates, fans or buttons; and i mourn that i did not think of securing photographs of quaint and antique papers years ago, for most of them have now disappeared. showing the beginnings of my collection to an amateur photographer, he was intensely interested, and said: "why, i can get you a set as good as these! the house has been owned by one family for eighty-five years, and the paper was put on as long ago as that." and certainly his addition is most interesting. the scenes in one are french. you see a little play going on, such as we have been told in a recent magazine article they still have in france--a street show in which a whole family often take part. they appear as accompaniment to a fair or festival. the hole for the stove-pipe, penetrating the foliage, has a ludicrous effect, contrasting in abrupt fashion--the old and the new, the imposing and the practical. this enthusiastic friend next visited medfield, massachusetts, where he heard there were several such papers, only to be told that they had just been scraped off and the rooms modernized. hearing of a fine example of scenic paper in the old perry house at keene, new hampshire, i wrote immediately, lest that, too, should be removed, and through the kindness of absolute strangers can show an excellent representation of the olympic games, dances, greeks placing wreaths upon altars, and other scenes from grecian life, well executed. these are grand conceptions; i hope they may never be vandalized by chisel and paste, but be allowed to remain as long as that historic house stands. they are beautifully preserved. _plate v._ a detail of the preceding paper. though well designed, this is not a beautifully colored or very well printed paper; the color scheme is carried out in fourteen printings. [illustration] a brief magazine article on my new enthusiasm, illustrated with photographs of papers i knew about, was received with surprising interest. my mail-bag came crowded, and i was well-nigh "snowed in," as de quincy put it, by fascinating letters from men and women who rejoiced in owning papers like those of my illustrations, or had heard of others equally fine and equally venerable, and with cordial invitations to journey here and there to visit unknown friends and study their wall-papers, the coloring good as new after a hundred years or more. it was in this unexpected and most agreeable way that i heard of treasures at windsor, vermont; claremont, new hampshire; taunton, massachusetts, and quaint old nantucket, and was informed that my special paper, with the scenes from the bay of naples (represented so faithfully that one familiar with the italian reality could easily recognize every one) was a most popular subject with the early purchaser and was still on the walls of a dozen or more sitting-rooms. the reverend wallace nutting, of providence, whose fame as an artistic photographer is widespread, sent me a picture of a parlor in st. johnsbury, vermont, where he found this paper. three women dressed in old-fashioned style, even to the arrangement of their hair, are seated at table, enjoying a cup of tea. an old tabby is napping cosily in a soft-cushioned chair. and above, on the right, vesuvius is pouring forth the usual volumes of smoke. a fine old mahogany side-board, at the foot of the volcano, decorated with decanters and glasses large and small, presents an inviting picture. the house at hillsboro bridge, new hampshire, where ex-governor benjamin pierce lived for years, and where his son, franklin pierce, passed a happy boyhood, has this paper, and several similar letters show how generally it was admired. mrs. lawrence, of boston, wrote: "i send by this mail a package of pictures, taken by my daughter, of the italian wall-paper on her grandfather's old home in exeter, n. h. the house is now owned by the academy and used as a dormitory. the views which i enclose have never been published. we have two or three remarkable specimens of wall-paper made in india a hundred and fifty years ago; the strips are hanging on the wall, nailed up." the italian paper proved to be my old friend vesuvius and his bay. an exeter professor also wrote describing the same paper and adding translations of the greek inscriptions on the monuments. friends would often write of such a wonderful specimen at some town or village. i would write to the address given and be told of this bay of naples paper again. they were all brought over and put on at about the same time. one of the oldest houses in windsor, vermont, still has a charming parlor paper, with landscape and water, boats, castles, ruins and picturesque figures, which was imported and hung about . this house was built by the honorable edward r. campbell, a prominent vermonter in his day, and here were entertained president monroe and other notable visitors. later the campbell house was occupied for some years by salmon p. chase. it is now the home of the sabin family. a boston antique dealer wrote me: "in an article of yours in _the house beautiful_, you have a photograph of the paper of the old perry house, keene, n. h. we want to say that we have in our possession here at this store, strung up temporarily, a paper with the same subject. it forms a complete scene, there being thirty pieces in attractive old shades of brown. we bought this from a family in boston some little time ago, and it is said to have been made in france for a planter in new orleans in or before . we feel we would be excused in saying that this is the most interesting lot of any such thing in existence. it has been handed down from family to family, and they, apparently, have shown it, because the bottom ends of some of the sheets are considerably worn from handling. you understand this paper was never hung on the wall and it is just as it was originally made." he fairly raves over the beautiful rich browns and cream and "o! such trees!" to my inquiry whether his price for this paper was really two thousand dollars, as i had heard, he replied, "we would be very sorry to sell the paper for two thousand dollars, for it is worth five thousand." an artist who called to examine the paper is equally enthusiastic. he writes: "i was greatly impressed by the remarkably fine execution of the entire work. doubtless it was printed by hand with engraved blocks. a large per cent of the shading, especially the faces of the charming figures, was surely done by hand, and all is the production of a superior artist. there are several sections, each perhaps three feet square, of such fine design, grouping, finish and execution of light and shade, as to make them easily samples of such exquisite nicety and comprehensive artistic work as to warrant their being framed. "the facial expression of each of the many figures is so true that it indicates the feelings and almost the thoughts of the person represented; there is remarkable individuality and surprising animation. i was forcibly struck with the inimitable perspective of the buildings and the entire landscape with which they are associated. practically speaking, the buildings are of very perfect roman architecture; there is, however, a pleasing venture manifested, where the artist has presented a little of the greek work with here and there a trace of egyptian, and perhaps of the byzantine. these make a pleasing anachronism, such as shakespeare at times introduced into his plays: a venture defended by dr. samuel johnson, as well as other distinguished critics. the trees are done with an almost photographic truth and exactness. after a somewhat extended and critical examination of things of this kind in various parts of europe, i do not hesitate to say that i have seen nothing of the kind that excels the work you have. what is quite remarkable about it, and more than all exhibits its truth to nature, it seems to challenge decision whether it shows to best advantage in strong daylight or twilight, by artificial light or that of the sun; an effect always present in nature, but not often well produced on paper or canvas. the successful venture to use so light a groundwork was much like that of rubens, where he used a white sheet in his great painting, 'the descent from the cross.'" since the above description was written, this incomparable paper has passed into the hands of mrs. franklin r. webber, nd, of boston, who will either frame it, or in some other way preserve it as perfectly as possible. the remarkable paper shown in plate xli and the three following plates were sent me by miss janet a. lathrop of stockport-on-hudson, new york. it is certainly one of the finest of the scenic papers still in existence. the scene is oriental, the costumes seeming both turkish and chinese. temples and pagodas, a procession, a barge on the river and a gathering in a tea-house follow in succession about the room. all are printed by hand on rice paper, in gray tones. the paper is browned with age, but was cleaned and restored about a year ago and is exceedingly well preserved. the house in which this paper is hung was built by captain seth macy, a retired sea-captain, in . the paper was put on in . captain seth seems to have used up all his fortune in building his house, and in a few years he was forced to sell it. the name of "seth's folly" still clings to the place. in miss lathrop's father bought the house, and it has ever since been occupied by his family. by a singular coincidence, mrs. lathrop recognized the paper as the same as some on the old house at albany in which she was born. repeated inquiries have failed to locate any other example in america, and photographs have been submitted without avail to both domestic and foreign experts for identification. in the early seventies miss lathrop chanced to visit a hunting-lodge belonging to the king of saxony at moritzburg, near dresden, and in the "chinese room" she found a tapestry or paper exactly similar, from which the paper on her own walls may have been copied. the two papers just described would seem to be the finest examples of continuous scenic papers still extant. i learn as this book goes to press that mrs. jack gardner, of boston, has a remarkable old geographical paper, in which the three old-world continents are represented. i have been fortunate enough to secure, through the courtesy of mrs. russell jarvis, a picture of the paper in her parlor at claremont, new hampshire. the jarvis family have occupied the house since . this is not a landscape, but consists of small pastoral scenes, placed at intervals and repeated regularly. the design is brown on a cream ground. it has a dado and a frieze in dark blue. it is hand made and all printed by hand, in squares of about eighteen inches, matched carefully. mrs. jarvis writes: "i had no idea that the photographer would take in so much each side of the corner, or i should have arranged the furniture differently. the picture i did not suppose was to appear is one of great interest and value. it is supposed to be a rubens, and has hung there for over a hundred years. it was bought in in boston, of a french gentleman from san domingo, who, on the night of the insurrection there, escaped, saving but little else of his vast possessions. it had evidently been hastily cut from the frame. it represents the presentation of the head of the younger cyrus to tomyris, queen of the scythians. the coloring is fine, the figures very beautiful, and the satin and ermine of the queen's dress extremely rich. if you look closely, you will see a sword lying on the piano. this is the one sir william pepperell was knighted with by king george the second, in , because of the battle of louisburg, and was given my husband's father by sir william's grand-daughter, i believe." you see how one photograph brings to you many valuable bits of information apart from the paper sought. this letter, for example, with its accompanying photograph (see plate xxii) leads one to the study of history, art, and literature. the subject of the picture, aside from its supposed origin, is of interest. the scythians were aryans much mixed with mongol blood; they disappear from history about b. c. cyrus the younger, after subduing the eastern parts of asia, was defeated by tomyris, queen of the massagetae in scythia. tomyris cut off his head and threw it into a vessel filled with human blood, saying, as she did so, "there, drink thy fill." dante refers to this incident in his _purgatory_, xii; and sackville, in his _mirrour for magistrates_, , says: consyder cyrus-- he whose huge power no man might overthrowe, tomyris queen, with great despite hath slowe, his head dismembered from his mangled corpse herself she cast into a vessel fraught with clotted blood of them that felt her force, and with these words a just reward she taught: "drynke now thy fyll of thy desired draught." here seems to be the place to speak more fully of the small scenes placed regularly at intervals. there is a great variety of pretty medallion pictures of this sort, as, alternating figures of a shepherdess with her crook reclining on a bank near a flock of sheep, and a boy studying at a desk, with a teacher standing near by. mr. frank b. sanborn writes: "the oldest paper i ever saw was in the parlor of president weare, of hampton falls--a simple hunting scene, with three compartments; a deer above, a dog below, and a hunter with his horn below that. it was put on in , when the house was built, and, i think, is there still. colonel whiting's house had a more elaborate and extensive scene--what the french called 'montagnes russe'--artificial hills in a park, for sliding down, toboggan fashion, and a score of people enjoying them or looking on." a good authority asserts that rolls of paper did not appear in this country until , so that all these now mentioned must have been imported in square sheets. notice the step forward--from white walls, through a clay wash, to hand painting, stencilling, small imported sheets, and, at last, to rolls of paper. [illustration] _plate vi._ fragment of the famous old racing paper from the timothy dexter house. this is too broken and stained to admit of the reproduction of its original colors--blue sky, gray clouds, green turf, brown horses and black, and jockeys in various colors. the scene here given fills the width of the paper, about eighteen inches. [illustration] iv wall papers in historic homes [illustration] iv wall papers in historic homes esther singleton, in her valuable and charming book on _french and english furniture_, tells us that in the early georgian period, from to , the art of the regency was on the decline, and "the fashionable taste of the day was for gothic, chinese and french decorations; and the expensive french wall-painting and silken hangings were imitated in wall-paper and the taste even spread to america." in , the famous hancock house was being built and, until it was demolished a few years ago ( ), it was the last of the great mansions standing that could show what the stately homes of old boston were like. this house was built by thomas hancock, son of the rev. john hancock, the kitchen of whose house is now owned by the lexington historical society. on january , - , we find him writing from boston to mr. john rowe, stationer, london, as follows: "sir, inclosed you have the dimensions of a room for a shaded hanging to be done after the same pattern i have sent per captain tanner, who will deliver it to you. it's for my own house and intreat the favour of you to get it done for me to come early in the spring, or as soon as the nature of the thing will admitt. "the pattern is all was left of a room lately come over here, and it takes much in ye town and will be the only paper-hanging for sale here wh. am of opinion may answer well. therefore desire you by all means to get mine well done and as cheap as possible and if they can make it more beautifull by adding more birds flying here and there, with some landskips at the bottom, should like it well. let the ground be the same colour of the pattern. at the top and bottom was a narrow border of about inches wide wh. would have to mine. about three or four years ago my friend francis wilks, esq., had a hanging done in the same manner but much handsomer sent over here from mr. sam waldon of this place, made by one dunbar in aldermanbury, where no doubt he, or some of his successors may be found. in the other part of these hangings are great variety of different sorts of birds, peacocks, macoys, squirril, monkys, fruit and flowers etc. "but a greater variety in the above mentioned of mr. waldon's and should be fond of having mine done by the same hand if to be mett with. i design if this pleases me to have two rooms more done for myself. i think they are handsomer and better than painted hangings done in oyle, so i beg your particular care in procuring this for me and that the patterns may be taken care of and return'd with my goods." john adams writes in his diary ( ): "spent this evening with mr. samuel adams at his house. adams was more cool, genteel, and agreeable than common; concealed and retained his passions, etc. he affects to despise riches, and not to dread poverty; but no man is more ambitious of entertaining his friends handsomely, or of making a decent, an elegant appearance than he. "he has newly covered and glazed his house, and painted it very neatly, and has new papered, painted and furnished his rooms; so that you visit at a very genteel house and are very politely received and entertained." paper is the only material with which a man of but little means can surround himself with a decorative motive and can enjoy good copies of the expensive tapestries and various hangings which, until recently, have been within the reach of the wealthy only. the paper-hanger was not so much a necessity in the old days as now. the family often joined in the task of making the paste, cutting the paper and placing it on the walls. this was not beneath the dignity of george washington, who, with the assistance of lafayette, hung on the walls at mount vernon paper which he had purchased abroad. the story goes that the good martha lamented in the presence of lafayette that she should be unable to get the new paper hung in the banquet room in time for the morrow's ball in honor of the young marquis. there were no men to be found for such work. lafayette at once pointed out to mistress washington that she had three able-bodied men at her service--general washington, lafayette himself and his aide-de-camp. whereupon the company fell merrily to work, and the paper was hung in time for the ball. not only did the father of our country fight our battles for us, but there is evidence that he gracefully descended to a more peaceful level and gave us hints as to that valuable combination known to the world as flour paste. there is in existence a memorandum in washington's hand, which reads as follows: "upholsterer's directions: "if the walls have been whitewashed over with glew water. if not--simple and common paste is sufficient without any other mixture but, in either case, the paste must be made of the finest and best flour, and free from lumps. the paste is to be made thick and may be thinned by putting water to it. "the paste is to be put upon the paper and suffered to remain about five minutes to soak in before it is put up, then with a cloth press it against the wall, until all parts stick. if there be rinkles anywhere, put a large piece of paper thereon and then rub them out with cloth as before mentioned." during the period when mount vernon was in private hands, the papers of washington's day were removed. there is now on the upper hall a medallion paper which is reproduced from that which hung there at the time of the revolution. benjamin franklin was another of our great men who interested themselves in domestic details. in he was in london, when he received from his wife a letter describing the way in which she had re-decorated and furnished their home. furniture, carpets and pictures were mentioned, and wall coverings as well. "the little south room i have papered, as the walls were much soiled. in this room is a carpet i bought cheap for its goodness, and nearly new.... the blue room has the harmonica and the harpsichord, the gilt sconce, a card table, a set of tea china, the worked chairs and screen--a very handsome stand for the tea kettle to stand on, and the ornamental china. the paper of the room has lost much of its bloom by pasting up." this blue room must have been the subject of further correspondence. nearly two years later franklin wrote to his wife: "i suppose the room is too blue, the wood being of the same colour with the paper, and so looks too dark. i would have you finish it as soon as you can, thus: paint the wainscot a dead white; paper the walls blue, and tack the gilt border round the cornice. if the paper is not equally coloured when pasted on, let it be brushed over again with the same colour, and let the _papier maché_ musical figures be tacked to the middle of the ceiling. when this is done, i think it will look very well." there are many old houses in new england and the middle states which are of historic interest, and in some of these the original paper is still on the walls and in good preservation, as in the dorothy quincy house at quincy, massachusetts. the dorothy quincy house is now owned by the colonial dames of massachusetts, who have filled it with beautiful colonial furniture and other relics of dorothy q's day. the papers on all the walls are old, but none so early as that on the large north parlor (plate xxix), which was imported from paris to adorn the room in which dorothy quincy and john hancock were to have been married in . figures of venus and cupid made the paper appropriate to the occasion. "but the fortunes of war," says katharine m. abbott in her _old paths and legends of new england_, "upset the best of plans, and her wedding came about very quietly at the thaddeus burr house in fairfield. owing to the prescription on hancock's head, they were forced to spend their honeymoon in hiding, as the red-coats had marked for capture this elegant, cocked-hat 'rebel' diplomatist of the blue and bluff. dorothy quincy hancock, the niece of holmes's 'dorothy q.,' is a fascinating figure in history. lafayette paid her a visit of ceremony and pleasure at the hancock house on his triumphal tour, and no doubt the once youthful chevalier and reigning belle flung many a quip and sally over the teacups of their eventful past." the hancock-clarke house, in lexington, massachusetts, is a treasure house of important relics, besides files of pamphlets, manuscripts and printed documents, portraits, photographs, furniture, lanterns, canteens, pine-tree paper currency, autographs, fancy-work--in fact almost everything that could be dug up. there is also a piece of the original paper on the room occupied by hancock and adams on april , . but the bit of paper and the reproduction are copyrighted, and there is no more left of it. it is a design of pomegranate leaves, buds, flowers and fruits--nothing remarkable or attractive about it. i have a small photograph of it, which must be studied through a glass. in the sitting-room the paper is a series of arches, evidently roman, a foot wide and three feet high. the pillars supporting the arches are decorated with trophies--shields, with javelins, battle-axes and trumpets massed behind. the design is a mechanical arrangement of urn and pedestal; there are two figures leaning against the marble, and two reclining on the slab above the urn. one of these holds a trumpet, and all the persons are wearing togas. the groundwork of color in each panel is roman red; all the rest is a study in black and white lines. garlands droop at regular intervals across the panels. the paper in the lafayette room at the wayside inn, south sudbury, massachusetts, is precious only from association. the inn was built about , and was first opened by david howe, who kept it until . it was then kept by his three sons in succession, one son, lyman howe, being the landlord when longfellow visited there and told the tale of paul revere's ride. it was renovated under the management of colonel ezekiel howe, - , and during that time the paper was put on the lafayette room. several important personages are known to have occupied this room, among them general lafayette, judge sewall, luigi monti, doctor parsons, general artemus ward. the house was first known as howe's in sudbury, or horse tavern, then as the red horse tavern; and in was immortalized by longfellow as the wayside inn. "the landlord of longfellow's famous tales was the dignified squire lyman howe, a justice of the peace and school committee-man, who lived a bachelor, and died at the inn in --the last of his line to keep the famous hostelry. besides squire howe, the only other real characters in the tales who were ever actually at the inn were thomas w. parsons, the poet; luigi monti, the sicilian, and professor daniel treadwell, of harvard, the theologian, all three of whom were in the habit of spending the summer months there. of the other characters, the musician was ole bull, the student was henry ware wales, and the spanish jew was israel edrehi. near the room in which longfellow stayed is the ball-room with the dais at one end for the fiddlers. but the polished floor no longer feels the pressure of dainty feet in high-heeled slippers gliding over it to the strains of contra-dance, cotillion, or minuet, although the merry voices of summer visitors and jingling bells of winter sleighing parties at times still break the quiet of the ancient inn." judge sewall, in his famous diary, notes that he spent the night at howe's in sudbury--there being also a howe's tavern in marlboro. lafayette, in , spent the night there and, as washington passed over this road when he took command of the army at cambridge, it is more than likely that he also stopped there, as colonel howe's importance in this neighborhood would almost demand it. washington passed over this road again when on his tour of new england, and then colonel howe was the landlord and squire, as well as colonel of a regiment. burgoyne stopped there, a captive, on his way from ticonderoga to boston; and, as this was the most popular stage route to new york city, springfield and albany, those famous men of new england--otis, adams, hancock, and many others--were frequent guests. a company of horse patrolled the road, and tripped into the old bar for their rum and home-brewed ale. it is worth recording that agassiz, in his visits to the house, examined the ancient oaks near the inn, and pronounced one of them over a thousand years old. edna dean proctor refers to them in her poem: oaks that the indian's bow and wigwam knew, and by whose branches still the sky is barred. i have a photograph of the famous king's tavern, where lafayette was entertained, and a small piece of the paper of the dining-room. this tavern was at vernon, connecticut, (now known as rockville,) on the great mail stage route from new york to boston. it was noted for its waffles, served night and morning, and the travellers sometimes called it "waffle tavern." it was erected by lemuel king, in . now it is used as the rockville town farm. the noted french wall-paper on the dining-room, where lafayette was entertained, represented mythological scenes. there was atlas, king of the remote west and master of the trees that bore the golden apples; and prometheus, chained to the rock, with the water about him. the paper was imported in small squares, which had to be most carefully pasted together. this treasured paper, with its rather solemn colors of grey and black, and its amazing number of mythological characters, was stripped from the walls and consumed in a bonfire by an unappreciative and ignorant person who had control of the place. a lady rescued a few pieces and pasted them on a board. she has generously sent me a photograph of one of the panels. she writes me pathetically of the woodsy scenes, water views, mountains, cascades, and castles, with classic figures artistically arranged among them. there seems to have been a greater variety than is usual, from a spirited horse, standing on his hind legs on a cliff, to a charming nymph seated on a rock and playing on a lyre. below all these scenes there was a dado of black and grey, with scrolls and names of the beings depicted--such names as atlas, atlantis, ariadne, arethusa, adonis, apollo, andromache, bacchus, cassandra, cadmus, diana, endymion, juno, jupiter, iris, laocoön, medusa, minerva, neptune, pandora, penelope, romulus, sirius, thalia, theseus, venus, vulcan, and many others were "among those present." below these names came a dado of grassy green, with marine views at intervals. whether lafayette noticed and appreciated all this, history telleth not. after his sumptuous repast a new coach was provided to convey him from king's tavern to hartford, and it was drawn by four white horses. on a boulder in lafayette park, near by, is this inscription: "in grateful memory of general lafayette, whose love of liberty brought him to our shores, to dedicate his life and fortune to the cause of the colonies. "the sabra trumbull chapter, d. a. r., erected this monument near the old king's tavern, where he was entertained in ." the general knox mansion, called "montpelier," at thomaston, maine, is full of interest to all who care for old-time luxury as seen in the homes of the wealthy. general knox was washington's first secretary of war. samples of paper have been sent me from there. one had a background of sky-blue, on which were wreaths, with torches, censers with flames above, and two loving birds, one on the nest and the mate proudly guarding her--all in light brown and gray, with some sparkling mineral or tiniest particles of glass apparently sprinkled over, which produced a fascinating glitter, and a raised, applique effect i have never observed before. this was on the dining-room of the mansion. in the "gold room" was a yellow paper--as yellow as buttercups. still another, more unusual, was a representation of a sea-port town, gallipoli, of european turkey; armed men are marching; you see the water and picturesque harbor, and turkish soldiers in boats. the red of the uniforms brightens the pictures; the background is gray, and the views are enclosed in harmonious browns, suggesting trees and rocks. this paper came in small pieces, before rolls were made. think of the labor of matching all those figures! "gallipoli" is printed at the bottom. i am assured by a truthful woman from maine that the halls of this house were adorned with yellow paper with hunting scenes "life-size," and i don't dare doubt or even discuss this, for what a woman from that state _knows_ is not to be questioned. it can't be childish imagination. moreover, i have corroborative evidence from another veracious woman in the south, who, in her childhood, saw human figures of "life size" on a paper long since removed. i freely confess that i had never heard of this distinguished general knox and his palatial residence; but a composition from a little girl was shown me, which gives a good idea of the house: the knox mansion. "in the year , general knox sent a party of workmen from boston to build a summer residence on the bank of the georges river. the mansion was much like a french chateau, and was often so called by visitors. "the front entrance faced the river. the first story was of brick, and contained the servants' hall, etc. the second floor had nine rooms, the principal of which was the oval room, into which the main entrance opened. there were two large windows on either side of the door, and on opposite sides were two immense fire-places. this room was used as a picture gallery, and contained many ancient portraits. it had also a remarkable clock. it was high, and the case was of solid mahogany. the top rose in three points and each point had a brass ball on the top. the face, instead of the usual roman numbers, had the arabic , , , etc. there were two small dials. on each side of the case were little windows, showing the machinery. between the two windows on one side of the room was a magnificent mahogany book-case, elaborately trimmed with solid silver, which had belonged to louis xiv. and was twelve feet long. "the mansion measured ninety feet across, and had on either side of the oval room two large drawing-rooms, each thirty feet long. there were twenty-eight fire-places in the house. back of the western drawing-room was a library. this was furnished with beautiful books of every description, a large number being french. on the other side was a large china closet. one set of china was presented to general knox by the cincinnati society. the ceiling was so high that it was necessary to use a step-ladder to reach the china from the higher shelves. back of the oval room was a passage with a flight of stairs on each side, which met at the top. above, the oval room was divided into two dressing-rooms. the bedsteads were all solid mahogany, with silk and damask hangings. one room was called the 'gold room,' and everything in it, even the counterpane, was of gold color. the doors were mahogany, and had large brass knobs and brass pieces extending nearly to the centre. the carpets were all woven whole. "the house outside was painted white, with green blinds, though every room was furnished with shutters inside. a little in the rear of the mansion extended a number of out-buildings, in the form of a crescent, beginning with the stable on one side, and ending with the cook house on the other. general knox kept twenty saddle horses and a number of pairs of carriage horses. once there was a gateway, surmounted by the american eagle, leading into what is now knox street. 'montpelier,' as it was called, had many distinguished visitors every summer." i noticed in a recent paper the report of an old-time game supper, participated in by ninety prominent sportsmen at thomaston, maine, following the custom inaugurated by general knox for the entertainment of french guests. it was through hearing of the knox house that i learned of a "death room." there was one over the eastern dining-room. these depressing rooms had but one window, and the paper was dark and gloomy--white, with black figures, and a deep mourning frieze. benches were ranged stiffly around the sides, and there were drawers filled with the necessities for preparing a body for burial. linen and a bottle of "camphire" were never forgotten. there the dead lay till the funeral. i can shiver over the intense gruesomeness of it. how poe or hawthorne could have let his inspired imagination work up the possibilities of such a room! a skeleton at the feast is a slight deterrent from undue gaiety, compared with this ever-ready, sunless apartment. this reminds me that i read the other day of a "deadly-lively" old lady, who, having taken a flat in the suburban depths of hammersmith, england, stipulated before signing her lease that the landlord should put black wall-paper on the walls of every room except the kitchen. possibly she had a secret sorrow which she wished to express in this melodramatic fashion. but why except the culinary department? we have been hearing a good deal lately about the effect of color on the nerves and temperament generally. a grim, undertaker-like tone of this kind would no doubt induce a desired melancholy, and if extended to the region of the kitchen range, might have furthered the general effect by ruining the digestion. a writer in a recent number of the _decorator's and painter's magazine_, london, says: "an interview has just taken place with a 'a well-known wall-paper manufacturer,' who, in the course of his remarks, informed the representative of the _morning comet_ that black wall-papers were now all the rage. 'you would be surprised,' he said, 'how little these papers really detract from the lightness of a room, the glossiness of their surface compensating almost for the darkness of their shade;' and upon this score there would seem to be no reason why a good pitch paper should not serve as an artistic decorative covering for the walls of a drawing-room or a 'dainty' boudoir. "it has been generally accepted that highly-glazed surfaces render wall-papers objectionable to the eye, and that they are therefore only fit for hanging in sculleries, bath-rooms and the like, where sanitary reasons outweigh decorative advantages. very probably the gentleman who recommends black papers for walls would also recommend their use for ceilings, so that all might be _en suite_, and the effect would undoubtedly be added to, were the paintwork also of a deep, lustrous black, whilst--it may be stretching a point, but there is nothing like being consistent and thorough--the windows might at the same time be 'hung' in harmony with walls and ceilings. coffin trestles with elm boards would make an excellent table, and what better cabinets for bric-a-brac (miniature skeletons, petrified death's-head moths, model tombstones and railed vaults, and so on) than shelved coffins set on end? plumes might adorn the mantel-shelf, and weeds and weepers festooned around skulls and crossbones would sufficiently ornament the walls without the aid of pictures, whilst the fragments from some dis-used charnel-house might be deposited in heaps in the corners of the apartment." the old governors often indulged in expensive and unusual wall-papers. the governor gore house at waltham, massachusetts, had three, all of which i had photographed. the gore house, until recently the home of miss walker, is one of the most beautiful in massachusetts, and was an inheritance from her uncle, who came into possession of the property in . before miss walker's death, she suggested that the estate be given to the episcopal church in waltham for a cathedral or a residence for the bishop. the place is known as the governor gore estate, and is named for christopher gore, who was governor of massachusetts in . it covers nearly one hundred and fifty acres of gardens, woodlands and fields. the present mansion was erected in and replaces the one destroyed by fire. the mansion is a distinct pattern of the english country house, such as was built by sir christopher wren, the great eighteenth century architect. it is of brick construction. in the interior many of the original features have been retained, such as the remarkable "bird of paradise" paper in the drawing-room. all the apartments are very high ceiled, spacious and richly furnished. some of governor gore's old pieces of furniture, silver and china are still in use. the badger homestead, in old gilmanton, was the home of colonel william badger, governor of new hampshire in and , and descended from a long line of soldierly, patriotic and popular men. fred myron colby sketched the home of the badgers in the _granite monthly_ for december, : "gov. badger was a tall, stately man, strong, six feet in height, and at some periods of his life weighed nearly three hundred pounds. he was active and stirring his whole life. though a man of few words, he was remarkably genial. he had a strong will, but his large good sense prevented him from being obstinate. he was generous and hospitable, a friend to the poor, a kind neighbor, and a high-souled, honorable christian gentleman. the grand old mansion that he built and lived in has been a goodly residence in its day. despite its somewhat faded majesty, there is an air of dignity about the ancestral abode that is not without its influence upon the visitor. it is a house that accords well with the style of its former lords; you see that it is worthy of the badgers. the grounds about its solitary stateliness are like those of the 'old english gentlemen.' the mansion stands well in from the road; an avenue fourteen rods long and excellently shaded leads to the entrance gate. there is an extensive lawn in front of the house, and a row of ancient elms rise to guard, as it were, the tall building with its hospitable portal in the middle, its large windows, and old, moss-covered roof. the house faces the southwest, is two and a half stories high, and forty-four by thirty-six feet on the ground. "as the door swings open we enter the hall, which is ten by sixteen feet. on the left is the governor's sitting-room, which occupied the southeast corner of the house, showing that gov. badger did not, like hamlet, dread to be too much 'i' the sun.' it is not a large room, only twenty by sixteen feet, yet it looks stately. in this room the governor passed many hours reading and entertaining his guests. in it is the antique rocking-chair that was used by the governor on all occasions. a large fire-place, with brass andirons and fender, is on one side, big enough to take in half a cord of wood at a time. near by it stood a frame on which were heaped sticks of wood, awaiting, i suppose, the first chilly evening. it must be a splendid sight to see those logs blazing, and the firelight dancing on the old pictures and the mirror and the weapons on the walls. "the most noticeable thing in the room is the paper upon the walls. it was bought by the governor purposely for this room, and cost one hundred dollars in gold. it is very thick, almost like strawboard, and is fancifully illustrated with all sorts of pictures--landscapes, marine views, court scenes, and other pageants. it will afford one infinite amusement to study the various figures. on one side is a nautical scene. an old-fashioned galleon, such a one as kidd the pirate would have liked to run afoul of, is being unloaded by a group of negroes. swarthy mariners, clad in the spanish costume of the seventeenth century,--long, sausage-shaped hose, with breeches pinned up like pudding bags and fringed at the bottom, boots with wide, voluminous tops, buff coats with sleeves slashed in front, and broad-brimmed flemish beaver hats, with rich hat-bands and plumes of feathers--are watching the unlading, and an old turk stands near by, complaisant and serene, smoking his pipe. on the opposite wall there is a grand old castle, with towers and spires and battlements. in the foreground is a fountain, and a group of gallants and ladies are promenading the lawn. one lady, lovely and coquettish, leans on the arm of a cavalier, and is seemingly engrossed by his conversation, and yet she slyly holds forth behind her a folded letter in her fair white hand which is being eagerly grasped by another gallant--like a scene from the _decameron_. in the corner a comely maiden in a trim bodice, succinct petticoat and plaided hose, stands below a tall tree, and a young lad among the branches is letting fall a nest of young birds into her extended apron. the expression on the boy's face in the tree and the spirited protest of the mother bird are very graphically portrayed. "the loveliest scene of all is that of a bay sweeping far into the land; boats and ships are upon the tide; on the shore, rising from the very water's edge, is a fairy-like, palatial structure, with machicolated battlements, that reminds one of the enchanted castle of armida. under the castle walls is assembled a gay company. a cavalier, after the vandyke style, is playing with might and main upon a guitar, and a graceful, full-bosomed, lithe-limbed dulcinea is dancing to the music in company with a gaily dressed gallant. it is the spanish fandango. another scene is a charming land and water view with no prominent figures in it. "upon the mantel are several curiosities, notably a fragment of the rock on which rev. samuel hidden was ordained at tamworth, september , , several silhouettes of the various members of the badger family, and the silver candlesticks, tray and snuffers used by mrs. governor badger. suspended above, upon the wall, are a pair of horse pistols, a dress sword and a pair of spurs. these were the governor's, which were used by him in the war of , and also when he was sheriff of the county. the sword has quite a romantic history. it was formerly general joseph badger's, who obtained it in the following manner: when a lieutenant in the army, near crown point and lake champlain, just after the retreat from canada, in , badger undertook, at the desire of general gates, to obtain a british prisoner. with three picked men he started for the british camp at st. john's. arriving in the neighborhood, he found a large number of the officers enjoying themselves at a ball given by the villagers. one of the britons, in full ball dress, they were fortunate enough to secure, and took him to their boat. badger then changed clothes with the officer, returned to the ball, danced with the ladies, hobnobbed with the officers, and gained much valuable information as to the movements of the british army. before morning light he returned in safety with his prisoner to crown point, where he received the commendations of the commanding general for his bravery. the officer's sword he always kept, and is the same weapon that now hangs on the wall." mrs. joseph badger, whose husband was the oldest son of governor william badger (both, alas! now dead), wrote most kindly to me about the wall-paper, and sent me a picture of it. and she said: "the homestead was built in by ex-gov. william badger, and the paper you inquire about was hung that year. he was at portsmouth, n. h., attending court, and seeing this paper in a store, liked it very much, and ordered enough to paper the sitting-room, costing fifty dollars. he did not have enough money with him to pay for it, but they allowed him to take it home, and he sent the money back by the stage driver, who laid it down on the seat where he drove, and the wind blew it away, never to be found, so he had to pay fifty dollars more; at least, so says tradition. the paper is quite a dark brown, and is in a good state of preservation and looks as though it might last one hundred years longer." in a valuable book, entitled _some colonial mansions and those who lived in them_, edited by thomas allen glennand, and published in , is a picture of the wall-paper at the manor house, on page of volume i, in the chapter which relates to the patroonship of the van rensselaers and the magnificent mansion. this was built in , commenced and finished (except the modern wings) by stephen van rensselaer, whose wife was the daughter of philip livingston, a signer of the declaration of independence. "seldom has a house a more splendid history, or romantic origin, than this relic of feudal splendor and colonial hospitality. the house is approached from the lodge-gate through an avenue shaded by rows of ancient trees. the entrance hall is thirty-three feet wide, and is decorated with the identical paper brought from holland at the time the house was built, having the appearance of old fresco-painting." the picture which follows this description is too small to be satisfactorily studied without a magnifying glass, but the paper must be impressive as a whole. imposing pillars on the left, perhaps all that remains of a grand castle; in front of them large blocks of stone with sculptured men and horses; at the right of these a pensive, elegant creature of the sterner sex gazing at a mammoth lion couchant on a square pedestal. beyond the lion, a picturesque pagoda on a high rock, and five more human figures, evidently put in to add to the interest of the foreground. this square is surrounded with a pretty wreath, bedecked with flowers, birds and shells. on either side of the hall were apartments some thirty feet wide; the great drawing-rooms, the state bed-room and the spacious library, in which the bookcases of highly polished wood occupied at least seventy feet of wall-space. all of the ceilings are lofty, and fine old wood carvings abounded on every side. mr. william bayard van rensselaer of albany still possesses the handsome paper taken from one of these rooms, with four large scenes representing the seasons. the house was demolished only a few years ago. i notice that almost all these mansions had walls of wood, either plain or paneled in broad or narrow panels, and simply painted with oil-paint of pure white or a cream yellow; and a southern gentleman, whose ancestors lived in one of these historic homes, tells me that the southern matrons were great housekeepers, and these white wood walls were thoroughly scrubbed at least three times yearly, from top to bottom. in part ii of the history of the carters of virginia, we read that the duties of robert carter as councillor brought him to williamsburg for a part of the year, and in he moved, with his family, from "nomini hall" to the little virginia capital, where he lived for eleven years. we know, from the invoices sent to london, how the councillor's home in the city was furnished. the first parlor was bright with crimson-colored paper; the second had hangings ornamented by large green leaves on a white ground; and the third, the best parlor, was decorated with a finer grade of paper, the ground blue, with large yellow flowers. a mirror was to be four feet by six and a half, "the glass to be in many pieces, agreeable to the present fashion," and there were marble hearth-slabs, wrought-brass sconces and glass globes for candles, wilton carpets and other luxuries. the mantels and wainscoting were especially fine. the paper on the hall of martin van buren's home at kinderhook, new york, is said to have been interesting; but the present owners have destroyed it, being much annoyed by sightseers. in the reception room of the manor house of charles carroll, of carrollton, maryland, and in the state chamber, where washington slept (a frequent and welcome guest at doughoregan manor) were papers, both with small floral patterns. in new york and albany paper-hanging was an important business by and the walls of the better houses were papered before the middle of the century. but in the average house the walls were not papered in . a swedish visitor says of the new york houses at that time, "the walls were whitewashed within, and i did not anywhere see hangings, with which the people in this country seem in general to be little acquainted. the walls were quite covered with all sorts of drawings and pictures in small frames." v notes from here and there [illustration] v notes from here and there the wall-papers of a century ago did have distinct ideas and earnest meaning; a decided theme, perhaps taken from mythology, as the story of cupid and psyche, on one of the most artistic of the early panelled papers, to print which we read that fifteen hundred blocks were used. there were twelve panels, each one showing a scene from the experiences of the "soul maiden." you remember that venus, in a fit of jealousy, ordered cupid to inspire psyche with a love for the most contemptible of all men, but cupid was so stricken with her beauty that he himself fell in love with her. he accordingly conveyed her to a charming spot and gave her a beautiful palace where, unseen and unknown, he visited her every night, leaving her as soon as the day began to dawn. curiosity destroyed her happiness, for her envious sisters made her believe that in the darkness of night she was embracing some hideous monster. so once, when cupid was asleep, she drew near to him with a lamp and, to her amazement, beheld the most handsome of the gods. in her excitement of joy and fear, a drop of hot oil fell from her lamp upon his shoulder. this awoke cupid, who censured her for her distrust and escaped. then came long tribulations and abuse from venus, until at last she became immortal, and was united to her lover forever. as you know, psyche represents the human soul, purified by passions and misfortunes and thus prepared for the enjoyment of true and pure happiness. from this accident, ella fuller maitland has drawn for us-- a special pleader "how i hate lamps," bethia frowning cried, (our poverty electric light denied.) and when to ask her reason i went on, promptly she answered thus my question: "by lamplight was it that poor psyche gazed upon her lover, and with joy amazed dropped from the horrid thing a little oil-- costing herself, so, years of pain and toil: had she electric light within her room, she might have seen love, yet escaped her doom." another mythologic story is grandly depicted in a paper in the residence of dr. john lovett morse, at taunton, mass. (plates lxv to lxx.) this paper was described to me as illustrating the fifth book of virgil's _Ã�neid_. when the handsome photographs came, we tried to verify them. but a reading of the entire _Ã�neid_ failed to identify any of them, except that the one shown in plate lxix might be intended to represent the trojan women burning the ships of Ã�neas. who were the two personages leaping from the cliff? virgil did not mention them. a paper in _country life in america_ for april, , describing the "hermitage," andrew jackson's home near nashville, tennessee, spoke of the "unique" paper on the lower hall, depicting the adventures of ulysses on the island of calypso. the illustration showed the same scenes that we had been hunting for in virgil. the caption stated that it "was imported from paris by jackson. it pictures the story of ulysses at the island of calypso. there are four scenes, and in the last calypso's maidens burn the boat of ulysses." so we turned to the _odyssey_. there again we were disappointed. nobody jumps off cliffs in the _odyssey_, ulysses' boat is not burned, neither does cupid, who appeared in every photograph, figure in the scenes between ulysses and calypso. next we took to the mythologies; and in one we found a reference to fenelon's _adventures of telemachus_, which sends telemachus and mentor to calypso's island in search of ulysses, and describes their escape from the goddess's isles and wiles by leaping into the sea and swimming to a vessel anchored near. here at last were our two cliff jumpers! and in long-forgotten _telemachus_ was found every scene depicted on the walls. it is a strange commentary on the intellectual indolence of the average human mind, that these two remarkable sets of paper should so completely have lost their identity, and that the misnomers given them by some forgetful inhabitant should in each case have been accepted without question by those who came after him. other owners of this paper have known what the scenes really were; for i have had "telemachus paper" reported, from kennebunk, maine, and from the home of mr. henry dewitt freeland at sutton, massachusetts. the paper is evidently of french origin, and is mentioned as a parisian novelty by one of balzac's characters in _the celibates_, the scene of which was laid about . in the freeland house at sutton, there are also some scenes from napoleon's campaign in egypt. an inscription reads, "le mars, , , francais commandu par le brave kleber ont vancu , turcs, dans le plaines de l'heliopili." among the historical papers, we have "mourning at the tomb of washington," and lord cornwallis presenting his sword to washington. the former was a melancholy repetition of columns and arches, each framing a monument labelled "sacred to washington," surmounted by an urn and disconsolate eagle, and supported on either side by liberty and justice mourning. crossed arms and flags in the foreground, and a circular iron fence about the monument completed the picture, which was repeated in straight rows, making with its somber gray and black the most funereal hall and stairway imaginable. papers representing places with truthful details were numerous and popular, as "the bay of naples," "the alhambra," "gallipoli," "on the bosporus." a striking paper represents the river seine at paris. this paper has a brilliant coloring and the scenes are carried entirely round the room; nearly all the principal buildings in paris are seen. on one side of the room you will notice the column vendôme, which shows that the paper was made after . the horses in the arch of the carousel are still in place. as these were sent back to venice in , the paper must have been made between these dates. on the walls of a house in federal street, which was once occupied by h. k. oliver, who wrote the hymn called "federal street," is the river seine paper with important public buildings of paris along its bank; several other houses have this same paper, and half a dozen duplicates have been sent me from various parts of new england. i have heard of a paper at sag harbor, long island, in which old new york scenes were pictured, but of this i have not been fortunate enough to secure photographs. certain towns and their neighborhoods are particularly rich in interesting old papers, and salem, massachusetts, certainly deserves honorable mention at the head of the list. that place can show more than a score of very old papers in perfect condition to-day, and several houses have modern paper on the walls that was copied from the original paper. one old house there was formerly owned by a retired merchant, and he had the entire ceiling of the large cupola painted to show his wharves and his ships that sailed from this port for foreign lands. another fine house has a water color painting on the walls, done to look like paper; this is one hundred and seventy-five years old. a curious paper is supposed to be an attempt to honor the first railroad. this is in bright colors, with lower panels in common gray tints. the friend who obtained this for me suggests that the artist did not know how to draw a train of cars, and so filled up the space ingeniously with a big bowlder. this is on the walls of a modest little house, and one wonders that an expensive landscape paper should be on the room. but the owner of the house was an expressman and was long employed by salemites to carry valuable bundles back and forth from boston. a wealthy man who resided in chestnut street was having his house papered during the rage for landscape papers, and this person carried the papers down from boston so carefully that the gentleman presented him with a landscape paper of his own, as a reward for his interest. now the mansion has long since parted with its foreign landscapes, but such care was taken of the humble parlor that its paper is still intact and handsome; it is more than seventy-five years old. a fine french paper shows a fruit garden, probably the tuileries, in grays and blues. the frieze at the top is of white flowers in arches with blue sky between the arches. this room was papered for mrs. story, the mother of judge story, in . in the osgood house in essex street there is a most beautiful paper, imported from antwerp in the early part of the nineteenth century, depicting a hunting scene. the hunt is centered about the hall and the game is run down and slain in the last sheet. a balustrade is at the foot of the picture. the color is brown sepia shades. one neat little house, in an out-of-the-way corner in marblehead, has a french paper in gray, white and black, which was brought from france by a marblehead man who was captured by a french privateer and lived in france many years. when he returned, he brought this with him. it shows scenes in the life of the french soldiers. they are drinking at inns, flirting with pretty girls, but never fighting. another paper has tropical plants, elephants, natives adorned with little else but feathers and beads. the careful mother will not allow any of the children to go alone into this room for fear they may injure it. in a chinese paper, one piece represents a funeral, and the horse with its trappings is being led along without a rider; women and children are gazing at the procession from pagodas. on the walls of the johnson house in north andover is a marie antoinette paper, imported from england. i have heard of only this one example of this subject. a number of homes had painted walls, with pictures that imitated the imported landscapes. at the art museum, boston, one may see many specimens of old paper brought to this country before , and up to . a spirited scene is deer stalking in the scotch highlands; the deer is seen in the distance, one sportsman on his knees taking aim, another holding back an excited dog. in another hunting paper, the riders are leaping fences. a pretty italian paper has peasants dancing and gathering grapes; vines are trained over a pergola, and a border of purple grapes and green leaves surrounds each section of the paper. a curious one is "little inns," with signs over the doors, as "good ale sold here," or "traveler's rest"; all are dancing or drinking, the colors are gay. there are also specimens of fireboards, for which special patterns were made, usually quite ornate and striking. when a daughter of sir william pepperell married nathaniel sparhawk, he had a paper specially made, with the fair lady and her happy lover as the principal figures, and a hawk sitting on a spar. this paper is still to be seen in the sparhawk house at kittery point, maine. portsmouth is rich in treasures, but a member of one of the best families there tells me it is very hard to get access to these mansions. curiosity seekers have committed so many atrocities, in the way of stealing souvenirs, that visitors are looked upon with suspicion. a house built in at sackett's harbor, new york, has a contemporary paper with scenes which are chinese in character, but the buildings have tall flag staffs which seem to be east indian. near hoosic falls, new york, there used to be a house whose paper showed captain cook's adventures. the scenes were in oval medallions, surrounded and connected by foliage. different events of the captain's life were pictured, including the cannibals' feast, of which he was the involuntary central figure. this paper has been destroyed, and i have sought in vain for photographs of it. but i have seen some chintz of the same pattern, in the possession of miss edith morgan of aurora, new york, which was saved from her grandfather's house at albany when it was burned in . so the paper is undoubtedly of the eighteenth century. think of a nervous invalid being obliged to gaze, day after day, upon the savages gnawing human joints and gluttonizing over a fat sirloin! the adventures of robinson crusoe were depicted on several houses, and even mother goose was immortalized in the same way. the managers of a "retreat" for the harmlessly insane were obliged first to veil with lace a figure paper, and finally to remove it from the walls, it was so exciting and annoying to the occupants of the room. this recalls the weird and distressing story by elia w. peattie, _the yellow wall-paper_. its fantastic designs drove a poor wife to suicide. ugh! i can see her now, crawling around the room which was her prison. i advise any one, who is blessed or cursed with a lively imagination, to study a paper closely several times before purchasing, lest some demon with a malignant grin, or a black cat, or some equally exasperating face or design escape notice until too late. i once had a new paper removed because the innocent looking pattern, in time of sleepless anxiety, developed a savage's face with staring eyes, a flat nose, the grossest lips half open, the tongue protruding, and large round ear-rings in ears that looked like horns! this, repeated all round my sick room, was unendurable. but the old time papers are almost uniformly inspiring or amusing. what i most enjoy are my two papers which used to cover the huge band-boxes of two ancient dames, in which they kept their leghorn pokes, calashes, and quilted "pumpkin" hoods. one has a ground of colonial yellow, on which is a stage-coach drawn by prancing steeds, driver on the top, whip in hand, and two passengers seen at the windows. a tavern with a rude swinging sign is in the background. the cover has a tropical scene--two arabs with a giraffe. the other band-box has a fire engine and members of the "hose company," or whatever they called themselves, fighting a fire. papers with biblical themes were quite common. in the fascinating biography of mrs. elizabeth cady stanton, i find a detailed account of one. she says: "when we reached schenectady, the first city we children had ever seen, we stopped to dine at the old 'given's hotel,' where we broke loose from all the moorings of propriety on beholding the paper on the dining-room wall illustrating, in brilliant colors, some of the great events in sacred history. there were the patriarchs with flowing beards and in gorgeous attire; abraham, offering up isaac; joseph, with his coat of many colors, thrown into a pit by his brethren; noah's ark on an ocean of waters; pharaoh and his host in the red sea; rebecca at the well; and moses in the bulrushes. "all these distinguished personages were familiar to us, and to see them here for the first time in living colors made silence and eating impossible. we dashed around the room, calling to each other: 'o, kate, look here!' 'o, madge, look there!' 'see little moses!' 'see the angels on jacob's ladder!' "our exclamations could not be kept within bounds. the guests were amused beyond description, while my mother and elder sisters were equally mortified; but mr. bayard, who appreciated our childish surprise and delight, smiled and said: 'i'll take them around and show them the pictures, and then they will be able to dine,' which we finally did." inns often indulge in striking papers. a famous series of hunting scenes, called "the eldorado," is now seen in several large hotels; it has recently been put on in the parker house, boston. it was the joint work of two alsatian artists, ehrmann and zipelius, and was printed from about two thousand blocks. the zuber family in alsace has manufactured this spirited panel paper for over fifty years; it has proved as profitable as a gold mine and is constantly called for; i was shown a photograph of the descendants of the owner and a large crowd of workmen gathered to celebrate the hundredth anniversary of the firm, which was established in . an old inn at groton, massachusetts, was mentioned as having curious papers, but they proved to be modern. the walls, i hear, were originally painted with landscapes. this was an earlier style than scenic papers--akin to frescoing. a friend writes me: "the odd papers now on the walls of groton inn have the appearance of being ancient, although the oldest is but thirty years old. two of them are not even reproductions, as the one in the hall depicts the paris exposition of , and that in the office gives scenes from the life of buffalo bill. "the exposition has the principal buildings in the background, with a fountain, and a long flight of steps in front leading to a street that curves round until it meets the same scene again. persons of many nations, in characteristic dress, promenade the street. pagodas and other unique buildings are dotted here and there. the entire scene is surrounded with a kind of frame of grasses and leaves, in somewhat of a louis quinze shape. each one of these scenes has 'paris exposition, ,' printed on it, like a quack advertisement on a rock. "the wild west scenes include the log cabin, the stage coach held up, the wild riding, and the throwing of the lasso. "the paper on the dining-room may be a reproduction. it looks like holland, although there are no windmills. but the canal is there with boats and horses, other horses drinking, and men fishing; also a dutchy house with a bench outside the door. this paper looks as if it had been put on the walls a hundred years ago, but in reality it is the most recent of the three. the date of the beginning of the inn itself is lost in the dim past, but we know it is more than two hundred years old. tradition has it that there were originally but two rooms which were occupied by the minister." when some one writes on our early inns, as has been done so charmingly for those of england, i prophecy that the queer papers of the long ago will receive enthusiastic attention. towns near a port, or an island like nantucket, are sure to have fine old papers to show. a nantucket woman, visiting the art museum in boston some dozen years since, noticed an old paper there which was highly valued. remembering that she had a roll of the very same style in her attic, she went home delighted, and proudly exhibited her specimen, which was, i believe, the motive power which started the nantucket historical society. i was presented with a piece of the paper--a hand-painted design with two alternating pictures; an imposing castle embowered in greenery, its towers and spires stretching far into the sky, and below, an ornate bridge, with a score of steps at the left, and below that the pale blue water. engrossed lovers and flirtatious couples are not absent. "a peep at the moon" comes from nantucket. it reveals fully as much as our life-long students of that dead planet have been able to show us, and the inhabitants are as probable as any described as existing on mars. at duxbury, massachusetts, there are still two much-talked-of papers, in what is called the "weston house"--now occupied by the powder point school. mrs. ezra weston was a bradford, and the story is that this paper was brought from paris by her brother, captain gershom bradford. there is a continuous scene around the room, apparently from the environs of paris. upstairs, a small room is papered with the remains of the "pizarro" paper, which was formerly in the sitting-room opposite the parlor. this has tropical settings and shows the same characters in more or less distinct scenes about the wall. the paper was so strong that it was taken off the sitting-room in complete strips and is now on a small upper chamber. a stranger, who had heard of my collection, sent a beautiful photograph with this glowing description: "this wall-paper looks oriental; it is gilt. arabs are leading camels, while horses are prancing proudly with their masters in the saddle as the crescent moon is fast sinking to rest in a cloudless sky. fountains are playing outside of the portal entrance to a building of saracenic architecture, a quiet, restful scene, decidedly rich and impressive." thomas bailey aldrich, in his _story of a bad boy_, describes his grandfather's old home--the nutter house at rivermouth, he calls it, but he doubtless has in mind some house at portsmouth, his birthplace. "on each side of the hall are doors (whose knobs, it must be confessed, do not turn very easily), opening into large rooms wainscoted and rich in wood-carvings about the mantel-pieces and cornices. the walls are covered with pictured paper, representing landscapes and sea-views. in the parlor, for example, this enlivening group is repeated all over the room:--a group of english peasants, wearing italian hats, are dancing on a lawn that abruptly resolves itself into a sea-beach, upon which stands a flabby fisherman (nationality unknown), quietly hauling in what appears to be a small whale, and totally regardless of the dreadful naval combat going on just beyond the end of his fishing-rod. on the other side of the ships is the main-land again, with the same peasants dancing. our ancestors were very worthy people, but their wall-papers were abominable." with the paper on the little hall chamber which was the bad boy's own, he was quite satisfied, as any healthy-minded boy should have been: "i had never had a chamber all to myself before, and this one, about twice the size of our state-room on board the typhoon, was a marvel of neatness and comfort. pretty chintz curtains hung at the window, and a patch quilt of more colors than were in joseph's coat covered the little truckle-bed. the pattern of the wall-paper left nothing to be desired in that line. on a gray background were small bunches of leaves, unlike any that ever grew in this world; and on every other bunch perched a yellow-bird, pitted with crimson spots, as if it had just recovered from a severe attack of the small-pox. that no such bird ever existed did not detract from my admiration of each one. there were two hundred and sixty-eight of these birds in all, not counting those split in two where the paper was badly joined. i counted them once when i was laid up with a fine black eye, and falling asleep immediately dreamed that the whole flock suddenly took wing and flew out of the window. from that time i was never able to regard them as merely inanimate objects." one of the most spirited papers i have seen is a series of horse-racing scenes which once adorned the walls of the eccentric timothy dexter. fragments of this paper are still preserved, framed, by mr. t. e. proctor of topsfield, mass. the drawing makes up in spirit what it lacks in accuracy, and the coloring leaves nothing to the imagination. the grass and sky are as green and blue as grass and sky can be, and the jockeys' colors could be distinguished from the most distant grand-stand. this paper is a memento of the remarkable house of a remarkable man--timothy dexter, an eighteenth century leather merchant of massachusetts, whose earnings, invested through advice conveyed to him in dreams, brought him a fortune. with this he was able to gratify his unique tastes in material luxuries. his house at newburyport was filled with preposterous french furniture and second-rate paintings. on the roof were minarets decorated with a profusion of gold balls. in front of the house he placed rows of columns, some fifteen feet in height, surmounted by heroic wooden figures of famous men. as his taste in great men changed he would have the attire and features of some statue modified, so that general morgan might one day find himself posing as bonaparte. on a roman circle before the entrance stood his permanent hero, washington, supported on the left by jefferson, on the right by adams, who was obliged to stand uncovered in all weathers, to suit timothy's ideas of the respect due to general washington. four roaring wooden lions guarded this pantheon, and the figures were still standing when the great gale of visited newburyport. then the majority fell. the rest were sold for a song, and were scattered, serving as weather vanes and tavern signs. timothy dexter wrote one book, which is now deservedly rare. this was _a pickle for the knowing ones_, of which he published at least two editions. in this book he spoke his mind on all subjects; his biographer, samuel l. knapp, calls it "a galamathus of all the saws, shreds, and patches that ever entered the head of a motley fool, with items of his own history and family difficulties." his vanity, literary style and orthography may be seen in his assertion: "ime the first lord in the younited states of amercary, now of newburyport. it is the voice of the peopel and i cant help it." to the second edition of his _pickle_ he appended this paragraph: "mister printer the knowing ones complane of my book the first edition had no stops i put in a nuf here and they may peper and solt it as they plese." a collection of quotation marks, or "stops" followed. "lord dexter," as he called himself and was called by one jonathan plummer, a parasitic versifier who chanted doggerel in his praise, was a picturesque character enough, and we are glad to have his memory kept green by these few remaining bits of paper from his walls. [illustration] vi revival and restoration of old papers [illustration] vi revival and restoration of old papers it was in that clarence cook said: "one can hardly estimate the courage it would take to own that one liked an old-fashioned paper." how strange that sounds now, in , when all the best manufacturers and sellers of wall-papers are reproducing the very old designs, for which they find a ready sale among the most fastidious searchers for the beautiful. one noted importer writes me: "yes, old time wall-papers are being revived, and no concern is taking more interest in the matter than ourselves. many old designs, which had not been printed for thirty or forty years, have been taken up by us and done in colors to suit the taste of the period, and we find that few of the new drawings excel or even approach the old ones in interest. "the glazed chintzes of the present day are all done over old blocks which had remained unused for half a century, and those very interesting fabrics are in the original colorings, it having been found that any new schemes of color do not seem to work so well." sending recently to a leading boston paper store for samples for my dining-room, and expressing no desire for old patterns, i received a reproduction of the paper on the hall of the old longfellow house at portland, maine, and a design of small medallions of the real antique kind,--a shepherdess with her sheep and, at a little distance, a stiff looking cottage, presumably her abode, set on a shiny white ground marked with tiny tiles. in fact, there is a general revival of these old designs, the original blocks often being used for re-printing. go to any large store in any city to-day, where wall-papers are sold, and chintzes and cretonnes for the finest effects in upholstery. you will be shown, first, old-fashioned landscape papers; botanically impossible, but cheerful baskets of fruits and flowers; or panels, with a pretty rococo effect of fairy-like garlands of roses swung back and forth across the openwork of the frame at each side, and suspended in garlands at top and bottom after french modes of the louis xiv., xv. or xvi. periods. they are even reproducing the hand woven tapestries of gobelin of paris, during the latter part of the reign of louis xiv., when french art was at its height. in london _tit-bits_, i recently found something apropos: "'here,' said a wall-paper manufacturer, 'are examples of what we call tapestry papers. they are copied exactly from the finest smyrna and turkish rugs, the colors and designs being reproduced with startling fidelity. we have men ransacking all europe, copying paintings and mural decorations of past centuries. here is the pattern of a very beautiful design of the time of louis xvi., which we obtained in rather a curious way. one of our customers happened to be in paris last summer, and being fond of inspecting old mansions, he one day entered a tumble-down chateau, which once belonged to a now dead and long forgotten marquise. the rooms were absolutely in a decaying condition, but in the salon the wall-paper still hung, though in ribbons. the pattern was so exquisite in design, and the coloring, vivid still in many places, so harmonious, that he collected as many portions as he could and sent them to us to reproduce as perfectly as possible. "we succeeded beyond his best hopes, and the actual paper is now hanging on the walls of a west end mansion. we only manufactured sufficient to cover the ball-room, and it cost him two pounds a yard, but he never grumbled, and it was not dear, considering the difficulty we had." an article in the _artist_ of london, september, , by lindsay p. butterfield, describes a wonderful find of old paper and its restoration: "painted decoration, whether by hand or stencil, was, no doubt, the immediate forerunner of paper hangings. the earliest reference to paper hangings in this country is to be found in the inventory taken at 'the monasterye of s. syxborough in the ile of shepey, in the countie of kent, by syr thomas cheney, syr william hawle, knyghts and antony slewtheger, esquyer, the xxvii day of marche, in xxvii the yeare of our soveraigne lorde, kyng henrye the viii, of the goods and catall belongyng to sayde monastery.' "in this very interesting document, a minutely descriptive list of the ornaments, furniture and fittings of the nuns' chambers is given. we find from this that, in place of the 'paynted clothes for the hangings of the chamber,' mentioned in most of the entries, under the heading of dame margaret somebody's chamber is set down 'the chamber hangings of painted papers.' "wall-papers of charles ii.'s reign, and later, are still in existence; those at ightham mote, kent, are well known instances. "but so far as the writer is aware, the accompanying reproductions represent the oldest wall-papers now existing in england. they were found during the restoration of a fifteenth century timber-built house, known as 'borden hall' or the 'parsonage farm,' in the village of borden, near sittingbourne, kent. "the design marked 'a' was discovered in small fragments when the georgian battening and wainscoats were removed in the first floor bed-room of the east front, in the oldest part of the house. these fragments showed that the tough paper had been originally nailed with flat-headed nails to the dried clay 'daubing' or plaster, with which the spaces between the timber uprights of the walls were filled in; the timbers themselves were painted a dark blue-grey, and a border of the same framed the strips of wall-paper. owing to the walls having been battened out nearly two centuries ago, these fragments of a really striking design have been preserved to us. "the design of 'b' was also found on the first floor, in the rear portion of the house. it had been pasted, in the modern manner, onto a large plaster surface. the walls on which it was found had been re-plastered over the original plastering and paper and thus the latter was preserved in perfect condition. the design and quality of the paper, and the mode of its attachment, point to a date of about . 'a' is probably of an earlier date (say - ) and is very thick and tough. the ornament is painted in black on a rich vermilion ground, and the flower forms are picked out in a bright turquoise blue. 'b' is much more modern looking, both in texture and design, and in both is very inferior to 'a.' "its coloring is meagre compared with the other, the ornament being printed in black on white paper, and the flower forms roughly dabbed with vermilion. the character of the design in both cases seems referable to indian influence; possibly they were the work of an indian artist, and were cut as blocks for cotton printing, an impression being taken off on paper and hung on the walls. the house is in course of restoration under the superintendence of mr. philip m. johnston, architect, to whom i am indebted for some of the particulars above given. to the owner of borden hall, lewis levy, esq., i am also indebted for permission to publish the designs which i have reproduced in fac-simile from the original fragments. it is hoped shortly to hang the walls in the old manner with the reproduced papers." i have copied from an edition of _rambles about portsmouth_, a strange story of the restoration of frescoes in the old warner house at portsmouth, new hampshire: "at the head of the stairs, on the broad space each side of the hall windows, there are pictures of two indians, life size, highly decorated and executed by a skillful artist. these pictures have always been on view there, and are supposed to represent some indian with whom the original owner traded in furs, in which business he was engaged. in the lower hall of the house are still displayed the enormous antlers of an elk, a gift from these red men. "not long since, the spacious front entry underwent repairs; there had accumulated four coatings of paper. in one place, on removing the under coating, the picture of a horse was discovered by a little girl. this led to further investigation; the horse of life size was developed; a little further work exhumed governor phipps on his charger. the process of clearing the walls was now entered upon in earnest, as if delving in the ruins of pompeii. "the next discovery was that of a lady at a spinning wheel (ladies span in those days!) who seems interrupted in her work by a hawk lighting among the chickens. "then came a scripture scene; abraham offering up isaac; the angel, the ram, and so on. there is a distant city scene, and other sketches on the walls, covering perhaps four or five hundred square feet. the walls have been carefully cleaned, and the whole paintings, evidently the work of some clever artist, are now presented in their original beauty. "no person living had any knowledge of the hidden paintings; they were as novel to an old lady of eighty, who had been familiar with the house from her childhood, as to her grand-daughter who discovered the horse's foot. the rooms are furnished with panelled walls and the old dutch tiles still decorate the fire-place." it is gratifying to note that as these old frescoes and wall-papers are ruthlessly destroyed by those unaware of their value (which will constantly increase), there are those who insist on their preservation and reproduction. president tucker of dartmouth college, for instance, has forbidden the removal of the bay of naples landscape from the walls of what was formerly the library of professor sanborn at hanover, new hampshire. the house is now used as a dormitory, but that paper is treated with decided reverence. reproduction of a fine paper worn, soiled and torn is an expensive matter, but those who realize their beauty order them if the price per roll is six or ten dollars. one of the most delightful papers of the present season is one copied from a french paper originally on the walls of a salem house and known to have been there for over one hundred years. it is charming in design, with landscapes and flowers, twenty-eight different colors in all, and that means much when it is understood that every color must be printed from a different block when the paper is made. the paper is brilliant in effect, with many bright colored flowers, pink hollyhocks in a warm rose shade, purple morning glories, some blue blossoms and two different water scenes set deep into the mass of flowers, the scenes themselves of delicate tones and wonderful perspective. the original paper was in pieces twenty inches wide by twenty-eight long, which shows it to be very old. this reproduction will be seen on the walls in houses of colonial style in newport this summer. yes, summer tourists are looking up old walls to gaze at with admiration. many have found a mecca in the cleasby place at waterford, vermont. hardly a summer sunday passes without a wagon load of persons going from littleton towards the connecticut river on a pilgrimage to waterford and the cleasby house. this house is said to be one of only three in new england which possess a certain wonderful old paper of strange design. the paper, a combination of brown and cream, bears scenes that evidently found their origin in foreign countries, but there are diverse opinions as to the nation whose characteristics are thereon depicted so realistically. an old house at rockville, massachusetts, still boasts this same paper, while the third example is on the walls of the badger homestead, described on page . plates xlviii to l give scenes from these papers. the cleasby house was regarded, in the olden times, as the great mansion in this locality. there was nothing finer than the residence in any of the surrounding towns. the structure was erected by henry oakes, an old-time settler in northern vermont, whose relatives still reside near by. the paper was put on at the time the house was built and cost one hundred dollars. a paper-hanger came up from boston to put it on properly, and this cost the owner an extra forty dollar check. in those days, the coming of a paper-hanger from boston was regarded quite in the light of an event, and a hundred dollars expended for wall-paper stamped a man as a capitalist. the house is still well preserved and shows no suggestion of being a ruin, although approaching the century mark. the present owner has been offered a large sum for this beautiful old paper, but wisely prefers to hold her treasure. paper-hangers to-day are returning, in some cases, to the hand-printing of fine papers, because they insist that there are some advantages in the old method to compensate for the extra work. to go back a bit, the earliest method of coloring paper hangings was by stencilling. a piece of pasteboard, with the pattern cut out on it, was laid on the paper, and water colors were freely applied with a brush to the back of the pasteboard, so that the colors came through the openings and formed the pattern on the paper. this process was repeated several times for the different colors and involved a great expenditure of labor. it was replaced by the method of calico-printing, which is now generally used in the manufacture of wall-paper, that is, by blocks and later by rollers. and why, you naturally ask, this return to the slow and laborious way? mr. rottman, of the london firm of alexander rottman & co., a high authority on this theme, in an able lecture given at his studio in london, explains the reasons in a way so clear that any one can understand. he says: "in an age where needles are threaded by machinery at the rate of nearly one per second; where embroideries are produced by a machine process which reverses the old method in moving the cloth up to fixed needles; where sunlight soap is shaped, cut, boxed, packed into cases, nailed up, labelled, and even sent to the lighters by machinery, so that hand labour is almost entirely superseded; it seems odd and, in fact, quite out of date and uncommercial to print wall-papers entirely by hand process. "the up-to-date wall-paper machine turns out most wonderful productions. it is able to imitate almost any fabric; tapestries, gobelins, laces, and even tries to copy artistic stencilling in gradated tints. it manages to deceive the inartistic buyer to a large extent, in fact, there is hardly any fabric that the modern demand for 'sham' does not expect the wall-paper machine to imitate. "however, in spite of all these so-called achievements, the modest hand-printing table that existed at the time of wigs and snuff-boxes is still surviving more or less in its old-fashioned simple construction. and why is this so?" he then explains why a hand-printed paper is always preferred to a machine paper by the person of taste, whose purse is not too slender. seven reasons are given for their artistic superiority. " . machine papers can be printed in thin colours only, which means a thin, loose colour effect. " . in machine papers the whole of the various colours are printed at one operation, one on the top of another. in hand-printed papers, no colours touch each other until dry, and so each colour remains pure. " . large surfaces, such as big leaves, large flat flowers, broad stripes that have to be printed in one colour, are never successful in machines, wanting solidity of colour. hand-printed papers run no such risk. " . the machine limits the variety of papers to the flat kind; to flat surfaces supplied by the paper mills in reels. " . flaws, irregularities, and so on, when occurring in machine goods, run through many yards, owing to the necessary rapidity of printing, and the difficulty of stopping the machine; whilst every block repeat of pattern in the hand-printed goods is at once visible to the printer, who rectifies any defect before printing another impression, and so controls every yard. " . the hand-printed papers, being printed from wood blocks (only dots and thin lines subject to injury being inserted in brass) show more softness in the printing than papers printed from machine rollers that have to be made in brass. " . the preparation of getting the machine colours in position, and setting the machine ready for printing, necessitates the turning out of at least a ream, or a half ream (five hundred or two hundred and fifty rolls) at once; whilst the equivalent in hand-printing is fifty to sixty rolls. it often happens that the design of a machine paper is approved of, whilst the colourings it is printed in are unsuited to the scheme. by the hand process, room quantities of even ten to fifteen pieces can be printed specially at from per cent. to per cent. advance in price, while the increase in cost for such a small quantity in machine paper would send up the price to ridiculous proportions." the use of brass pins in the wood blocks is also a revival of the old method, as you will see from this interesting paragraph from a recent volume--lewis f. day's _ornament and its application_: "full and crowded pattern has its uses. the comparatively fussy detail, which demeans a fine material, helps to redeem a mean one. "printed wall-paper, for example, or common calico, wants detail to give it a richness which, in itself, it has not. in printed cotton, flat colours look dead and lifeless. the old cotton printers had what they called a 'pruning roller,' a wooden roller (for hand-printing) into which brass pins or wires were driven. the dots printed from this roller relieved the flatness of the printed colours, and gave 'texture' to it. william morris adopted this idea of dotting in his cretonne and wall-paper design with admirable effect. it became, in his hands, an admirable convention, in place of natural shading. the interest of a pattern is enhanced by the occurrence at intervals of appropriate figures; but with every recurrence of the same figure, human or animal, its charm is lessened until, at last, the obvious iteration becomes, in most cases, exasperating. "and yet, in the face of old byzantine, sicilian, and other early woven patterns with their recurring animals, and of mr. crane's consummately ornamental patterns, it cannot be said that repeated animal (and even human) forms do not make satisfactory pattern. "for an illustration of this, look at the wall-paper design by crane: 'this is the house that jack built.' it seems, at first glance, to be a complicated ornamental design; after long searching, you at last see plainly every one of the characters in that jingle that children so love." william morris, and his interest in wall-paper hanging, must be spoken of, "for it was morris who made this a truly valuable branch of domestic ornamentation. if, in some other instances, he was rather the restorer and infuser of fresh life into arts fallen into degeneracy, he was nothing short of a creator in the case of wall-paper design, which, as a serious decorative art, owes its existence to him before anyone else." in his lecture on _the lesser arts of life_, he insisted on the importance of paying due regard to the artistic treatment of our wall spaces. "whatever you have in your rooms, think first of the walls, for they are that which makes your house and home; and, if you don't make some sacrifice in their favor, you will find your chambers have a sort of makeshift, lodging-house look about them, however rich and handsome your movables may be." a collector is always under a spell; hypnotized, bewitched, possibly absurdly engrossed and unduly partial to his own special hobby, and to uninterested spectators, no doubt seems a trifle unbalanced, whether his specialty be the fossilized skeleton of an antediluvian mammoth or a tiny moth in a south american jungle. i am not laboring under the exhilarating but erroneous impression that there is any widespread and absorbing interest in this theme. as the distinguished jurist, mr. adrian h. joline, says, "few there are who cling with affection to the memory of the old fashioned. most of us prefer to spin with the world down the ringing grooves of change, to borrow the shadow of a phrase which has of itself become old-fashioned." yet, as mr. webster said of dartmouth, when he was hard pressed: "it is a little college, but there are those who love it." besides, everything--literature, art and even fashions in dress and decorations,--while seeming to progress really go in waves. we are now wearing the bonnets, gowns and mantles of the style and much earlier. fabulous and fancy prices are gladly given for antique furniture; high boys, low boys, hundred-legged tables, massive four-post bedsteads, banjo clocks, and crystal chandeliers. those able to do it are setting tapestries into their stately walls, hangings of rich brocades and silk are again in vogue and the old designs for wall-paper are being hunted up all through europe and this country. some also adopt a colored wash for their bed-room walls, and cover their halls with burlap or canvas, while the skins of wild animals adorn city dens as well as the mountain lodge or the seaside bungalow. so we have completed the circle. the unco rich of to-day give fabulous sums for crystal candelabra, or museum specimens of drawing room furniture; and collectors, whether experts or amateurs, and beginners just infected with the microbe are searching for hidden treasures of china, silver and glass. why should the old time wall-papers alone be left unchronicled and forgotten? in them the educated in such matters read the progress of the art; some of them are more beautiful than many modern paintings; the same patterns are being admired and brought out; the papers themselves will soon all be removed. hawthorne believed that the furniture of a room was magnetized by those who occupied it; a modern psychologist declares that even a rag doll dearly loved by a child becomes something more than a purely inanimate object. we should certainly honor the wall-papers brought over the seas from various countries at great expense to beautify the homes of our ancestors. [illustration] publisher's note. _the wall-papers reproduced in the following plates were in many cases faded, water-stained and torn, when photographed. many of the photographs are amateur work; some are badly focused and composed, some taken in small rooms and under unfavorable conditions of light. the reader will bear this in mind in judging the papers themselves and the present reproductions._ _plate vii_ _plate viii_ plate vii. the bayeux tapestry. the oldest tapestry now in existence, dating from the time of william the conqueror, and apparently of english workmanship. the set of pieces fits the nave of the cathedral of bayeux, measuring feet long and inches wide. now preserved in the bayeux library. the subjects are drawn from english history; plate vii represents the burial of edward the confessor in the church of st. peter, westminster abbey. plate viii. the bayeux tapestry. king harold listening to news of the preparations of william of orange for the invasion of britain. [illustration] [illustration] _plate ix_ _plate x_ plate ix. borden hall paper. the oldest wall-paper known in england; found in restoring a fifteenth-century timber-built house known as "borden hall," in borden village, kent, near sittingbourne. design "a" was found in the oldest part of the house, and probably dates from the second half of the sixteenth century. the paper is thick and tough, and was nailed to the plaster between uprights. the walls were afterward battened over the paper, and the recovered fragments are in perfect condition. ground color rich vermillion, with flowers in bright turquoise blue, the design in black. plate x. borden hall paper. old english paper, design "b"; found in rear part of house and dates from about . it was pasted to the plaster in the modern manner. printed in black on a white ground, flowers roughly colored vermillion. inferior to "a" in design, coloring, and quality of paper. [illustration] [illustration] _plate xi_ plate xi. early english pictorial paper late eighteenth century hunting scene paper from an old manor house near chester, england. reproduced from a fragment in the collection of mr. edward t. cockcroft of new york city. the pattern is evidently repeated at intervals. [illustration] _plate xii_ plate xii. the cultivation of tea. hand-painted chinese paper, imported about and still in good state of preservation; the property of mr. theodore p. burgess of dedham, mass. the subject is perhaps the oldest theme used in wall-paper decoration in china. [illustration] _plate xiii_ _plate xiv_ plate xiii. the cultivation of tea. paper on another side of room shown in plate xii. plate xiv. the cultivation of tea. third side of same room. the scene continues round the room without repetition. [illustration] [illustration] _plate xv_ _plate xvi_ plate xv. early american fresco. painted river scenes on the best chamber walls of the house of mrs. william allen at westwood, mass. the elm and locust trees and architectural style are plainly american, but the geographical location is uncertain. the colors are very brilliant--red, blue, green, etc. plate xvi. early american fresco. another side of same room, showing conventionalized water fall and bend in the river. [illustration] [illustration] _plate xvii_ _plate xviii_ plate xvii. early american fresco. another view of the painted walls at westwood, mass. the object depicted is neither a whale nor a torpedo-boat, but an island. plate xviii. early american fresco. painted hall and stairway in an old house in high street, salem, mass., attached to the very old bake-shop of pease and price. the frescoes were executed by a frenchman. colors are still quite bright, but a good photograph could not be secured in the small and dimly-lighted hall. [illustration] [illustration] _plate xix_ _plate xx_ plate xix. early stencilled paper. fragments of very old paper from nantucket, r. i. plate xx. a peep at the moon. another quaint stencilled paper found at nantucket, r. i. [illustration] [illustration: a peep at the moon] _plate xxi_ plate xxi. pictured ruins and decorative designs. hall of a homestead at salem, massachusetts, old when gas lights were introduced in salem. the paper was undoubtedly made to fit the stairway and hall. the large picture in the lower hall is repeated at the landing. [illustration] _plate xxii_ plate xxii. hand colored paper with repeated pattern. parlor in the home of mrs. russell jarvis at claremont, new hampshire. the paper is hand-printed on cream ground in snuff-brown color, and is made up of pieces eighteen inches square, showing three alternating pastoral scenes. in the frieze and dado the prevailing color is dark blue. (p. ) [illustration] _plate xxiii_ _plate xxiv_ plate xxiii. scenes from nature in repeated design. parlor of the lindell house at salem, massachusetts. white wainscoting and mantel surmounted by paper in squares, showing four outdoor scenes. the fire-board concealing the unused fire-place is covered with paper and border specially adapted to that purpose. plate xxiv. the alhambra. two scenes from the alhambra palace, repeated in somewhat monotonous rows. still in a good state of preservation on the upper hall of a house at leicester, massachusetts,--one of the sea-port towns rich in foreign novelties brought home by sea captains. [illustration] [illustration] _plate xxv_ _plate xxvi_ plate xxv. cathedral porch and shrine in repeated design. effectively colored paper still on the walls at ware, massachusetts, showing a shrine in the porch of a cathedral; the repeated design being connected with columns, winding stairs and ruins. the blue sky seen through the marble arches contrasts finely with the green foliage. plate xxvi. cathedral porch and shrine, architectural background. paper on a chamber in the mansion of governor gore of massachusetts, at waltham, massachusetts, erected and decorated in . medallion pictures in neutral colors, of a cathedral porch, shrine and mountain view, alternating on a stone-wall ground. [illustration] [illustration] _plate xxvii_ plate xxvii. birds of paradise and peacocks. the drawing-room of the governor gore mansion at waltham, massachusetts, bequeathed by its owner, miss walker, to the episcopal church for the bishop's residence. the paper is still in beautiful condition, printed on brownish cream ground in the natural colors of birds and foliage. (p. ) [illustration] _plate xxviii_ plate xxviii. sacred to washington. memorial paper in black and gray placed on many walls soon after the death of washington. the example photographed was on a hall and stairway. (p. ) [illustration] _plate xxix_ plate xxix. dorothy quincy wedding paper. on the dorothy quincy house on hancock street, at quincy, mass., now the headquarters of the colonial dames of massachusetts. it was imported from paris in honor of the marriage of dorothy quincy and john hancock in , and still hangs on the walls of the large north parlor. venus and cupid are printed in blue, the floral decorations in red. the colors are still unfaded. (p. ) [illustration] _plate xxx_ _plate xxxi_ plate xxx. the pantheon. mounted fragments rescued from the destruction of the dining-room paper which was on the walls of the king's tavern or "waffle tavern" at vernon (now rockville), connecticut, when lafayette was entertained there in . all the characters of roman mythology were pictured in woodland scenes printed in gray and black, on small squares of paper carefully matched. below these ran a band bearing the names of the characters represented; and below this, a grassy green dado dotted with marine pictures. (p. ) plate xxxi. canterbury bells. paper from howe's tavern, at sudbury, massachusetts,--the "wayside inn" of longfellow's tales. the fragment is in poor condition but possesses historic interest, having decorated the room in which lafayette passed the night on his trip through america. (p. ) [illustration] [illustration] _plate xxxii_ _plate xxxiii_ plate xxxii. the first railroad locomotive. paper on an old house in high street, salem, supposed to represent the first railroad. the first trial of locomotives for any purpose other than hauling coal from the mines, took place near rainhill, england, in . the paper may celebrate this contest, at which of three engines was successful. (p. - ) plate xxxiii. high street house paper. scene on opposite side of same room. the subject and figures seem english. the scenes are in colors, the dado in black and grey on white ground. [illustration] [illustration] _plate xxxiv_ _plate xxxv_ plate xxxiv. pizarro in peru. remains of pizarro paper in the ezra weston house now used for the famous powder point school for boys, at duxbury, massachusetts. formerly on sitting-room but now preserved in a small upper room; stained and dim. it was brought from paris by captain gershom bradford, and is supposed to depict scenes in pizarro's invasion of peru in . the same figures are shown in successive scenes, more or less distinct though running into each other. (p. ) plate xxxv. pizarro in peru. another corner of same room. both the paper and photograph are difficult to reproduce. [illustration] [illustration] _plate xxxvi_ _plate xxxvii_ plate xxxvi. tropical scenes. paper from the ham house at peabody, massachusetts, now occupied by dr. worcester. these scenes are quite similar to those of the pizarro paper, and may have been the work of the same designer. plate xxxvii. tropical scenes. ham house paper. another side of room. [illustration] [illustration] _plate xxxviii_ _plate xxxix_ plate xxxviii. on the bosporus. from a house at montpelier, vermont, in which it was hung in , in honor of lafayette who was entertained there. the mosque of santa sophia and other buildings of constantinople are seen in the background. plate xxxix. on the bosporus. opposite side of same room. fishing from caiques on the golden horn before stamboul. [illustration] [illustration] _plate xl_ plate xl. oriental scenes. paper still on the walls of the home of miss janet a. lathrop, at stockport, new york. it was put on the walls in by the sea captain who built the house, and in was cleaned and restored by the present owner. no other example of this paper in america has been heard of, except in an old house at albany in which the mother of miss lathrop was born. in the "chinese room" of a hunting lodge belonging to the king of saxony, at moritzburg, near dresden, is a similar paper or tapestry from which this may have been copied. it is printed in grays which have become brown with age, from engraved blocks, and finished by hand. this is a rare example of the use of rice paper for a wall covering. (p. ) [illustration] _plate xli_ plate xli. oriental scenes. continuation of same paper; apparently a religious procession. [illustration] _plate xlii_ plate xlii. oriental scenes. another section of the lathrop house paper. [illustration] _plate xliii_ plate xliii. oriental scenes. end of room containing three preceding scenes. [illustration] _plate xliv_ plate xliv. early nineteenth century scenic paper. side wall of parlor of mrs. e. c. cowles at deerfield, massachusetts. the house was built in by ebenezer hinsdale, and was re-modelled and re-decorated about the beginning of the nineteenth century. still in good state of preservation. the colors are neutral. [illustration] _plate xlv_ plate xlv. parlor of mrs. cowles' house, end of room. [illustration] _plate xlvi_ _plate xlvii_ plate xlvi. another example of the same paper as that on the cowles house (plates xliv and xlv). this paper was imported from england and hung in , in a modest house at warner, new hampshire,--such a house as seldom indulged in such expensive papers. it is still on the walls, though faded. plate xlvii. at windsor, vermont, two more examples of this paper are still to be seen. one is on the house now occupied by the sabin family. this was built about by the honorable edward r. campbell, and the paper was hung when the house was new. (p. ) [illustration] [illustration] _plate xlviii_ _plate xlix_ plate xlviii. harbor scene. paper found in three houses in new england--the home of mr. wilfred cleasby at waterford, vermont; the governor badger homestead at gilmanton, new hampshire, built in ; and an old house in rockville, massachusetts, built about ninety years ago. the scene fits the four walls of the room without repetition. the design is printed in browns on a cream ground, with a charming effect. the geographical identity of the scenes has never been established. (p. ) plate xlix. the spanish fandango. continuation of same paper; another side of room. [illustration] [illustration] _plate l_ plate l. strolling players. same paper, third view. the set of paper on the cleasby house is said by descendants of the builder, henry oakes, to have cost $ , and $ for its hanging. the similar set on the badger homestead should have cost $ , had not the messenger lost the first payment sent, so that that sum had to be duplicated. this is on a smaller room than at the cleasby house, requiring less paper. (p. - ) [illustration] _plate li_ _plate lii_ plate li. rural scene. paper on the parlor of mr. josiah cloye at ashland, massachusetts, and found also in several other places; colors neutral. plate lii. rural scene. from another example of the same set found at marblehead, massachusetts. [illustration] [illustration] _plate liii_ _plate liv_ plate liii. french boulevard scene. paper from the forrester house at salem, massachusetts, now used as a sanitarium for the insane. since the photographs were taken the paper has been removed as it unduly excited the patients. plate liv. french boulevard scene. same as above. found also in a house at the sea-port town of nantucket. [illustration] [illustration] _plate lv_ plate lv. gateway and fountain. french paper, imported before , but never hung. a few rolls still survive, in the possession of mr. george m. whipple of salem, massachusetts. [illustration] _plate lvi_ plate lvi. scenes from paris. a very popular paper found in federal street, salem, on the parlor of mrs. charles sadler, daughter of henry k. oliver; in the ezra weston house at duxbury, massachusetts, built in ; the walker house at rockville, massachusetts, and several other new england towns. the principal buildings of paris are represented as lining the shore of the seine. the inclusion of the colonne vendôme shows it to have been designed since ; and as the horses on the carousel arch were returned to venice in , the paper probably dates between those years. (p. ) [illustration] _plate lvii_ plate lvii. scenes from paris. another side of room shown in plate lvi. the paper is in pieces by inches. the colors are soft, with green, gray and brown predominating, but with some black, yellow, red, etc. the drawing is good. [illustration] _plate lviii_ plate lviii. bay of naples. this seems to have been the most popular paper of the early nineteenth century. it decorated the room in which the author was born--the library of professor e. d. sanborn of dartmouth college, at hanover, new hampshire,--and is still in place. the house is now used as a dartmouth dormitory. the same scenes are found in the lawrence house, at exeter, new hampshire, now used as a dormitory--dunbay hall--of the phillips exeter academy; on the house of mrs. e. b. mcginley at dudley, massachusetts, and on another at st. johnsbury, vermont, now owned by mrs. emma taylor. (p. , ) [illustration] _plate lix_ plate lix. bay of naples. continuation of same scene. this paper is in neutral colors, and made in small pieces. it was imported about . [illustration] _plate lx_ plate lx. bay of naples. detail. the monument has a greek inscription which professor kittredge of harvard university translates literally: "emperor cæsar, me divine hadrian. column of the emperor antoninus pius"--who was the son of hadrian. the pillar of antonine still stands at rome. the statue of antoninus which formerly surmounted it was removed by pope sextus, who substituted a figure of paul. [illustration] _plate lxi_ _plate lxii_ plate lxi. bay of naples. another side of room. plate lxii. bay of naples. detail: galleon at anchor. [illustration] [illustration] _plate lxiii_ plate lxiii. cupid and psyche. panelled paper in colors, designed by lafitte and executed by dufour in . it consists of twenty-six breadths, each five feet seven inches long by twenty inches wide. it is said that fifteen hundred engraved blocks were used in printing. the design is divided into twelve panels, depicting the marriage of cupid and psyche, psyche's lack of faith and its sad consequences. the scene reproduced shows the visit of the newly-wedded psyche's jealous sisters to her palace, where they persuade her that her unseen husband is no god, but a monster whom she must kill. [illustration] _plate lxiv_ plate lxiv. cupid and psyche. while cupid lies sleeping in the darkness, psyche takes her dagger, lights her lamp, and bends over the unconscious god: * * * there before her lay the very love brighter than dawn of day; * * * * * o then, indeed, her faint heart swelled for love, and she began to sob, and tears fell fast upon the bed.--but as she turned at last to quench the lamp, there happed a little thing, that quenched her new delight, for flickering the treacherous flame cast on his shoulder fair a burning drop; he woke, and seeing her there, the meaning of that sad sight knew too well, nor was there need the piteous tale to tell. william morris: _the earthly paradise._ [illustration] _plate lxv_ plate lxv. the adventures of telemachus. paper from the home of dr. john lovett morse at taunton, massachusetts, illustrating the sixth book of fenelon's _adventures of telemachus_. found also in the home of mr. henry de witt freeland at sutton, massachusetts; on the hall of "the hermitage," andrew jackson's home near nashville, tennessee; and in an ancient house at kennebunk, maine. (p. - ) telemachus, son of ulysses, and mentor, who is minerva in disguise, while searching through two worlds for the lost ulysses, arrive at the island of the goddess calypso and her nymphs. telemachus recites the tale of their adventures, and calypso (who is unfortunately divided by the window into two equal parts) becomes as deeply enamored of telemachus as she had formerly been of his father. [illustration] _plate lxvi_ plate lxvi. the adventures of telemachus. venus, who is bent on detaining telemachus on the island and delaying his filial search for ulysses, brings her son cupid from olympus, and leaves him with calypso, that he may inflame the young hero's heart with love for the goddess. [illustration] _plate lxvii_ plate lxvii. the adventures of telemachus. cupid stirs up all the inflammable hearts within his reach somewhat indiscriminately; and telemachus finds himself in love with the nymph eucharis. calypso becomes exceedingly jealous. at a hunting-contest in honor of telemachus, eucharis appears in the costume of diana to attract him, while the jealous calypso rages alone in her grotto. venus arrives in her dove-drawn car and takes a hand in the game of hearts. [illustration] _plate lxviii_ plate lxviii. adventures of telemachus. calypso, in her rage against eucharis and telemachus, urges mentor to build a boat and take telemachus from her island. mentor, himself disapproving of the youth's infatuation, builds the boat; then finds telemachus and persuades him to leave eucharis and embark with him. as they depart toward the shore, eucharis returns to her companions, while telemachus looks behind him at every step for a last glimpse of the nymph. [illustration] _plate lxix_ plate lxix. adventures of telemachus. cupid meantime has dissuaded calypso from her wrath and incited the nymphs to burn the boat that is waiting to bear the visitors away. mentor, perceiving that telemachus is secretly glad of this, and fearing the effect of his passion for eucharis, throws the youth from the cliff into the water, leaps in after him, and swims with him to a ship that lies at anchor beyond the treacherous shoals. [illustration] _plate lxx_ plate lxx. scottish scenes. the room on which the adventures of telemachus are pictured having proved too large for the set of scenes, the remaining corner is filled out with what appear to be scottish scenes, possibly illustrations for scott. harmony in coloring was apparently of more importance than harmony in subject. [illustration] _plate lxxi_ _plate lxxii_ plate lxxi. the olympic games. this famous paper, now owned by mrs. franklin r. webber d of boston, was made in france and imported in or earlier, but never hung. each roll is made up of squares invisibly joined, and the thirty pieces combine to form a continuous panorama. the coloring is brown. the paper was probably printed by hand from engraved blocks, and the shading of faces, etc., added by hand. the most artistic pictorial paper known. (p. - ) plate lxxii. the olympic games. a tribute to homer. [illustration] [illustration] _plate lxxiii_ _plate lxxiv_ plate lxxiii. the olympic games. the shrine of vesta. plate lxxiv. the olympic games. worshipping athene in the court of the erechtheum. [illustration] [illustration] _plate lxxv_ _plate lxxvi_ plate lxxv. the olympic games. oblation to bacchus. plate lxxvi. the olympic games. oblation to bacchus, and procession before the parthenon. from the perry house at keene, n. h., on whose parlor walls is preserved the only other known example of the paper just described. (p. ) [illustration] [illustration] _plate lxxvii_ plate lxxvii. the lady of the lake. this series of scenes in neutral colors is photographed from the parlor of the rev. pelham williams, at greenbush, mass., whose house is one of three on which it still hangs in good condition. the other examples are the hayward house at wayland, mass., and the alexander ladd house, now owned by mrs. charles wentworth, at portsmouth, n. h. canto i. the chase. iii. yelled on the view the opening pack-- rock, glen, and cavern paid them back; to many a mingled sound at once the awakened mountain gave response. an hundred dogs bayed deep and strong, clattered a hundred steeds along, their peal the merry horns rang out, an hundred voices joined the shout; with bark, and whoop, and wild halloo, no rest benvoirlich's echoes knew. [illustration] _plate lxxviii_ plate lxxviii. the lady of the lake. canto iii. the gathering. viii. 'twas all prepared--and from the rock, a goat, the patriarch of the flock, before the kindling pile was laid, and pierced by roderick's ready blade. * * * * * the grisly priest with murmuring prayer, a slender crosslet framed with care. * * * * * the cross, thus formed, he held on high, with wasted hand and haggard eye, and strange and mingled feelings woke, while his anathema he spoke. ix. * * * * * he paused--the word the vassals took, with forward step and fiery look, on high their naked brands they shook, their clattering targets wildly strook; and first, in murmur low, then, like the billow in his course, that far to seaward finds his source, and flings to shore his mustered force, burst with loud roar, their answer hoarse, "woe to the traitor, woe!" [illustration] _plate lxxix_ plate lxxix. the lady of the lake. canto iv. the prophecy. xxi. [blanche of devan and fitz-james] now wound the path its dizzy ledge around a precipice's edge, when lo! a wasted female form, blighted by wrath of sun and storm, in tattered weeds and wild array, stood on a cliff beside the way, and glancing round her restless eye upon the wood, the rock, the sky, seemed nought to mark, yet all to spy. her brow was wreathed with gaudy broom; with gesture wild she waved a plume of feathers, which the eagles fling to crag and cliff from dusky wing; * * * * * and loud she laughed when near they drew, for then the lowland garb she knew: and then her hands she wildly wrung, and then she wept, and then she sung. [illustration] _plate lxxx_ plate lxxx. this scene fills the fourth side of the room on which _the lady of the lake_ is pictured, but does not illustrate any scene in the poem. [illustration] _plate lxxxi_ plate lxxxi. the seasons. pastoral paper in neutral colors on the library of prof. ira young of dartmouth, at hanover, n. h. the four seasons are represented on different sides of the room, blending into each other--sowing, haying, harvesting and sleighing. still on the walls in good state of preservation. (p. ) [illustration] _plate lxxxii_ plate lxxxii. the seasons. another view of professor young's library. the colors in this paper are neutral. [illustration] _plate lxxxiii_ plate lxxxiii. the seasons. third view from professor young's library. [illustration] -------------------------------------------------------------- transcriber's note: p. . 'huis-en-ten-bosch' corrected to 'huis-ten-bosch', changed. p. . 'asked me ot', 'ot' corrected to 'to', changed. p. . 'country and and', taken out the extra 'and'. p. . 'carousal' is 'carousel', changed. the carousel is not a drinking party. p. . 'treaures' typo for 'treasures', changed. p. . 'are in the the original', taken out the extra 'the'. p. . 'when she' changed 'she' to 'he'. plate lvi, 'carousal' is meant 'carousel', changed. plate lxvi, 'olympos' typo for 'olympus', changed. fixed various commas and full stops. -------------------------------------------------------------- the bed-room and boudoir. [illustration] the bed-room and boudoir. by lady barker. [illustration] london: macmillan and co. . [_the right of translation and reproduction is reserved._] _fifth thousand._ london: r. clay, sons, and taylor, printers. preface. too much attention can scarcely be expended on our sleeping rooms in order that we may have them wholesome, convenient and cheerful. it is impossible to over-estimate the value of refreshing sleep to busy people, particularly to those who are obliged to do much brainwork. in the following pages will, we hope, be found many hints with regard to the sanitary as well as the ornamental treatment of the bed-room. w. j. loftie. contents. chapter page i.--an ideal bed-room--its walls ii.--carpets and draperies iii.--beds and bedding iv.--wardrobes and cupboards v.--fire and water vi.--the toilet vii.--odds and ends of decoration viii.--the sick room ix.--the spare room list of illustrations. page a corner wardrobe _frontispiece_ dutch bedstead bedstead and toilet stand oak bedstead children's bedsteads an indian screen wardrobe antique lock-up bureau travelling chest of drawers chinese cabinet fire-place chair and table bedside table fire-place candlestick french washing-stand chinese washing-stand corner-stand shrine "À la duchesse" antique toilet table chest of drawers a simple toilet table cane arm-chair cane sofa oak settle large arm-chair corner for piano print-stand south american pitcher invalid table desk the bed-room and boudoir. chapter i. an ideal bed-room.--its walls. it is only too easy to shock some people, and at the risk of shocking many of my readers at the outset, i must declare that very few bed-rooms are so built and furnished as to remain thoroughly _sweet_, fresh, and airy all through the night. this is not going so far as others however. emerson repeats an assertion he once heard made by thoreau, the american so-called "stoic,"--whose senses by the way seem to have been preternaturally acute--that "by night every dwelling-house gives out a bad air, like a slaughter-house." as this need not be a necessary consequence of sleeping in a room, it remains to be discovered why one's first impulse on entering a bed-room in the morning should either be to open the windows, or to wish the windows were open. every one knows how often this is the case, not only in small, low, ill-contrived houses in a town, but even in very spacious dwellings, standing too amid all the fragrant possibilities of the open country. it is a very easy solution of the difficulty to say that we ought always to sleep with our windows wide open. the fact remains that many people cannot do so; it is a risk--nay, a certainty--of illness to some very young children, to many old people, and to nearly all invalids. in a large room the risk is diminished, because there would be a greater distance between the bed and window, or a space for a sheltering screen. now, in a small room, where fresh air is still more essential and precious, the chances are that the window might open directly on the bed, which would probably stand in a draught between door and fireplace as well. i take it for granted that every one understands the enormous importance of having a fireplace in each sleeping-room in an english house, for the sake of the ventilation afforded by the chimney. and even then a sharp watch must be kept on the house-maid, who out of pure "cussedness" (there is no other word for it) generally makes it the serious business of her life to keep the iron flap of the register stove shut down, and so to do away entirely with one of the uses of the chimney. if it be impossible to have a fireplace in the sleeping-room, then a ventilator of some sort should be introduced. there is, i believe, a system in use in some of the wards of st. george's hospital and in the schools under the control of the london school board, known as tobin's patent. ventilation is here secured by means of a tube or pipe communicating directly with the outer air, which can thus be brought from that side of the building on which the atmosphere is freshest. if report can be trusted, this system certainly appears to come nearer to what is wanted than any with which we are yet acquainted, for it introduces fresh air without producing a draught, and the supply of air can be regulated by a lid at the mouth of the pipe. a sort of double-star is often introduced in a pane of glass in the window, but this is somewhat costly, and it would not be difficult to find other simpler and more primitive methods, from a tin shaft or loosened brick in a wall, down to half a dozen large holes bored by an auger in the panel of the door, six or eight inches away from the top, though this is only advisable if the door opens upon a tolerably airy landing or passage. if it does not, then resort to some contrivance, as cheap as you please, in the outer wall leading directly into the fresh air. in most private houses it is generally possible to arrange for those to whom an open window at night is a forbidden luxury, that they should sleep with their door open. a curtain, or screen, or even the open door itself will ensure the privacy in which we all like to do our sleeping, but there should then be some window open on an upper landing, day and night, in all weathers. believe me, there are few nights, even in our rigorous climate, where this would be an impossibility. of course common sense must be the guide in laying down such rules. no one would willingly admit a fog or storm of driving wind and rain into their house, but of a night when the atmosphere is so exceptionally disturbed it is sure to force its way in at every cranny, and keep the rooms fresh and sweet without the necessity of admitting a large body of air by an open window. supposing then that the laws of ventilation are understood and acted upon, and that certain other sanitary rules are carried out which need not be insisted upon here,--such as that no soiled clothes shall ever, upon any pretence, be kept in a bed-room,--then we come to the next cause of want of freshness in a sleeping-room:--old walls. people do not half enough realise, though it must be admitted they understand a great deal more than they once did, how the emanations from the human body are attracted to the sides of the room and stick there. it is not a pretty or poetical idea, but it is unhappily a fact. so the only thing to be done is to provide ourselves with walls which will either wash or clean in some way, or are made originally of some material which neither attracts nor retains these minute particles. nothing can be at once cleaner or more wholesome than the beautiful wainscotted walls we sometimes see in the fine old country houses built in queen anne's reign. a bed-room of that date, if we except the bed itself, and the probable absence of all bathing conveniences, presented a nearly perfect combination of fresh air, spotless cleanliness, and stately and harmonious beauty to the eyes of an artist or the nose of a sanitary inspector. the lofty walls of panelled oak, dark and lustrous from age and the rubbing of many generations of strong-armed old-fashioned house-maids, were walls which could neither attract nor retain objectionable atoms, and ventilation was unconsciously secured by means of high narrow windows, three in a row, looking probably due south, and an open chimney-place, innocent of "register stoves" or any other contrivance for blocking up its wide throat. such a room rises up clearly before the eyes of my mind, and i feel certain that i shall never forget the deliciously quaint and hideous dutch tiles in the fireplace, nor the expressive tip of ahasuerus' nose in the tile representing his final interview with haman. how specially beautiful was the narrow carved ledge, far above one's head, which served as a mantelpiece, over which simpered a faded lady with low, square-cut boddice, her fat chin held well into the throat, and a rose in her pale, wan little hand. a dado ran round this room about five feet from the floor, and i used to be mean enough, constantly, to try if it was a dust-trap, but i never could find a speck. that was because the house-maid had been taught how to wipe dust off and carry it bodily away, not merely, as miss nightingale complains, to disturb it from the place where it had comfortably settled itself, and disperse it about the room. but what i remember more vividly in this room than even its old-time beauty, was the thorough _conscientiousness_ of every detail. the cornice might fairly claim to rank as a work of art, not only from its elaboration, but from its finish. the little square carved panels on each side of the chimney, serving as supports to the mantelpiece, held but one leaf or arabesque flourish apiece, yet each corner was as sharply cut, each curve as smoothly rounded, as though it had been intended for closest scrutiny. the wood of neither walls nor floors had warped nor shrunk in all these years, and the low solid doors hung as true, the windows opened as easily, as if it had all been built yesterday. what do i say? built yesterday? let any of us begin to declare his experience of a new, modern house, and he will find many to join in a doleful chorus of complaints about unseasoned wood, ill-fitting joists, and hurried contrivances to meet domestic ills, to say nothing of the uncomfortable effects of "scamped" work generally. in spite of our improved tools, and our greater facilities for studying and copying good designs, i am convinced that one reason why we are going back in decorative taste to the days of our great grandmothers is, that we are worn out and wearied with the evanescent nature of modern carpenter's and joiner's work--to say nothing of our aroused perceptions of its glaring faults of taste and tone. unhappily we cannot go back to those dear, clean, old oaken walls. they would be quite out of the reach of the majority of purses, and would be sure to be imitated by some wretched sham planking which might afford a shelter and breeding-place for all kinds of creeping things. no; let those who are fortunate enough to possess or acquire these fine old walls treasure them and keep them bright as their grandmothers did; not _whitewash_ them, as actually has been done more than once by way of "lightening" the room. and who shall say, after that, that the goths have ever been successfully driven back? i dwell on the walls of the bed-room because i believe them to be the most important from a sanitary as well as from a decorative point of view, and because there is really no excuse for not being able to make them extremely pretty. you may tint them in distemper of some delicate colour, with harmoniously contrasting lines at the ceiling, and so be able to afford to have them fresh and clean as often as you choose, or you may paint them in oils and have them washed constantly. but there is a general feeling against this cold treatment of a room which, above all others, should, in our capricious climate, be essentially warm and comfortable. the tinted walls are pretty when the curtains to go with them are made of patternless cretonne of precisely the same shade, manufactured on purpose, with exactly the same lines of colour for bordering. i am not sure, however, that the walls i individually prefer for a bed-room are not papered. there are papers made expressly, which do not attract dirt, and which can be found of lovely design. a bed-room paper ought never to have a distinct, spotted pattern on it, lest, if you are ill, it should incite you to count the designs or should "make faces at you." rather let it be all of one soft tint, a pearly gray, a tender sea-shell pink, or a green which has no arsenic in it; but on this point great care is requisite. you should also make it your business to see, with your own eyes, that your new paper, whatever its pattern or price, is not hung _over_ the old one, and that the walls have been thoroughly stripped, and washed, and dried again before it is put on. bed-room walls, covered with chintz, stretched tightly in panels, are exceedingly clean and pretty, but they must be arranged so as to allow of being easily taken down and cleaned. the prettiest walls i ever saw thus covered, were made of chintz, with a creamy background and tendrils of ivy of half a dozen shades of green and brown artfully blended, streaming down in graceful garlands and sprays towards a dado about four feet from the ground. it was a lofty room, and the curtains, screens, &c., were made to match, of chintz, with sprays of ivy, and a similar border. i know other bed-room walls where fluted white muslin is stretched over pink or blue silk (prettiest of all over an apple-green _batiste_). i dislike tapestry extremely for bed-room walls; the designs are generally of a grim and ghostly nature, and even if they represent simpering shepherds and shepherdesses, they are equally tiresome. there is a japanese paper, sometimes used for curtains, which really looks more suitable and pretty when serving as wall-hangings in the bed-rooms of a country house. i know a whole wing of "bachelors' quarters" papered by fluted japanese curtains, and they are exceedingly pretty. the curtains of these rooms are of workhouse sheeting lined and bordered with turkey red, and leave nothing to be desired for quaint simplicity and brightness. i must ease my mind by declaring here that i have a strong prejudice against japanese paper except when used in this way for wall-decoration. the curtains made of it are not only a sham, pretending to be something which they are not--a heinous crime in my eyes--but they are generally of very ugly patterns, and hang in stiff, ungraceful folds, crackling and rustling with every breath of air, besides being exceedingly inflammable. of course the first rule in bed-room decoration, as in all other, is that it should be suitable to the style of the house, and even to the situation in which the house finds itself. the great point in the wall-decoration of a town bed-room is that you should be able to replace it easily when it gets dirty, as it is sure to do very soon if your windows are kept sufficiently open. i _have_ known people who kept the windows of both bed and sitting-rooms always shut for fear of soiling the walls. i prefer walls, under such conditions, which can be cheaply made clean again perpetually. there are wall-papers by the score, artistically simple enough to please a correct taste, and sufficiently cheap not to perceptibly shrink the shallowest purse. but in the country it is every one's own fault if they have not a lovely bed-room. if it be low, then let the paper be suitable--something which will not dwarf the room. i know a rural bed-room with a paper representing a trellis and noisette roses climbing over it; the carpet is shades of green without any pattern, and has only a narrow border of noisette roses; the bouquets, powdered on the chintzes, match, and outside the window a spreading bush of the same dear old-fashioned rose blooms three parts of the year. that is a bower indeed, as well as a bed-room. noisette roses and rosebuds half smothered in leaves have been painted by the skilful fingers of the owner of this room on the door-handles and the tiles of the fireplace as well as embroidered on the white quilt and the green cover of the writing-table. but then i acknowledge it is an exceptionally pretty room to begin with, for the dressing-table stands in a deep bay window, to which you ascend by a couple of steps. belinda herself could not have desired a fairer shrine whereat to worship her own beauty. the memory of other walls rises up before me; even of one with plain white satiny paper bordered by shaded pink ribbon, not merely the stiff paper-hanger's design, but cut out and fixed in its place by a pair of clever hands. this border of course looked different to anything else of the kind i had ever seen; but according to strict rules of modern taste it was not "correct." yet a great deal depends on the way a thing is done. i see the misses garrett frowning as i go on to say that here and there a deep shadow was painted under it, and its bows and ends drooped down at the corners of the room, whilst over the fireplace they made the bright, circling border for a chalk drawing of a rosy child's head. but it _was_ a pretty room, notwithstanding its original faulty design, and i describe it more as an illustration of the supremacy of a real genius for decoration over any hard and fast rule than as an example to be copied. rules are made for people who cannot design for themselves, and original designs may be above rules, though they should never be above taste. i might go on for ever describing bed-room walls instead of only insisting on their possessing the cardinal virtues of cleanliness and appropriateness. whether of satin or silk, of muslin or chintz, or of cheapest paper, nothing can be really pretty and tasteful in wall-decoration which is not scrupulously clean, without being cold and glaring, and it should be in harmony with even the view from the windows. every room should possess an air of individuality--some distinctive features in decoration which would afford a clue to the designer's and owner's special tastes and fancies. how easy it is to people old rooms with the imaged likeness of those who have dwelt in them, and how difficult it would be to do as much for a modern bower! if i had my own way, i would accustom boys as well as girls to take a pride in making and keeping their bed-rooms as pretty and original as possible. boys might be encouraged to so arrange their collections of eggs, butterflies, beetles, and miscellaneous rubbish, as to combine some sort of decorative principle with this sort of portable property. and i would always take care that a boy's room was so furnished and fitted that he might feel free, there at least, from the trammels of good furniture. he should have bare boards with only a rug to stand on at the bed-side and fireplace, but he should be encouraged to make with his own hands picture-frames, bookcases, brackets, anything he liked, to adorn his room, and this room should be kept sacred to his sole use wherever and whenever it was possible to do so. girls might also be helped to make and collect tasteful little odds and ends of ornamental work for their own rooms, and shown the difference between what is and is not artistically and intrinsically valuable, either for form or colour. it is also an excellent rule to establish that girls should keep their rooms neat and clean, dust their little treasures themselves, and tidy up their rooms before leaving them of a morning, so that the servant need only do the rougher work. such habits are valuable in any condition of life. an eye so trained that disorder or dirt is hideous to it, and a pair of hands capable of making such conditions an impossibility in their immediate neighbourhood, need be no unworthy addition to the dowry of a princess. chapter ii. carpets and draperies. in the very old-fashioned, stately rooms of queen anne's reign the carpeting was doled out in small proportions, and a somewhat comfortless air must have prevailed where an expanse of floor was covered here and there by what we should now characterise as a shabby bit of carpeting. in fact a suitable floor-covering or appropriate draperies for these old rooms is rather a difficult point. modern tastes demand comfort and brightness, and yet there is always the dread of too glaring contrasts, and an inharmonious groundwork. quite lately i saw a fine old-time wainscotted room, whose walls and floor had taken a rich dark gloss from age, brightened immensely and harmoniously by four or five of those large indian cotton rugs in dark blue and white, to be bought now-a-days cheaply enough in regent street. the china in this room was of delft ware, also blue and white, and it had _short_ full curtains of a bright french stuff, wherein blue lines alternated with a rich red, hanging in the deep windows, whilst colour was given in a dusky corner by a silken screen of embroidered peonies. a turkish carpet is of course inadmissible in a bed-room, and the modern persian rugs are too gaudy to harmonise well with the sober tone of a wainscotted bed-room, but it is quite possible to find delicious rugs and strips of carpeting in greenish blue copied from eastern designs. the difficulty is perhaps most simply met by a carpet of a very dark red, with the smallest possible wave or suggestion of black in it, either in strips or in a square, stopping short within two feet or so of the walls. i know a suite of old-fashioned bed-rooms where the floor is covered with quite an ecclesiastical-looking carpet, and it looks very suitable, warm and bright, and thoroughly in keeping. in a house of moderate size there is nothing i like so much as the whole of a bed-room floor being carpeted in the same way--landings, passages, dressing-rooms, and all--and on the whole, taking our dingy climate into consideration, a well-toned red carpet or nondescript blue will generally be found the most suitable. [illustration] strange to say, next to red carpets white ones wear the best, but they make such a false and glaring effect, that they cannot be considered appropriate even for a pretty bowery bed-room, half dressing-room, half boudoir. with ordinarily fair wear white carpets only take a creamy tint as they get older, and then their bouquets and borders, have a chance of fading into better harmony. but most of the designs of these carpets are so radically wrong, so utterly objectionable from the beginning, that the best which can be hoped from time is that it will obliterate them altogether. it is true we flatter ourselves that we have grown beyond the days of enormous boughs and branches of exaggerated leaves and blossoms daubed on a crude ground, but _have_ we escaped from the dominion of patterns, more minute it is true, but quite as much outside the pale of good taste? what is to be said in defence of a design which, when its colours are fresh, is so shaded as to represent some billowy and uneven surface, fastened at intervals by yellow nails? or spots of white flowers or stars on a grass-green ground? the only carpet of that sort of white and green which i ever liked had tiny sprays of white heather on a soft green ground, in the miniature drawing-room of a scotch shooting-box. _there_, it was so appropriate, so thoroughly in keeping with even the view out of the windows, with the heathery chintz, the roe-deer's heads on the panels of the wall, that it looked better on the floor than anything else could possibly have done. morris has kidderminster carpets for bed-rooms, in pale pink, buff, and blue, &c., which are simply perfect in harmony of colour and design. people who consider themselves good managers are very apt to turn the half worn-out drawing-room carpet into one of the bed-rooms, but this is not a good plan, for it seldom matches the draperies, and is also apt to become frowsy and fusty. i am not so extravagant as to recommend that a good carpet with plenty of possibilities of wear yet in it should be thrown away because it is not suitable for a bed-room. there are many ways and means of disposing of such things, and even the threadbare remains of an originally good and costly carpet can find a market of its own. what i should like to see, especially in all london bed-rooms, is a fresh, inexpensive carpet of unobtrusive colours, which can be constantly taken away and cleaned or renewed, rather than a more costly, rich-looking floor-covering, which will surely in time become and remain more or less dirty. but light carpets are seldom soft in tone, and i should be inclined to suggest felt as a groundwork, if the bare boards are inadmissible, with large rugs thrown down before the fireplace, dressing and writing-tables, &c. these should of course contrast harmoniously with the walls. if you have a room of which the style is a little too sombre, then lighten it and brighten it by all the means in your power. if it be inclined to be garish and glaring, then subdue it. people cannot always create, as it were, the place in which they are obliged to live. one may find oneself placed in a habitation perfectly contrary to every principle of correct taste as well as opposed to one's individual preferences. but that is such an opportunity! out of unpromising materials and surroundings you have to make a room, whether bed-room or boudoir, which will take the impression of your own state. as long as a woman possesses a pair of hands and her work-basket, a little hammer and a few tin-tacks, it is hard if she need live in a room which is actually ugly. i don't suppose any human being except a gipsy has ever dwelt in so many widely-apart lands as i have. some of these homes have been in the infancy of civilisation, and yet i have never found it necessary to endure, for more than the first few days of my sojourn, anything in the least ugly or uncomfortable. especially pretty has my sleeping-room always been, though it has sometimes looked out over the snowy peaks of the himalayas, at others, up a lovely new zealand valley, or, in still earlier days, over a waving west indian "grass-piece." but i may as well get out the map of the world at once, and try to remember the various places to which my wandering destiny has led me. all the moral i want to draw from this geographical digression is that i can assert from my own experience--which after all is the only true standpoint of assertion--that it is possible to have really pretty, as well as thoroughly comfortable dwelling-places even though they may lie thousands of miles away from the heart of civilisation, and hundreds of leagues distant from a shop or store of any kind. i mean this as an encouragement--not a boast. chintz is what naturally suggests itself to the inquirer's mind as most suitable for the drapery of a bed-room, and there is a great deal to be said in its favour. first of all, its comparative cheapness and the immense variety of its designs. cretonnes are comely too, if care be taken to avoid the very gaudy ones. if there is no objection on the score of difficulty of keeping clean, i am fond, in a modern bed-room, of curtains all of one colour, some soft, delicate tint of blue or rose, with a great deal of patternless white muslin either over it or beneath it as drapery to the window. this leaves you more free for bright, effective bits of colour for sofa, table-cover, &c., and the feeling of the window curtains can be carried out again in the screen. a bed-room, to be really comfortable, should always have one or even two screens, if it be large enough. they give a great air of comfort to a room, and are exceedingly convenient as well as pretty. the fashion of draped toilet-tables is passing away so rapidly that they cannot be depended upon for colour in a room, though we get the advantage in other ways. so we must fall back upon the old idea of embroidered quilts once more to help with colour and tone in our bed-rooms. they are made in a hundred different and almost equally pretty designs. essentially modern quilts for summer can be made of lace or muslin over pink or blue batiste or silk to match the tints of the room; quilts of linen embroidered with deliciously artistic bunches of fruit or flowers at the edge and corners; quilts of eider-down covered with silk, for preference, or if our means will not permit so costly a material, then of _one_ colour, such as turkey red, in twilled cotton. i have never liked those gay imitation indian quilts. they generally "swear" at everything else in the room. but there are still more beautiful quilts of an older style and date. i have seen some made of coarse linen, with a pattern running in parallel strips four or six inches wide, formed by pulling out the threads to make the groundwork of an insertion. the same idea looks well also when carried out in squares or a diamond-shaped pattern. then there are lovely quilts of muslin embroidered in delicate neutral tints, which look as if they came straight from cairo or bagdad, but which have never been out of england, and owe their lightness and beauty to the looms of manchester. one of the prettiest and simplest bed-rooms i know had its walls covered with lining paper of the very tenderest tint of green, on which were hung some pretty pastel sketches, all in the same style. the chintzes, or rather cretonnes, were of a creamy white ground with bunches of lilacs powdered on them, and the carpet, of a soft green, had also a narrow border with bouquets of lilacs at each corner. the screens were of muslin over lilac batiste, and the quilt of the simple bedstead had been worked by the owner's own fingers, of linen drawn out in threads. the very tiles of the fireplace--for this pretty room had an open hearth with a sort of basket for a coal fire in the middle--and the china of the basin-stand as well as the door-handles and plates, were all decorated with the same flower, and although essentially a modern room in a modern house, it was exquisitely fresh and uncommon. this was partly owing to the liberal use of the leaves of the lilac, which are in form so exceedingly pretty. in an old-fashioned house if i wanted the draperies and quilt of my bed-room to be thoroughly harmonious i should certainly go to the royal school of art needlework in the exhibition road for designs, as they possess extraordinary facilities for getting at specimens of the best early english and french needlework, and they can imitate even the materials to perfection. i saw some curtains the other day in a modern boudoir from this royal school of art needlework. they were of a delicate greenish blue silk-rep, which hung in delicious round folds and had a bold and simple design of conventionalised lilies in a material like tussore silk _appliqué_-d with a needlework edge. of course they were intended for a purely modern room, but there were also some copies of draperies which went beautifully with chippendale chairs and lovely old straight up and down cupboards and settees. there is rather a tendency in the present day to make both bed-rooms and boudoirs gloomy; a horrible vision of a room with walls the colour of a robin's egg (dots and all) and _black_ furniture, rises up before me, and the owner of this apartment could not be induced to brighten up her gloom by so much as a gay pincushion. now our grandmothers understood much better, though probably no one ever said a word to them about it, how necessary it was to light up dark recesses by contrasts. you would generally have found an exquisite old blue and white delft jar full of scented rose-leaves, a gay beau-pot full of poppies, or even a spinning-wheel with its creamy bundle of flax or wool bound by a scarlet ribbon, in the unregarded corner of a dingy passage, and i think we do not bear in mind enough how bright and gay the costumes of those days used to be. to a new house, furnished according to the present rage for old-fashioned decoration, our modern sombre apparel is no help. we do not lighten up our rooms a bit now by our dress, except perhaps in summer, but generally we sit, clad in dingiest tints of woollen material, or in very inartistic black silk, amid furniture which was originally designed as a sort of background to much gay and gallant clothing, to flowered sacques and powdered heads, to bright steel buttons and buckles and a thousand points of colour and light. let us follow their old good example thoroughly, if we do it at all, and do our best to brighten the dull nooks and corners which will creep into all dwellings, by our attire, as well as in all other ways. chapter iii. beds and bedding. when we discuss a bed-room, the bed ought certainly to be the first thing considered. here at least, is a great improvement within even the last forty or fifty years. where are now those awful four-posters, so often surmounted by huge wooden knobs or plumes of feathers, or which even offered hideously carved griffin's heads to superintend your slumbers? gone, "quite gone," as children say. at first we ran as usual into the opposite extreme, and bestowed ourselves at night in frightful and vulgar frames of cast iron, ornamented with tawdry gilt or bronze scroll-work, but such things are seldom seen now, and even the cheap common iron or brass bedstead of the present day has at least the merit of simplicity. its plain rails at foot and head are a vast improvement on the fantastic patterns of even twenty years ago, and the bedsteads of the present day will long continue in general use in modern houses. their extreme cheapness and cleanliness are great points in their favour, and when they are made low, and have a spring frame with one rather thick mattress at the top, they are perfectly comfortable to sleep in besides being harmless to look at. [illustration: fig. .] but in many rooms where the style of both decoration and furniture has been carried back for a century and a half, and all the severe and artistic lines of the tastes of those days must needs be preserved, then indeed an ordinary iron or brass bedstead, of ever so unobtrusive a pattern would be ludicrously out of place. still, if our minds revolt from anything like a return to the old nightmare-haunted huge beds of ware, we can find something to sleep on which will be in harmony with the rest of the surroundings, and yet combine the modern needs of air and light with the old-fashioned strictness of form and beauty of detail. here is a drawing (fig. ) made from an old dutch bedstead by mr. lathrop. the sides are of beautifully and conscientiously inlaid work, whilst the slight outward slope of both the head and foot-board insures the perfection of comfort. to avoid a too great austerity of form, the upper cap of the foot-board has been cut in curves, and the solidity of the legs modified ever so slightly. the bedding of this bedstead must by no means project beyond its sides, but must fit into the box-like cavity intended to receive it. in this bedstead (fig. ), which was made from a design by mr. sandier, more latitude is allowed in this respect, and its perfect simplicity can only be equalled by its beauty. [illustration: fig. .] the form of wooden bedstead (fig. ), which could easily be copied at all events in its general idea, by any village carpenter, would be exceedingly pretty and original for a young girl's bed-room. it is intended to be of oak with side rails which are to pass through carved posts, and be held by wooden pins, as are also the end rails. for durability as well as simplicity this design leaves nothing to be desired, and it can be made in almost any hard wood, whilst every year would only add to its intrinsic worth. how many of us mothers have taken special delight in preparing a room for our daughters when they return from school "for good"--when they leave off learning lessons out of books, and try, with varied success, to learn and apply those harder lessons, which have to be learned without either books or teachers. what sumptuous room in after years ever affords the deep delight of the sense of ownership which attends the first awakening of a girl in a room of her very own? and it is a vivid recollection of this pure delight of one's own bygone girl-days which prompts us to do our best to furbish up ever so homely a room for our eldest daughter. if a pretty, fresh carpet is unattainable, then let us have bare boards, with rugs, or skins, or whatever is available. necessity developes ingenuity, and ingenuity goes a long way. i never learned the meaning of either word until i found myself very far removed from shops, and forced to invent or substitute the materials wherewith to carry out my own little decorative ideas. [illustration: fig. .] some very lofty rooms seem to require a more furnished style of bed, and for these stately sleeping-places it may be well to have sweeping curtains of silk or satin gathered up quite or almost at the ceiling, and falling in ample straight folds on either side of a wide, low bedstead. they would naturally be kept out of the way by slender arms or brackets some six or eight feet from the floor, which would prevent the curtains from clinging too closely round the bed, and give the right lines to the draperies. but, speaking individually, it is never to such solemn sleeping-places as these, that my fancy reverts when, weary and travel-stained, and in view of some homely wayside room, one thinks by way of contrast, of other and prettier bed-rooms. no, it is rather to simple, lovely little nests of chintz and muslin, with roses inside and outside the wall, with low chairs and writing-table, sofa and toilet all in the same room--a bed-room and bower in one. edgar allan poe declares that to "slumber aright you must sleep in just such a bed." but he only says it of the last bed of all. without going so far as that, i can declare that i have slumbered "aright" in extraordinary beds, in extraordinary places, on tables, and under them (that was to be out of the way of being walked upon), on mats, on trunks, on all sorts of wonderful contrivances. i slept once very soundly on a piece of sacking stretched between two bullock trunks, though my last waking thought was an uneasy misgiving as to the durability of the frail-looking iron pins at each end of this yard of canvas, which fitted into corresponding eyelet holes in the trunks. i know the uneasiness of mattresses stuffed with chopped grass, and the lumpiness of those filled by amateur hands with wool--_au naturel_. odours also are familiar unto me, the most objectionable being, perhaps, that arising from a feather bed in a scotch inn, and from a seaweed mattress in an irish hotel, in which i should imagine many curious specimens of marine zoology had been entombed by mistake. but there is one thing i want to say most emphatically, and that is that i have met with greater dirt and discomfort, worse furniture, more comfortless beds (i will say nothing of the vileness of the food!), and a more general air of primitive barbarism in inns and lodgings in out-of-the-way places in great britain and ireland, than i have ever come across in any colony. i know half-a-dozen places visited by heaps of tourists every year, within half-a-dozen hours' journey of london, which are _far_ behind, in general comfort and convenience, most of the roadside inns either in new zealand or natal. it is very inexplicable why it should be so, but it is a fact. it is marvellous that there should often be such dirt and discomfort and general shabbiness and dinginess under circumstances which, compared with colonial difficulties, including want of money, would seem all that could be desired. however, to return to the subject in hand. we will take it for granted that a point of equal importance with the form of the bedstead is its comfort but this must always be left to the decision of its occupant. some people prefer beds and pillows of an adamantine hardness, others of a luxurious softness. either extreme is bad, in my opinion. as a rule, however, i should have the mattresses for children's use _rather_ hard--a firm horsehair on the top of a wool mattress, and children's pillows should _always_ be low. some people heap bed-clothes over their sleeping children, but i am sure this is a bad plan. i would always take care that a child was quite warm enough, especially when it gets into bed of a winter's night, but after a good temperature has been established i would remove the extra wraps and accustom the child to sleep with light covering. a little flannel jacket for a young child who throws its arms outside the bed-clothes is a good plan, and saves them from many a cough or cold. in the case of a delicate, chilly child, i would even recommend a flannel bed-gown or dressing-gown to sleep in in the depth of winter, for it saves a weight of clothes over them. i never use a quilt at night for children; it keeps in the heat too much, but blankets of the best possible quality are a great advantage. the cheap ones are heavy and not nearly so warm, whereas a good, expensive blanket not only wears twice as long, but is much more light and wholesome as a covering. nor would i permit soft pillows; of course there is a medium between a fluff of down and a stone, and it is just a medium pillow i should recommend for young children and growing girls and boys. the fondest and fussiest parents do not always understand that, on the most careful attention to some such simple rules depend the straightness of their children's spines, the strength of their young elastic limbs, their freedom from colds and coughs, and in fact their general health. often the daylight hours are weighted by a heavy mass of rules and regulations, but few consider that half of a young child's life should be spent in its bed. so that unless the atmosphere of the room they sleep in, the quality of the bed they lie on, and the texture of the clothes which cover them, are taken into consideration, it is only half their existence which is being cared for. [illustration: fig .] all bedsteads are healthier for being as low as possible; thus insuring a better circulation of air above the sleeper's face, and doing away with the untidy possibility of keeping boxes or carpet-bags under the bedstead. there should be no valance to any bedstead. in the daytime an ample quilt thrown over the bedding will be quite drapery enough, and at night it is just as well to have a current of air beneath the frame of the bed. the new spring mattresses are very nearly perfect as regards the elasticity which is so necessary in a couch, and they can be suited to all tastes by having either soft or hard horsehair or finely picked wool mattresses on the top of them. whenever it is possible, i would have children put to sleep in separate bedsteads, even if they like to have them close together as in fig. . there are many varieties of elastic mattresses, though i prefer the more clumsy one of spiral springs inclosed in a sort of frame. for transport this is, however, very cumbrous, and in such a case it would be well to seek other and lighter kinds. it must be also remembered that these spring mattresses are only suitable for modern beds in modern rooms; the old carven beds of a "queen anne" bed-room must needs be made comfortable by hair and wool mattresses only. in many cases, however, where economy of space and weight has to be considered, i would recommend a new sort of elastic mattress which can easily be affixed to any bedstead. it resembles a coat of mail more than anything else and possesses the triple merit in these travelling days of being cool, clean, and portable. the frowsy old feather bed of one's infancy has so completely gone out of favour that it is hardly necessary to place one more stone on the cairn of abuse already raised over it by doctors' and nurses' hands. a couple of thick mattresses, one of horsehair and one of wool, will make as soft and comfortable a bed as anyone need wish for. [illustration: fig. .] instead of curtains, which the modern form of bedstead renders incongruous and impossible, screens on either side of the bed are a much prettier and more healthy substitute. i like screens immensely; they insure privacy, they keep out the light if necessary, and are a great improvement to the look of any room. it is hardly necessary to say they should suit the style of its decoration. if you are arranging a lofty old-fashioned room, then let your screens be of old dutch leather--of which beautiful fragments are to be found--with a groundwork which can only be described by paradoxes, for it is at once solid and light, sombre and gay. any one who has seen those old stamped leather screens of a peculiar sea-green blue, with a raised dull gold arabesque design on them, will know what i mean. there are also beautiful old indian or japan lacquered screens, light, and with very little pattern on them; even imitation ones of indian pattern paper are admissible to narrow purses, but anything real is always much more satisfactory. if again your bower is a modern frenchified concern, then screen off its angles by _écrans_ of gay tapestry or embroidered folding leaves, or paper-covered screens of delicate tints with sprays of trailing blossom, and here and there a bright-winged bird or butterfly. designs for all these varieties of screens can be obtained in great perfection at the royal school of art needlework. but for a simple modern english bed-room, snug as a bird's nest, and bright and fresh as a summer morning i should choose screens of slender wooden rails with fluted curtains of muslin and lace cunningly hung thereon. only it must be remembered that these entail constant change, and require to be always exquisitely fresh and clean. it often happens that another spare bed is wanted on an emergency, and it is a great point in designing couches for a nondescript room, a room which is some one person's peculiar private property, whether called a den or a study, a smoking-room or a boudoir, that the said couch should be able "a double debt to pay" on a pinch. i have lately seen two such resting-places which were both convenient and comfortable. the first was a long, low settee of cane, with a thin mattress over its seat, and a thicker one, doubled in two, forming a luxurious back against the wall by day. at night, this mattress could be laid flat out on the top of the other, which gave increased width as well as softness to the extempore bed. the other, of modern carved oak, had been copied from the pattern of an old settle. it was low and wide, with only one deep well-stuffed mattress, round which an algerine striped blue and white cotton cloth had been wrapped. of course this could be removed at night, and the bed made up in the usual way. it struck me, with its low, strong railing round three sides, as peculiarly suitable for a change of couch for a sick child, though it could hardly be used by a full-grown person as a bed. so now all has been said that need be on the point of a sleeping place. it is too essentially a matter of choice to allow of more than suggestion; and at least my readers will admit that i am only arbitrary on the points of fresh air and cleanliness. chapter iv. wardrobes and cupboards. sometimes a room has to play the part of both bed-room and boudoir, and then it is of importance what form the "_garde-robes_" shall assume. fortunately there are few articles of furniture on which more lavish pains have been bestowed, and in which it is possible to find scope for a wider range of taste and choice. recesses may be fitted up, if the room be a large one, and have deep depressions here and there in the masonry with doors to match the rest of the woodwork, panelled, grained, and painted exactly alike, and very commodious hanging cupboards may thus be formed. but however useful these may be to the lady's maid, they are scarcely æsthetic enough to be entitled to notice among descriptions of art furniture. rather let us turn to this little wardrobe (fig. ), too narrow, perhaps, for aught but a single gown of the present day to hang in, yet exquisitely artistic and pleasant to look upon. its corner columns are mounted with brass, and every detail of its construction is finished as though by the hand of a jeweller. the lower drawers are probably intended for lace or fur, or some other necessary of a fine lady's toilette. it is very evident from the accommodation provided in the distant days when such wardrobes were designed, that "little and good" used to be the advice given to our grandmothers with their pin-money, and that even in their wildest dreams they never beheld the countless array of skirts and polonaises and mantles and heaven knows what beside, that furnish forth a modern belle's equipment. yet these moderate-minded dames and damsels must have loved the garments they did possess very dearly, for the heroine of every poem or romance of the last century is represented as depending quite as much on her clothes in the battle of life as any knight on his suit of milan mail. clarissa harlowe mingles tragic accounts of lovelace's villanies with her grievances about mismatched ruffles and tuckers, and even the excellent miss byron has by no means a soul above court suits or french heels. still these lovely ladies had not much space assigned to them wherein to bestow their finery when it was not on their backs, and we must expect to find all the wardrobe designs of former times of somewhat skimpy proportions. here is an antique lock-up (fig. ) of french make (most of the best designs for furniture came from france in those days) of a very practical and good form to copy in a humbler material. this is made of a costly wood, probably rosewood, with beautifully engraved brass fittings all over it. the door of the upper half seems rather cumbrous, being only a flap which opens out all in one piece, but a modern and less expensive copy might be improved by dividing this large lid into a couple of doors to open in the middle in the usual way, without at all departing from the original lines. [illustration: fig. .] fig. , again, is more of a bureau, and affords but scanty room for the ample stores of a lady's _lingerie_. it is, however, of a very good design in its way, its chief value being the workmanship of its fine brass ornaments. the handles of the drawers are peculiarly beautiful, and represent the necks and heads of swans issuing from a wreath of leaves. it would look particularly well in a bed-room in a large old-fashioned country house, where the rest of the furniture is perhaps rather cumbrous as well as convenient, and the glitter of the metal mounting would help to brighten a dingy corner. it cannot, however, be depended upon to hold much, and is chiefly valuable in a decorative sense, or as a stand for a toilette glass. [illustration: fig. .] in strong contrast to these two designs is fig. of modern japanese manufacture. it is easy to see that the original idea must have been taken from a common portable chest of drawers, such as officers use. the slight alteration in its arrangement is owing to japanese common sense and observation, for it would have required more strength of character than a cockney upholsterer possesses, to divide one of the parts so unequally as in this illustration. but the male heart will be sure to delight specially in that one deep drawer for shirts, and the shallow one at the top for collars, pockethandkerchiefs, neckties, and so forth. the lower drawers would hold a moderate supply of clothes, and the little closet contains three small drawers, besides a secret place for money and valuables. when the two boxes, for they are really little else, are placed side by side they measure only three feet one inch long, three feet four high, and one foot five deep. they hardly appear, from the prominence of the sliding handles, intended to be packed in outer wooden cases as portable chests of drawers usually are; but it must be remembered that in japan they would be carried from place to place slung on poles carried on men's shoulders. there is a good deal of iron used in the construction, which must be intended to give strength, but it does not add to the weight in any excessive degree, for it is very thin. the wood is soft and light, and rather over-polished, but the japanese artist would have delighted in varnishing it still more, and covering it with grotesque gilt designs in lacquer, if he had been allowed. on page will be found a roomy chinese cupboard with drawers and nicely-carved panels. [illustration: fig. .] many of our most beautiful old indian chests of drawers and cabinets have this black ground with quaintest bronze or brazen clamps and hinges, locks and handles, to give relief to the sombre groundwork. except that the drawers seldom open well, and are nearly always inconveniently small, they are the most beautiful things in the world for keeping clothes in, but it would certainly be as well to have, out of the room in a passage, some more commodious and commonplace receptacles. i have seen a corridor leading to bed-rooms, lined on each side with wardrobes, about six or seven feet high, consisting merely of a plain deal top with divisions at intervals of some five feet from top to bottom. a series of hanging cupboards was thus formed, which had been lined with stretched brown holland, furnished with innumerable pegs, and closed in by doors of a neat framework of varnished deal with panels of fluted chintz. besides these doors to each compartment, an ample curtain hung within, of brown holland, suspended by rings on a slender iron rod; and this curtain effectually kept out all dust and dirt, and preserved intact the delicate fabrics within. such an arrangement must have been, i fear, far more satisfactory to the soul of the lady's maid than the most beautiful old indian or french chest of drawers. [illustration: fig. .] for rooms which are not old-fashioned in style, and in which it is yet not possible to indulge in french _consoles_ or indian cabinets as places to keep clothes in, then i would recommend the essentially modern simple style of wardrobe and chest of drawers. i would eschew "gothic," or "mediæval," or any other style, and i would avoid painted lines as i would the plague. but there are perfectly simple, inoffensive wardrobes to be procured of varnished pine or even deal (and the former wears the best) which, if it can only be kept free from scratches, is at least in good taste and harmony in a modern, commonplace bed-room. it is quite possible, however by the exercise of a little ingenuity to dispense with modern, bought wardrobes, and to invent something which will hold clothes, and yet be out of the beaten track. i happened only the other day, to come across so good an example of what i mean,[ ] that i feel it ought to be described. first of all, it must be understood that the bed-room in question was a small one, in a london house recently decorated and fitted up in the style which prevailed in queen anne's reign, and to which there is now such a decided return of the public taste. the other portions of the furniture were in accordance with the original intention of the room and consisted of a very beautiful, though simple, carved oaken bedstead, and a plain spindle-legged toilette table and washstand, also old in design. the chairs were especially fine, having been bought in a cottage in suffolk, and yet they matched the bedstead perfectly. they had substantial rush-bottomed seats, but the frame was of fine dark oak, and the front feet spread out in a firm, satisfactory fashion giving an idea of solidity and strength. the fireplace was tiled after the old style, and the mantelpiece consisted of a couple of narrow oak shelves, about a dozen inches apart, connected by small pillars. these ledges afforded a stand for a few curious little odds and ends, and on the top shelf stood some specimens of old china. but the difficulty remained about the wardrobe, for the room was too small to admit old _bureaus_ which would only hold half a dozen articles of clothing. [footnote : see frontispiece.] [illustration: fig. .] so the ingenious owner devised a sort of corner cupboard to fit into an angle of the room, and to match the rest of the woodwork in colour and style, having old brass handles and plates like those on the doors. it is a sort of double cupboard; that is to say, whilst the left-hand side is a hanging wardrobe which only projects away from the wall sufficiently to allow the dresses to be hung up properly, the right-hand division is a chest of drawers. not a row of commonplace drawers, however. no; the front surface is broken by the introduction of little square doors and other arrangements, for bonnets, &c. we must bear in mind these drawers extend much higher than usual, and the cornice being nearly on a level with that of the wardrobe, there can be no possibility of putting boxes and so forth on the top; but then, on the other hand, a goodly range of drawers of differing depth is provided. it certainly seemed to me an excellent way of meeting the difficulty; and i also noticed in other bed-rooms in the same house how odd nooks and uneven recesses were filled in by a judicious blending of cupboard and wardrobe which is evidently convenient in practice as well as exceedingly quaint yet correct in theory. chapter v. fire and water. perhaps the part of any room which is most often taken out of, or put beyond the decorative hands of its owner, is the fireplace. and yet, though it is one of the most salient features in any english dwelling, it is, nine cases out of ten, the most repulsively ugly. when one thinks either of the imitation marble mantelpiece, or its cotton velvet and of false-lace-bedizened shelves, the artistic soul cannot refrain from a shudder. the best which can be hoped from an ordinary modern builder is that he will put in harmless grates and mantelpieces, and abstain from showy designs. the fireplace in either bed-room or boudoir should not be too large, nor yet small enough to give an air of stinginess, out of proportion to everything else. here are two (figs. and ). the design of each is as simple as possible, of plainest lines, but with no pretence of elaborate sham splendour. fig. is of course only suitable for a small unassuming room, but if the tiles were old dutch ones and the rest of the bed-room ware quaint blue and white delft, an effect of individuality and suitability would be at once attained. such a fireplace would look best in a room with wall-paper of warm neutral tints of rather an old-fashioned design, and i should like a nice straight brass fender in front of it almost as flat as a kitchen fender with delightful possibilities of sociable toe-toasting about it. such a one i came across lately that had been "picked up" in the far east of london. it was about eighteen inches high, of a most beautiful simple, flat, form with a handsome twist or scroll dividing the design into two parts. although blackened to disguise by age and neglect at the time of its purchase, it shone when i saw it, with that peculiar brilliant and yet softened sheen which you never get except in real old brass; a hue seldom if ever attained in modern brazen work however beautiful the design may be. this fender stood firmly--a great and especial merit in fenders--on two large, somewhat projecting, feet, and its cheerful reflections gave an air of brightness to the room at once. [illustration: fig. .] there must always be plenty of room for the fire, and the actual grate should of course be so set as to throw all the warmth into the room. then, though it is rather a digression,--only i want to finish off the picture which rises up before me,--i would have a couple of chairs something like this (fig. ), and just such a table for a book or one's hair-brushes a little in front of these two chairs. and then what a gossip must needs ensue! of course i would have a trivet on the fire, or before it. no bed-room can look really comfortable without a trivet and a kettle; a brass kettle for preference, as squat and fat and shining as it is possible to procure. there are charming kettles to be found, copied from dutch designs. [illustration: fig. .] instead of the ordinary wide low mantelpiece one sees in bed-rooms, i am very fond of two narrower shelves over such a fireplace as this. they are perhaps best plain oak, divided and supported by little turned pillars, and if the top shelf has a ledge half-way a few nice plates look especially well. but there are such pretty designs for mantelpieces now to be procured, that it would be a waste of time to describe any particular style, and most fireplaces are made on scientific principles of ventilation. nor is it, i hope, necessary to reiterate the injunction about every part of the decoration and detail of a room, whether fixture or moveable, matching or suiting all the rest. in some instances contrast is the most harmonious arrangement one can arrive at, but this should not be a matter lightly taken in hand. a strong feeling is growing up in favour of the old-fashioned open fireplaces lined with tiles, and adapted to modern habits by a sort of iron basket on low feet in the centre, for coals. excellent fires are made in this way, and i know many instances where the prettiest possible effect has been attained. in a country where wood is cheap and plentiful, the basket for coals may be done away with and the fuel kept in its place by sturdy "dogs," for which many charming hints have been handed down to us by our grandfathers. over the modern fireplace, even in a bed-room, a mirror is generally placed, but i would not advise it unless the room chanced to be so dingy that every speck of light must be procured by any means. still less would i have recourse to the usual stereotyped gilt-framed bit of looking glass. in such a private den as we are talking about, all sorts of little eccentricities might be permitted to the decorator. i have seen a looking-glass with a flat, narrow frame, beyond which projected a sort of outer frame also flat, wherein were mounted a series of pretty little water-colour sketches, and another done in the same way with photographs--only these were much more difficult to manage artistically, and needed to be mounted with a background of greyish paper. for a thoroughly modern room, small oval mirrors are pretty, mounted on a wide margin of velvet with sundry diminutive brackets and knobs and hooks for the safe bestowal of pet little odds and ends of china and glass, with here and there a quaint old miniature or brooch among them. in old, _real_ old rooms anything of this sort would, however, be an impossibility, for the mantelshelf would probably be carried up far over the owner's head who might think herself lucky if she could ever reach, by standing on tip-toe, a candlestick off its narrow ledge. our grandmothers seemed to make it their practice to hang their less choice portraits in the space above the mantelpiece, and to this spot seem generally to have been relegated the likenesses of disagreeable or disreputable, or, to say the least, uninteresting members of the family; the successful belles and heroes occupying a more prominent place downstairs. fig. shows a pretty arrangement of picture, mirror and shelves for china. [illustration: fig. .] before the subject of fire is laid aside, we must just touch upon candles and lamps. fig. is a simple and ordinary form of candlestick, which would be safe enough from risk of fire if these sheltering shades were made, as they often are, of tin, painted green, and then there would be no danger if it stood on a steady table, by the side of even the sleepiest student. but perhaps this design (fig. ) is the most uncommon, though it would not be safe to put so unprotected a light except in a perfectly safe draughtless place. however, there is also in this branch of decorative art a great variety of beautiful models to choose from. antique lamps, copied from those exquisite shapes which seem to have been preserved for us in lava and ashes during all these centuries, with their scissors and pin and extinguisher, dangling from slender chains, lamps where modern invention for oil and wick meet and blend with chaste forms and lines borrowed from the old designers, and where the good of the eyesight is as much considered as the pleasure to the eye itself. [illustration: fig. .] of washing arrangements, it is not possible to speak in any arbitrary fashion. here is a modern french washing-stand (fig. ) made, however, to close up, which is always an objectionable thing, in my opinion, though it may often be a convenient one. let your basin invariably be as large as possible and your jug of a convenient form, to hold and pour from. every basin-stand should be provided with a smaller basin and jug, and allow at the same time, plenty of space and accommodation for sponges and soap. if, from dearth of attendance, it is necessary to have a receptacle in the room, into which the basin may be emptied occasionally during the day, i would entreat that it should be also of china, for the tin ones soon acquire an unpleasant smell even from soapsuds. but i detest such contrivances, and they are absolutely inadmissible on any other score except economy of service. all bathing arrangements would be better in a separate room, but if this should be impossible, then they should be behind a screen. but indeed i prefer, wherever it is feasible, to contrive a small closet for all the washing apparatus, and to keep basin-stand, towel-horse, and bath in it. [illustration: fig. .] it is sometimes difficult to hit exactly upon a plan for a washing-stand for a very small room or corner, and a copy of this chinese stand (fig. ) for a basin and washing appliances, would look very quaint and appropriate in such a situation. only real, coarse, old indian, or japanese china, would go well with it, however, or it might be fitted with one of those wooden lacquered bowls from siam, and a water-jar from south america of fine red clay, and of a most artistic and delightful form. there are hundreds of such jars to be bought at madeira for a shilling or two, and they keep water deliciously cool and fresh. if a demand arose for them they would probably be imported in large quantities. all washing-stands are the better for a piece of indian matting hung at the back, for much necessary flirting and flipping of water goes on at such places, which stains and discolours the wall; but then this matting must constantly be renewed, for nothing can be more forlorn to the eye or unpleasing to the sense of smell, than damp straw is capable of becoming in course of time. [illustration: fig. .] for the corner of a boy's bed-room, or for the washing apparatus of that very convenient little cupboard or closet or corner which i always struggle to institute _down_-stairs, close to where the gentlemen of the family hang their hats and coats, this (fig. ) is a very good design. it is simple in form and steady in build, and a long towel over a roller just behind it will be found useful. the towel need not be so coarse as the kitchen "round" one, from which it is copied; and above all things do not have it _hard_. it is a needless addition to the unavoidable miseries of life to be obliged to dry your hands in a hurry on a new huckaback towel. [illustration: fig. .] many charming basin-stands have i seen extemporised out of even a shelf in a corner; but such contrivances are perhaps too much of make-shifts to entitle them to mention here, only one hint would i give. take care that your washing-stand is sufficiently low to enable you to use it with comfort. i once knew a very splendid and elaborate basin-stand, extending over the whole side of a dressing-room, which could only be approached by mounting three long low steps. i always felt thankful when my ablutions had ended and left my neck still unbroken. [illustration: fig. .] chapter vi. the toilet. there is no prettier object in either bed-room or boudoir than the spot where "the toilet stands displayed." whether it be a shrine _à la duchesse_ (fig. ) or the simplest form of support for a mirror, it will probably be the most interesting spot in the room to its fair owner. consequently there is nothing upon which the old love of decoration has more expended itself even from its earliest days, or which modern upholstery makes more its special study than this truly feminine shrine. i will say nothing of mirrors with three sides which represent you as a female "cerberus, three ladies in one," or indeed of mirrors of any sort or kind, as our business lies at this moment more with the tables on which they should stand. these can be found or invented of every imaginable form, and contain every conceivable convenience for receiving and hiding away the weapons which beauty (or rather would-be-beauty, which is not at all the same thing) requires. [illustration: fig. .] here (fig. ) is a sort of old-fashioned _tiroir_ of an exquisite simplicity, and with but little space outside for the "paraphernalia" of odds and ends which the law generously recognises as the sole and individual property of even a married woman. such articles would need to be stowed away in one of its many drawers. instead of the frivolous drapery which would naturally cover a deal toilet-table, the only fitting drapery for this beautiful old piece of furniture (of french design evidently) would be an embroidered and fringed strip of fine linen which should hang low down on either side. in a darksome room, imagine how the subdued brightness of its metal mountings would afford coigns of vantage to every stray sunbeam or flickering ray from taper or fire! and in its deep, commodious drawers too, might be neatly stowed away every detail of toilet necessaries. on it should stand a mirror which must imperatively be required to harmonise, set in a plain but agreeable frame without anything to mar the severe simplicity of the whole. there are several pieces of old furniture, however, which are better adapted to be used as toilet-tables than the subject of the illustration. such a piece of furniture is more suitable when it is divided, as is often the case, into three compartments, the centre one being considerably further back than the side-pieces. in this way a place is secured for the knees, when seated at it, and this central cupboard, when filled with shelves, makes an excellent receptacle for brushes and combs, and so forth. [illustration: fig. .] the defect of these old _tiroirs_ is that they are rather small and low, and consequently look best in a small room, but they offer great variety of decorative embellishment (fig. ), and are very satisfactory, as stands for a small oval toilet-glass in an old frame to match. the designs too of the brass mountings for door and drawer are nearly always exceedingly beautiful, and vary from the simplest shining ring to a small miracle of artistic brazen work. these shining handles take away a good deal from the severity of decorative treatment which would naturally exist in the rest of the room, and it is under such conditions, where form takes precedence of colour, that we learn the full value of these little traps to attract and keep a warm glitter of light. here is a simpler design for a toilet-table (fig. ) which would look very well standing between the windows of a lofty room. if it was found that a good light for the looking-glass had been sacrificed to the general harmony of the room, then a smaller glass might be placed _in_ a window, just for occasional use. [illustration: fig. .] some of the old-fashioned "toilet-equipages" are very beautiful just as they have come down to us. they are occasionally made in silver, and comprise many articles which cannot by any possibility be brought within the faith or practice of a modern belle. still they offer charming forms for imitation, especially in the frames of the old hand-mirrors, whose elaborate simplicity (if one may use such a paradox) puts to shame the more ornate taste of their modern substitutes. next to silver or tortoise-shell, i like ivory, as the material for a really beautiful and artistic set of toilet appendages, its delicious creamy tint going especially well with all shades of blue in a room. but i prefer the surface of the ivory kept plain and not grotesquely carved as you get it in china or japan, for dust and dirt always take possession of the interstices, and lead to the things being consigned to a drawer. now i cannot endure to possess any thing of any kind which had better be kept out of sight wrapped carefully away under lock and key. my idea of enjoying ownership is for my possession to be of such a nature that i can see it or use it every day--and all day long if i choose--so i shall not be found recommending anything which is "too bright and good for human nature's daily food." i have seen toilet-tables under difficulties, that is on board of real sea-going yachts, where it has been necessary to sink a little well into which each brush, box or tray securely fitted; and i have seen toilet-tables in kafir-land covered with common sixpenny cups and saucers, and shown as presenting a happy combination of use and ornament, strictly in conformity with "engleez fasson." [illustration: fig. .] but perhaps our business does not lie so much with these as with the ordinary dressing-table which is now more used in the modern shape of a convenient table with a scoop out of the middle, beneath which the knees can fit when you are seated at it, and with a couple of drawers on each side. this too is covered by a white _serviette_ of some sort, and supports a large toilet-glass of equally uncompromising utility and convenience. but however readily these good qualities may be conceded to the modern toilet-table it is but an uninteresting feature in an ideal bower. if the room be an essentially modern one, and especially if it be in the country, nothing affords a prettier spot of colour in it, than the old-fashioned toilet-table of deal covered with muslin draperies over soft-hued muslin or batiste. of course the caricature of such an arrangement may be seen any day in the fearful and detestable toilet-table with a skimpy and coarse muslin flounce over a tight-fitting skirt of glaring pink calico, but this is a parody on the ample, convenient stand for toilet necessaries, the draperies of which should be in harmony with the other colours of the room. it would need however to possess many changes of raiment, in order that it may always be kept up to the mark of spotless freshness. these draperies are prettier of plain soft white muslin without spot or figure of any kind, and may consist of two or three layers, draped with all the artistic skill the constructor thereof possesses. it is also an improvement, if instead of only a hideous crackle of calico beneath, there be a full flounce or petticoat of batiste which would give colour and graceful folds together. this is a very humble arrangement i know, but it can be made as effective as if it cost pounds instead of pence. and this is one of the strong points in all hints on decoration, that they should be of so elastic a nature as to be capable of expansion under favourable circumstances, though not beyond the reach of extremely slender resources. i do not recommend draped mirrors for modern toilet-tables on account of the danger from fire, and i like the style and frame of the looking-glass on the table to harmonise thoroughly with the rest of the furniture. chapter vii. odds and ends of decoration. it seems a pity that sofas and chairs made of straw or bamboo should not be more used than they are. i mean, used as they come from the maker's hands, _not_ painted or gilded, and becushioned and bedizened into hopeless vulgarity. they are only admissible _au naturel_, and should stand upon their own merits. those we have as yet attempted to make in england are exceedingly weak and ugly compared with the same sort of thing from other countries. in madeira, for instance, the chairs, baskets, and even tables, are very superior in strength and durability, as well as in correctness of outline, to those made in england; and when we go further off, to the east, we find a still greater improvement in furniture made of bamboo. here is a chair (fig. ), of a pattern familiar to all travellers on the p. and o. boats, and whose acquaintance i first made in ceylon. it is essentially a gentleman's chair, however, and as such is sinking into an honoured and happy old age in the dingy recesses of a london smoking-room. without the side-wings, which serve equally for a table or leg-rest, and with the seat elongated and slightly depressed, such a chair makes a delicious, cool lounge for a lady's use in a verandah. [illustration: fig. .] then here (fig. ) is a chinese sofa made of bamboo which, in its own country, would probably not be encumbered with cushions, for they can be removed at pleasure. where, however, there is no particular inducement to use cane or bamboo, then it would be better to have made by the village carpenter a settee--or settle, which is the real word--something like this. the form is, at all events correct; and in a private sitting-room, furnished and fitted to match, the effect would be a thousand times better than the modern couches, which are so often padded and stuffed into deformity. [illustration: fig. .] nothing can be simpler than the lines of the design, as is seen in this drawing (fig b), without the cushions; and it would come within the scope of the most modest upholstering genius. in one's own little den--which, by the way, i should _never_ myself dignify by the name of boudoir, a word signifying a place to idle and sulk in, instead of a retreat in which to be busy and comfortable--such odds and ends of furniture, so long as there be one distinct feeling running through it all, are far more characteristic than commonplace sofas and chairs. if one _must_ have large armchairs in a boudoir, or in a bed-room, here is one (fig. ) which is big enough in all conscience, and yet would go more harmoniously with an old-fashioned room than any fat and dumpy modern chair. if, on the other hand, the house in general, and this particular room, chances to be essentially in the style of the present day, then you would naturally choose some of the comfortable modern easy-chairs, taking care to avoid the shapes which are a mass of padded and cushioned excrescences. but modern armchairs can be very pretty, and i know several which are low and long, and straight and unassuming, and which yet preserve quite a good distinct outline. such chairs as these are a sort of half-way house between bed and board, between absolute rest and uncomplaining unrest; famous places for thinking, for watching, for chatting, and, above all, for dozing. [illustration: fig. a.] [illustration: fig. b.] the bed-rooms i am thinking of and writing about have, we must bear in mind, a certain element of the bower or boudoir or private sitting-room in them, and so i must stand excused for a suggestion about a place for books or music. here is a delightful corner for a piano (fig. ), but sometimes such a thing is out of the question, and it is only possible to find space for a few shelves. these can always be made suitable and pretty either of a simple old form in plainest oak to match the severe lines of an old-fashioned room, or of deal painted black, varnished, with a gilt line grooved in front, and a bit of bright leather to go with a more modern room. to my mind books are always the best ornaments in any room, and i never feel at home in any place until my beloved and often shabby old friends are unpacked and ranged in their recess. i once extemporised a capital book case out of a blocked-up window, and with, a tiny scrap of looking-glass let in where the arch of the window began its spring, and filled by some old bowls of coarse but capital old china, whose gaudy colours could only be looked at safely from a distance. [illustration: fig. .] as time goes on, one is sure, in such a beloved little den, to accumulate a great deal of rubbish dear, perhaps, only to the owner for the sake of association. which of us has not, at some tender time of our lives, regarded a withered flower, or valueless pebble, as our great earthly treasure? so, in later days, a plate, a cup, a pipe will be precious, perhaps, to one as mementoes of the place and companions where and with whom it was bought. but if such trifles, though too dear to be laid aside, are yet not intrinsically good enough to form part of a collection, and to take a prominent share in decoration, then i would either stand them aside on a little _étagère_ like that to be found on page , or else get the carpenter to put up graduated shelves, which may be quite pure and simple in taste and yet suit the rest of the room. this (fig. ) is a capital valuable hint to keep photographs or prints at hand, and yet in safety. take my advice, and don't have fringe or mock lace, or gilt nails at the edges by way of decoration. have a nice piece of wood, walnut, oak, even varnished pine, if you choose, neatly finished off at the edge, or, if it suits the rest of the room, black, with a little narrow gilt line in a depression. i think something ingenious might be done with japanese tea-trays, taking care to choose good designs. [illustration: fig. .] the worst of such a dear delightful den as i am imagining, or rather describing, is the tendency of the most incongruous possessions to accumulate themselves in it as time goes on. what do you think of a pitcher like this (fig. ) standing in one corner, just because, though of common ware, and rather coarsely modelled, the colour of the earthen-ware is delicious in tone, and the design bold and free? it was brought from south america, and cost only six shillings, or thereabouts, but if it had cost as many pounds it could not have been more thoroughly in harmony with the surroundings of its new home. [illustration: fig. .] one hint may not be out of place here, and that is with respect to table-covers. many people are fond of covering up writing-tables, and every occasional table, with a cloth; and these draped tables are generally great eyesores in an ill-arranged room. the covers seldom harmonise, and now-a-days many hideous pieces of work are accomplished in the name of the school of art which are far removed from the artistic and beautiful designs which alone proceed from the school itself. there indeed you may find patterns which would go beautifully with any old-time furniture, and which might be worked on deliciously neutral tints of cloth or serge. but beware of staring, gaudy table-covers, of shabby material, of which the best that can be hoped is that they may speedily fade into better harmony. the queen anne tables were never intended by their designer to be covered up by drapery. they are generally inlaid in delicate designs, which it would be a sin to conceal; nor could we afford to lose the slender grace of the legs. the clumsy, ill-finished cheap table of the present day is all the better for a cover, and wonders may be done in improving a bare, cold, unhappy-looking room, by a good table-cover here and there, or a nicely embroidered sofa-pillow of cloth or satin, or, better still, one of those lovely new low screens, with the tall tufts of grass or lilies which we owe to walter crane's skilful pencil. [illustration: fig. .] i confess i like a room to look as if it were inhabited, and that is the only drawback that the rooms furnished in the seventeenth century style have in my eyes. you scarcely ever feel as if any one lived in them--there are seldom any signs of occupation, especially feminine occupation, lying about, no "litter," in fact; litter being a powerful weapon in the hands of a person who knows how to make a room look comfortable. then i am told that litter is incongruous in a queen anne room, for that the women of those days had not the same modes of employment as ourselves. the greatest ladies, if they were blessed with an energetic temperament, only gave it free scope with their medicine chest or in their still-room or linen closet; while the lazy ones were obliged to dawdle away a good deal of their time in bed or at their elaborate toilettes. but still i am always longing to overlay a little of the modish primness of the distant days we are now copying, with something of this busy nineteenth century's tokens of a love of art or literature. and in a room with any claim to a distinct individuality of its own, this would always be the case. chapter viii. the sick-room. however skilfully designed the arrangements of a house may appear to be, however sumptuously decorated and furnished its rooms, it is impossible to know whether a great law of common sense and practical usefulness has guided such arrangements, until there has been an illness in the house. then will it be discovered--too late alas!--whether doors and windows open conveniently, whether fireplaces give out proper warmth, how the apparatus for ventilation works, and whether the staircases, landings, cupboards, and a thousand unconsidered items of the architect's labours have been planned in the best possible way, or in the stupidest. for the comfort and convenience of the patient at such times, it is by no means necessary that much money should have been spent on the construction of the house that chances to shelter him in his hour of suffering, nor that its furnitures or decorations should be of a costly character. fortunately such things need not aim at anything higher than cleanliness and convenience, and we only require to exert our own recollections in support of this assertion. as far as my individual experience goes, i have seen an old woman, who had been bed-ridden for years, more comfortably housed and tended beneath a cottage roof, and her room kept more exquisitely clean and sweet than that of many wealthy patients in splendid houses. of course everything depends on the capacity for organisation and arrangement in the person who has charge of the invalid, but the nurse's task may be made much easier by having to perform it in a bed-room and under conditions which are in accordance with the exigencies of such a time. many smart and pretty-looking bed-rooms are discovered by their sick owner to be very different abodes to what they seemed to him in health. awkwardly-placed doors and windows produce unsuspected draughts; the too close proximity of an ill-arranged staircase or housemaid's closet becomes a serious trouble, and a low pitched ceiling prevents proper ventilation. it is more difficult than one imagines to find in a badly proportioned room a single convenient place for the patient's bed. it must be either close to the door, or touching the fireplace, or under a window or in some situation where it distinctly ought _not_ to be. i have known such faults--faults which occasioned discomfort every moment, and had to be remedied by a thousand make-shift contrivances, occur in splendid rooms in magnificent houses; and i have known poor little modern dwellings in a colony to be perfectly free from them. when i am told, "such or such a room or house is a very comfortable one _to be ill in_" then i know that the construction and arrangement of that abode, however simple it may appear, must needs be up to a very high mark indeed. of course a great deal can be done to modify existing evils, by a judicious arrangement of screens and curtains, by taking out useless furniture, by substituting a comfortable low bed, easy to get at, for a cumbrous couch where the unhappy patient's nose seems as if it was intended to rub against the ceiling, and various other improvements. but what can remedy a smoky chimney, or a grate where all the heat goes up the chimney, or windows that rattle, and doors that open in every direction except the right one? how can an outside landing or lobby be created at a moment's notice, or a staircase moved a yard further off? of course if an illness gave notice before it seized its victim, if people ever realised that a house should be so constructed as to reduce the chances of illness to a minimum, and raise its possible comforts to a maximum if it did come, then everything would go on quite smoothly and we should certainly live, and probably die, happy. but this is exactly what we do not do, and this chapter would never have been written if i had not seen with my own eyes innumerable instances where neither want of money, nor space, nor opportunity for improvement were the causes of a wretchedly uncomfortable sick-room. i have known bed-rooms which looked nests of rosy, luxurious comfort until their owner fell ill, and then turned suddenly, as it seemed, into miserable comfortless abodes of frippery and useless, tasteless finery--where a candle could scarcely be placed anywhere without risk of fire, and where the patient has deeply complained of the way the decorations of the room "worried" her. as a rule, in a severe illness, sick people detest anything like a confusion or profusion of ornaments or furniture. if i am in authority in such a case, i turn all gimcracks bodily out, substituting the plainest articles of furniture to be found in the house. very few ornaments are allowable in a sick-room, and i only encourage those which are of a simple, correct form. i have known the greatest relief expressed by a patient, who seemed too ill to notice any such change, at the substitution of one single, simple classical vase for a whole shelf-full of tawdry french china ornaments, and i date the recovery of another from the moment of the removal out of his sight of an exceedingly smart modern dressing-table, with many bows of ribbon and flounces of lace and muslin. i do not mean to say that the furniture of a sick-room need be ugly--only that it should be simple and not too much of it. nothing confuses and worries a person who is ill like seeing his attendants threading their way through mazes of chairs and sofas and tables; but he will gladly look and find relief and even a weary kind of pleasure in gazing at a table of a beautiful, simple form, placed where it is no fatigue for him to look at it, with a glass of flowers, a terra-cotta vase, a casket, anything which is so intrinsically beautiful in form as to afford repose to the eye. i have often observed that when people begin to take pleasure in _colour_, it is a sure sign of convalescence--for in severe illness, unless indeed it be of such a nature as to preclude all power of observation, form is of more importance to the patient than colour. one learns a great deal from what people tell one _after_ they are well enough to talk of such things as past, distempered fancies. for instance, i was once nursing a typhoid fever patient, who lay for some days in an agony of weakness. he had been deaf as well as speechless, and all his senses appeared to have faded away to the very brink of extinction. yet afterwards when he became able to talk of his sensations at different stages of his illness, he mentioned that particular time, and i found he had been keenly conscious of the _forms_ of the objects around. he spoke of the pleasure which the folds of a curtain had afforded him, of the "comfort" of the shape of the old-fashioned arm-chair in which i used to sit, and of how grateful he had felt when he observed that divers gimcracks had been removed from his sight. later, as he grew better, and the weary eyes craved for colour, i found it necessary to pretend to be busy dressing dolls or making pincushions, to afford myself an excuse for a little heap of brightest coloured silks and fragments of ribbon placed where he could see them, and the daily fresh bunches of flowers were a perpetual delight to his eyes. an ideal sick-room then should first of all possess walls which will not weary or worry the sick person, and no _good_ pattern will do this. the low bed should be so placed that whilst it would be sheltered from draught (the aid of one or two screens will be useful here) the light would not fall disagreeably on the patient's eyes. no rule can be given about light. in some cases the sick person loves to look out of the window all day, whilst in others a ray of light _on_ the face is agony. in such circumstances the bed should, if possible, be so arranged as to allow the light to come from behind, for it is only in rare and exceptional cases that sunshine as well as outer air may not be admitted daily into a sick-room. we are fast getting beyond the ignorance of a north aspect for a bed-room, and most of us know that sunshine is quite as necessary to a bed-room as to a garden. no children will ever thrive unless they have plenty of sunshine, as well as air in the rooms in which they sleep, and a sick-room should also have both in abundance. if the weather be hot, it is easy, in england, to modify the temperature by means of outer blinds, _persiennes_, open doors, and other means. few people understand what i have learnt in tropical countries, and that is, how to exclude the outer air during the hot hours of the day. the windows of the nursery or sick-room (for we all need to be treated like children when we are ill) should be opened wide during the early cool, morning-tide, and the room flooded with sun and outer air. then, by nine or ten o'clock, shut up rigorously every window, darkening those on which the sun would beat, _out-side_ the glass--by means of blinds or outer shutters--until the evening, when they may all be set wide open again. all woollen draperies, curtains and valences should be done away with in a sick-room. if the windows are unsightly without curtains, and the illness is likely to be a long one, then substitute soft, patternless muslin or chintz, or, prettiest of all, white dimity with a gay border, but let there be no places of concealment in a sick-room. every thing unsightly or inodorous should be kept out of it, and herein is found the convenience of a well-planned and well-arranged house, where clothes-baskets, and things of that sort, can be so bestowed as to be at the same time handy and yet out of the way. if it were not for the unconceivable untidiness and want of observation which exists in the human race, such cautions as not to leave about the room the clothes the sick person has last worn, hanging up or huddled on a chair in a corner, would seem superfluous. but i have actually seen a girl stricken down by a sudden fever, lying at death's door, on her little white bed, whilst the wreath she wore at the ball where she took the fatal chill, still hung on her toilette glass, and her poor little satin shoes were scattered about the room. she had been ill for days; there were two ladies'-maids in the house, besides anxious sisters, parents, and nurses, and yet no one had thought of putting these things out of sight. the first rule, therefore, to be observed in nursing even bad colds, where the sufferer may have to stay in bed a few days, is to send all the linen he has been wearing to the wash _at once_, and to put away everything else in its proper place. boots should never be allowed in a sick-room, for the leather and blacking is apt to smell disagreeably and they ought immediately to be removed to another place. then there should be if possible _outside_ the door of the sick-room, either on a landing or in another room, a convenient table, covered with a clean, white cloth, on which should be ranged spare spoons, tumblers, glasses, and so forth, and whatever cooling drinks are wanted, all so managed that dust shall be an impossibility. inside the room, on another small table, or shelf, or top of chest of drawers, according to circumstances, should be kept also on a snowy cloth, just whatever is actually needed at a moment's notice--medicines and their proper glasses, &c., and a spoon or two, but the instant anything is used, it should be an established rule that the nurse puts the spoon or glass _outside_, and supplies its place with a clean one. in most cases, a servant need only renew the supply outside twice a day. as for keeping trays with nourishment in the room, it is a sign of such careless nursing that i should hardly dare to mention it, if i had not more than once gone to relieve guard in a friend's splendid sick-room at daylight, and seen the nurse's supper-tray of the night before _on the floor_ whilst the room, in spite of all its beautiful decorations, smelt sickly and disgusting with the odour of stale beer and pickles. it is incredible that such things should happen, but in the confusion caused by a sudden and severe illness, untidy and careless habits are apt to come to the surface, and loom largely as aggressive faults. sickness is not only a great test of the sufferer's own character and disposition, but of those of the people around him, and as a general rule, i have discovered more beautiful qualities in sick people, and those about them, who dwell in cottages or even hovels, than in more splendid homes. everyone knows how really kind poor people are to each other, and never more so than when the angel of disease or death is hovering over the humble roof-tree. food, or nourishment as it is called in sick-room phraseology, would not so often be refused by the patient if it were properly managed. who does not know the wearisomeness of being asked, probably in the morning, when the very thought of food is an untold aggravation to one's sufferings what one could "fancy"? and this is probably followed by a discussion on the merits or possibilities of divers condiments, to each of which as it is canvassed before him the wretched patient is sure to declare a deep-rooted repugnance. a sick person, until he reaches that happy stage of convalescence when it is an amusement to him, should never be allowed to hear the slightest discussion on the subject of his nourishment. whatever the doctor orders should be prepared with as wide a range of variety as can be managed, and offered to him in the smallest permissible quantities, exactly cold or hot enough to take, and served as prettily and daintily as possible, at exactly the right moment. the chances are a hundred to one that, if it is within the range of possibilities that he can swallow at all, he will take it. if he does not, there should be no argument, no attempt at forcing it on him; it should at once be taken quite away and something different brought as soon afterwards as is prudent. few people realise how extraordinarily keen the sense of smell becomes in illness, and how the faint ghost of a possible appetite may be turned into absolute loathing by the smell of a cup of beef-tea, cooling by the bed-side for ten minutes before it is offered. i am always guided in a great degree about nourishment by the instincts of my patient, and i never force stimulants, or anything equally distasteful on a sick person who is at all reasonable upon such matters. i once had a patient to nurse, whose desperate illness had brought him very near the shadowy land. it had left him, and the doctors assured me that his life depended on how much brandy i could get down his throat during the night. i told him this, for he was quite sensible, when he refused the first teaspoonful, and he whispered in gasps, "i'll take as much milk as you like; that stuff kills me." so i gave him teaspoonfuls of pure milk all through the night every five minutes, and not a drop of brandy. the doctor's first reproachful glance in the morning was at the untouched brandy bottle, and he shook his head, but when he had felt the sick man's pulse his countenance brightened, and he graciously gave me permission to go on with the milk. of course there are cases when the patient never expresses an opinion one way or other, and then the only safe rule is to obey the doctor's orders, but i never fly in the face of any strong instinct of a sick person rationally expressed. so now i hope we have some glimmering idea of what a sick-room should be: cool in summer, warm in winter, but deliciously sweet and fresh and fragrant always. simple in its furniture, but the few needful articles, of as agreeable shapes and as convenient as possible--a room which can be looked back upon with a sort of affection as a place of calm, of discipline, and of organization, as well as of the mere kindness and willingness to help, which is seldom, if ever, absent from a sick-room, but which is not the beginning and end of what is necessary within its walls. there are bed-rests and bed-tables to be hired for a sick person's use in almost any town in england; or, if it is preferred, any village carpenter could make a table with legs six or eight inches high, and a top of a couple of smooth light planks, about two feet six long, scooped out in the middle. this is very convenient when the patient is well enough to sit up in bed and employ himself. the bed-rests are equally simple, the upper half of a chair, padded, and made to lower at convenience, while a loose jacket or wrapper, easy to slip on, of flannel, should also be provided to throw over the patient's shoulders when he uses chair and table. when the patient can sit up and occupy himself this sort of table will be found a great comfort. it might just as well be used when lying on a sofa. [illustration: fig. .] one word more, like a postscript, for it has no real business to intrude itself here. it is only an entreaty to all nurses or those in authority in a sick-room, to wear the prettiest clothes they possess. not the smartest, far from it; the simplest cottons, cambrics, what you will, but nice and fresh and pleasant to look at. if it is only a dressing-gown it may be a charming one. no hanging sleeves, or dangling chains, or streaming ribbons, but sufficient colour for weary eyes to rest on with pleasure. an ideal toilette for sick-room nursing would be a plain holland or cambric gown, made with absolute simplicity--long enough to be graceful without possessing a useless train--rather tight sleeves, and no frills or furbelows; a knot of colour at the throat and in the hair, or on the cap--only let your ribbons be exquisitely fresh and clean--and a nice large apron, or rather bib, with one big pocket in front. this apron may be tied back--not too tightly, please--with the same coloured ribbons, and a little change of hue now and then is a great rest and refreshment in a sick room. there are charming linen aprons now embroidered in school of art designs of the shape i allude to, but they can be made equally well in print, or plain holland, or linen. no garment that rustles or creaks, or makes its presence audible should ever cross the threshold, but the toilette of the nurse should always be exquisitely clean and neat, and yet as bright and pretty as possible. no sitting up at night, no anxiety or unhappiness should be an excuse for a dirty, dishevelled attendant in a sick-room. it is _always_ possible to steal half an hour morning and evening to wash and change, and do one's hair neatly, and the gain and comfort to the patient as well as to the nurse, is incalculable. this also would not be touched upon if my own recollections did not supply me with so many instances, where all this sort of care was considered to be absolutely worthless, and yet sick people have remarked afterwards how perfectly conscious they had been of all such shortcomings, and how such and such a tumbled cap, or shawl pinned on awry had been like a nightmare to them. beauty itself is never more valuable than in a sick-room, and if laws could be passed on the subject, i should like to oblige all the pretty girls of my acquaintance to take it in turn to do a little nursing. i venture to say that no ball-room triumphs would ever compare with the delight their possession of god's greatest and best gift would afford to his sick and suffering creatures. but a nurse may always make herself look pleasant and agreeable, and if she have the true nursing instinct, the ready tact and sympathy which a sick-bed needs, she may come to be regarded as "better than pretty" by her grateful patient. chapter ix. the spare room. perhaps the kindliest and wisest advice with regard to a spare room, would be the same as _punch's_ famous counsel to young people about to marry--a short and emphatic "don't." in a large country house, perhaps even in a small country house, the case is different, for the spare room too often represents all the social variety which the owners can hope for, from year's end to year's end--and the only change from town life possible to half the bees in the great hive. it is scarcely possible to imagine an english country house, be it ever so humble, without its spare room, or the warm cordial welcome which would be sure to greet its succeeding inhabitants. how fresh and sweet and dainty do its simple appointments look to jaded eyes! how grateful its deep stillness to world-deafened ears! how impossible, in a brief summer week, to believe that life can ever be found dull or monotonous amid such delicious calm! a walk in the gloaming in a country lane,--always supposing it is not too muddy--a cup of milk fresh from the cow, a crust off the home-baked loaf, are all treats of the first order to the tired cockney. i have often noticed the sort of half-pitying, half-contemptuous amazement with which my country hostess has beheld my delight at being installed in her spare room, my rapture at the sight of meadows and trees, or the sound of cawing rooks and the whirr of mowing machines. and how fresh and clean ought this country spare room to look! how inexcusable would be stain or spot, or evil odour amid such fragrant surroundings! why should not the sheets _always_ smell of lavender (as a matter of fact, they do not, i regret to state)? why should not there be _always_ a jar of dried rose-leaves somewhere "around," as our dear, epigrammatic, yankee cousins say? [illustration: fig. .] i do not think i really like silks and satins anywhere; i acknowledge that they fill me with a respectful admiration and awe for a short space, but that soon wears off, and my accidental splendour bores me all the rest of the time i have to dwell with it. no, the sort of guest-chamber which i love to occupy in the country is as simple as simple can be, and not so crowded with furniture, but that a little space is left here and there where a box can be placed without its intruding itself as a nuisance for which one feels constantly impelled to apologise. if i am so fortunate as to find in a corner of my room a little frame, about two feet high made by the village carpenter, or the big boys of the household, for this box to stand on, then, indeed, i know what luxury means. you have your box so much more under your control if it is raised a little from the floor, and it is ever so much easier to pack and unpack. the taste and characteristics of the owners of the house, which you may be sure is to be found in all their surroundings, is never more apparent than in the spare room. sometimes your hostess tries to make you happy with looking-glasses, and i have shudderingly dwelt in a room with five large mirrors and sundry smaller ones; or else you are abashed to find how many gowns there is space for, and how few you have brought. but this extreme is better than the other: i have had to keep my draperies on all the available chairs in the room because i was afraid to open and shut the diminutive drawers of an exquisite, aged coffre which was provided for their reception. beautiful as was this article of furniture, i would gladly have changed it for the commonest deal chest of drawers, long before the week was out. in spare rooms, as in all other rooms, money is not everything. it will not always buy taste, nor even comfort. doubtless many of my readers who may happen to have led as varied a life as mine has been, will agree with me in the assertion, that as far as actual _comfort_ goes, they have often possessed it in a greater degree under a very humble roof-tree, than beneath many a more splendid shelter. everybody has their "little ways" (some of them very tiresome and odd, i admit), and there are splendid spare rooms in which apparently no margin has been left, no indulgence shown, for any little individualities. i should not be an englishwoman writing to other englishwomen if i did not take it for granted that we all desire most ardently that our guests should be thoroughly comfortable in their own rooms as well as happy in our society, and so i venture to suggest that visitors should not be fettered by too many rules, that, however homely the plenishing of the guest-chamber must needs be, it should never lack a few fresh flowers, a place to write (fig. ), pen and ink, a tiny table which can be moved about at pleasure, a dark blind for the window, and such trifles which often make the difference between comfort and discomfort, between a homelike feeling directly one arrives, and the incessant consciousness of being "on a visit." but with regard to spare rooms in a town house, what advice can be given beyond and except that horrid "don't"? especially true is this in london. no one has the least idea how many affectionate relations he possesses until he has an empty bed-room in a london house. it would almost appear as if such things as hotels and lodgings had ceased to exist, so incessant, so importunate are the entreaties to be "put up" for a couple of nights. and let me say here that visitors will prove much more of a tax in london than they ever are in the country. for rural visitors scarcely ever seem to realise or comprehend how methodically mapped out is the life of a professional man living in london, how precious are to him the quiet early hours which they insist upon leaving behind them in the solitude of the country. speaking as a london hostess, i may conscientiously assert that the guests who have kept me up latest at night, who have voted breakfast at . unreasonably early (without considering it was a whole hour later than our usual time) have been those people who ordinarily led the quietest and most clock-work existence in their country home. i will say nothing here of the impossibility of inducing them to regard distance or cab-hire as presenting any objection worth consideration in their incessant hunt after the bargains erroneously supposed by them to be obtainable in every shop. i have been scolded roundly by country visitors for keeping early hours and leading a quiet life in london, and i have never succeeded in impressing on them that in order to get through a great deal of hard work, both my husband and i found it necessary to do both. to a professional man, with a small income, the institution of a spare room may be regarded as an income tax of several shillings in the pound. it is even worse than that; it means being forced to take in a succession of lodgers who don't pay, who are generally amazingly inconsiderate and _exigeante_, and who expect to be amused and advised, chaperoned and married, and even nursed and buried. it is inconceivable upon what slender grounds, or for what far-fetched reasons, your distant acquaintance, or your--compared to yourself--rich relation, will unhesitatingly demand your hospitality. and oh, my unknown friends, how often are we tempted to say yes to the well-to-do relation who asks the question of us, and to find an excuse to shut out the poor one who really needs it? ah how often? it is really a trial to be unable to receive one's nearest kith and kin, one's sailor brother or sister home from india, because "we have no spare room," yet that very beginning, natural and delightful as it is, cheerfully and laughingly borne as the little privations it entails may be, is often the beginning of a stream of self-invited guests who literally worry us, if they don't exactly "eat us," out of house and home. the end. london: r. clay, sons, and taylor, bread street hill. [illustration: designer in porcelain & glass john mortlock estab^d. pottery galleries & oxford street. orchard street. london, w.] the old pottery galleries. by special appointment to her majesty the queen and their royal highnesses the prince and princess of wales. minton's china. john mortlock begs to call attention to his specialties in art pottery. breakfast, dinner, dessert, tea, and toilet services, in porcelain and earthenware. services of cut, engraved, or plain glass. _the pottery studio, where ladies can learn to decorate their own rooms, is conducted by young ladies from south kensington._ all goods marked in plain figures, with a liberal discount for cash. , , & , oxford street, and , , & , orchard street, portman square, london, w. * * * * * art at home series. "in these decorative days the volumes bring calm counsel and kindly suggestions, with information for the ignorant and aid for the advancing, that ought to help many a feeble, if well-meaning pilgrim along the weary road, at the end whereof, far off, lies the house beautiful.... if the whole series but continue as it has begun--if the volumes yet to be rival the two initial ones, it will be beyond praise as a library of household art."--_examiner._ _the following are now ready_:-- a plea for art in the house. with special reference to the economy of collecting works of art and the importance of taste in education and morals. by w. j. loftie, f.s.a. with illustrations. fifth thousand. crown vo. _s._ _d._ suggestions for house decoration in painting, woodwork, and furniture. by rhoda and agnes garrett. with illustrations. sixth thousand. crown vo. _s._ _d._ music in the house. by john hullah. with illustrations. fourth thousand. crown vo. _s._ _d._ the drawing-room: its decorations and furniture. by mrs. orrinsmith. with numerous illustrations. fourth thousand. crown vo. _s._ _d._ the dining-room. by mrs. loftie. with numerous illustrations. fourth thousand. crown vo. _s._ _d._ the bed-room and boudoir. by lady barker. with numerous illustrations. fourth thousand. crown vo. _s._ _d._ _in preparation_:-- dress. by mrs. oliphant. domestic architecture. by j. j. stevenson. drawing and painting. by h. stacey marks. _others to follow._ macmillan and co., london. * * * * * howard's patent carpet parquet. sanitary, beautiful, and durable. price from /- per foot. recommended by =dr. richardson, f.r.s.=, in his lecture on "hygeia" for its _sanitary advantages_; and also by =mrs. orrinsmith in "the drawing room,"= page ("=art at home series=") for its _sanitary advantages_ and _artistic effect_. it is made as borders to room floors, or to entirely cover the same, and can be laid either in a portable form, or be permanently fixed. for bed-rooms, it is specially recommended for cleanliness, and it also facilitates the lifting of the carpet, as the heavy furniture stands on the parquet clear of the carpet. _illustrated catalogues priced, free on application, and patterns also sent when required._ howard and sons, upholsterers and decorators, manufacturers, by steam power, of artistic furniture, panelling and parqueterie. , , & , berners street, london, w. factory: cleveland works, w. * * * * * the fine art society's specialities for decoration. water-colour drawings. the best examples only of the english & continental schools. engravings. _the recently published works of sir joshua reynolds._ engraved by s. cousins, r.a. the countess spencer and lord althorpe. the duchess of rutland (in progress). the hon. ann bingham. the strawberry girl. and others. _etchings_ by whistler.--seymour haden, &c. photographs of sea and sky. by col. stuart-wortley. _either on paper, opal glass, or in a decorative form for window transparencies--in all sizes._ china. old blue-oriental cloisonnÉ, &c., &c. at the fine art society's galleries, , new bond street, london. * * * * * transcriber notes: missing punctuation has been added and obvious punctuation errors have been corrected. archaic words, mis-spellings and printer errors have been retained. footnote has been moved closer to its reference point. illustrations have been moved to accommodate the flow of text. the library of work and play carpentry and woodwork by edwin w. foster electricity and its everyday uses by john f. woodhull, ph.d. gardening and farming by ellen eddy shaw home decoration by charles franklin warner, sc.d. housekeeping by elizabeth hale gilman mechanics, indoors and out by fred t. hodgson needlecraft by effie archer archer outdoor sports, and games by claude h. miller, ph.b. outdoor work by mary rogers miller working in metals by charles conrad sleffel [illustration: hanging a picture the wall space is a part of the framing of a picture] home decoration by prof. charles f. warner, sc.d. _for eight years master of the rindge manual training school, mass. twelve years principal of the technical high school and director of the evening school of trades, springfield, mass._ [illustration: title page] garden city new york doubleday, page & company all rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages, including the scandinavian copyright, , by doubleday, page & company to the boys and girls of america this book which records what some of them have done is hopefully dedicated some pure lovers of art discard the formula, _art for progress, the beautiful useful_, fearing lest the useful should deform the beautiful. they tremble to see the drudge's hand attached to the muse's arm. they are solicitous for the sublime if it descends as far as to humanity. ah! they are in error. the useful, far from circumscribing the sublime, enlarges it.... is aurora less splendid, clad less in purple and emerald--suffers she any diminution of majesty and of radiant grace, because, foreseeing an insect's thirst, she carefully secretes in the flower the dewdrop needed by the bee? victor hugo. acknowledgments this volume is the result of an effort to bring together in close relation with fundamental principles of design a variety of practical problems which are more or less closely connected with the general problem of home decoration and suited to the constructive ability of boys and girls from twelve to eighteen years of age. while the book is mainly a record of the author's experience and observation in this department of educational work, he has received many suggestions from co-workers in the same field. it will be impossible to give credit to all who have directly or indirectly assisted in the preparation of this book: but special acknowledgments are due to mr. fred m. watts, who furnished the material for the chapter on pottery and several drawings for other parts of the book; to miss grace l. bell for the illustrations and descriptions embodied in the chapter on block printing; to mr. burton a. adams for the problems in metal work; to mr. edwin a. finch and mr. lewis o. richardson who contributed many of the specifications for the problems in furniture-making; to miss elizabeth m. morton for specific suggestions pertaining to the subject of dress as related to the principles of decoration; and to mrs. ruth b. s. flower, of florence, mass., who supplied several of the photographs and much of the descriptive matter for the chapter on weaving. springfield, mass. c. f. w. contents chapter page i. introductory--the story of a house ii. decorations and furniture iii. pictures iv. the arrangement of flowers v. decorative fabrics vi. dress and the principles of decoration vii. furniture making viii. finishing and re-finishing ix. hand weaving x. pottery xi. decorative work in leather, copper, and other materials xii. concluding suggestions--country homes illustrations hanging a picture _frontispiece_ facing page all the rough carpentry was assigned to the boys of the woodworking sections of the vocational school the boys of the forging classes of the technical high school were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house a table runner of russian crash and pillow cover with geometrical design window draperies with stencilled border crocheted panels, a linen work bag with conventional landscape in darning stitch, a crash table mat embroidered in darning and couching stitch finishing a library table weaving a rug hand made rugs, hand made towels an alcove with window draperies, pillow covers, window seat and moss green rug, all hand woven hand woven window draperies, couch cover, slumber rug, and pillow covers girls at work on pottery bowls vases and fern dishes tiles pottery: designed and made by schoolgirls decorative forgings home decoration [illustration: a model house: designed by girls and built by boys] i introductory the story of a house to design, plan, and build a house is a task that rarely falls to the lot of boys and girls. in fact, it is not the common experience of men and women to build houses without the aid of architects, masons, and carpenters. such a task, however, was recently offered to certain classes in one of the public schools of a well-known new england city. it was, indeed, a school problem, and yet there was something about it that seemed to suggest larger and more interesting things than are ordinarily dealt with in the school-room. it did not seem at all like some school work. it was more like real life; for all boys and girls must some day have homes of their own, and here was a chance to learn how the house, which is an important part of every home, is planned and built. it is hardly necessary to say that this work--or play, if you like that word better--was undertaken with genuine enthusiasm. it was a task crammed full of the pleasure of interest and of accomplishment--full of the joy of doing something worth while--from the beginning to the end. _the house a work of art._--one of the first lessons learned by these young builders--perhaps the most important one of all--was that a great many things have to be thought of in planning a house, if the thing is to be well done. it is not simply a question of deciding how many rooms one will have, arranging them in some conventional order, and building the house around them with whatever external features style or fancy may dictate. too many houses, it is true, are planned, or at least put up, in this thoughtless fashion; and whatever goes into them in decoration or furniture is generally chosen either for necessary use or for display--not with any thought of the real comfort and satisfaction that come from artistic surroundings. people who are satisfied with such dwellings seem to show less appreciation of art, the highest product of civilization, than those uncivilized tribes who decorated their caves or huts with beautiful rugs of their own weaving and who ornamented their pottery and their utensils and implements with wonderfully conceived and elaborately wrought designs. modern cave dwellers in apartment houses with all the conveniences of their ready-made surroundings, are in danger of missing that self-expression in their home belongings that encouraged and delighted even the savage. the most extreme example of this form of degeneracy is found in the suggestion of a certain great inventor, that the age of concrete construction, now at hand, means that we are to have concrete houses poured into a standard mould, hardened in twenty-four hours, and finished for occupancy in a day or two. the boys and girls of this story would not have accepted a machine-made, standardized house if one had been offered them, ready for use. there was a special purpose for which their house was to be planned and built, as there generally is in the case of any real house. no style a, b, or c, chosen from any series of pattern-built or moulded houses, could fulfil such a purpose; and even if it could, would they willingly give up all the fun of planning and building and furnishing? would they forego the lessons of experience to be learned from all this work? this is always a large part of the satisfaction which comes to any one who builds his own house. in the present instance it was the chief motive, since the boys and girls who were planning this house were not expecting to make their home there. _why the house was built._--what, then, was the purpose for which this house was to be built; and what were the specific problems involved in realizing this purpose? it was to be a practice house for the girls of the household technology course. this meant that it should be, so far as possible, a model house; but it must of necessity be a simple one. economy, always a safe guide, was a most important factor in determining the character of the design. a limited appropriation--about $ --for building material was available. economy of space as well as of expense was also important. the only available land was a triangular lot in the corner of the school yard, square feet in area. this limited the dimensions of the floor plan to by feet. it was decided to develop the design within these dimensions, on a rectangular plan, with one story and a hip roof, because such a design would present comparatively easy problems in framing and insure a building of pleasing external proportions. the general design and the plan in attacking the problem of design the method of approach was determined by the fact that school-girls and school-boys were to be the architects and builders. house planning, home decoration, and household management were important subjects of study on the part of the girls and various forms of drawing and constructive work were required of all the boys of this school; so they all felt that they had a right to contribute something out of their study and experience that might be of value in working out this problem. the design must therefore be a composite of the best features of many studies. _a composite design._--the rooms required for a house of this character were thought to be a hall, a living room, a dining-room, a kitchen, a pantry, a bedroom with a closet, a bath room, and a linen closet. nothing short of this outfit of rooms would satisfy the demands of a house to be used to give practical training in all the essentials of plain housekeeping and in the entertainment of guests. with these requirements in mind and with full knowledge of all the limitations of the problem, the girls of the junior and senior classes, who were taking the course in household technology, entered into a lively but friendly competition with each other to produce the most acceptable design and draw the best plan. so many excellent plans resulted from this competition that it was difficult to select the best. it was therefore decided to combine in a new and final plan the best features of several studies that seemed to meet the conditions of the problem with equal success. two of these were selected as having the greatest number of good points. from these the final floor plan was developed and the necessary modifications made in the original drawings to make the general design of the building fit the plan. [illustration: floor plan of the model house] _the hall._--it may be of interest to note how some of the details of the problem of design were worked out for the final plan. beginning with the hall, it was easily seen that economy of space required that the room should have small dimensions. in fact, it did not need to be a separate room at all. it could easily be a space between the living room and the dining-room, separated from both by means of portières and joined upon occasion with either room or with both, thus making possible a reception room or a dining-room of good size, or one large room. of course, the central idea of a hall must not be lost sight of in providing for a desirable extension of other rooms. it should suggest a warm welcome to the guest; and here is where the fireplace may fulfil the double function of giving the cheer of the hearth-stone at all times and the comfort of fire when warmth is needed. the absence of a stairway, since none was needed, was a favourable circumstance. appropriate decoration and furnishing in due time were to add a few distinguishing marks so that the house could retain, without any appreciable sacrifice of space, the dignity of an entrance hall. _the living room and the dining-room._--the relative positions of the living room and the dining-room, as already stated, were determined by the location of the hall. the purpose of each was distinct and self-evident, and determined the features of design that lent themselves most readily to appropriate decoration. in the living room the floor, the wall spaces, and the ceiling needed consideration with regard to their final treatment, to give pleasing proportions and harmonious colouring. the same was true of the dining-room, though its different purpose suggested a different design. an abundance of light was important for both rooms, hence the large, multiple windows. such windows would also offer a good chance for pleasing drapery effects. _the kitchen and its appointments._--no room demanded so much study as the kitchen. in the first place it was necessary to make provision for a relatively larger kitchen than would ordinarily be needed in a house of this size, because in this case it was designed to be used as a practice kitchen and must therefore be large enough to accommodate a considerable number of girls--at least eight--at one time. this point assumed so much importance in the minds of the young designers that they were constantly tempted to rob other rooms of the space that was due them in order to get a "nice, big kitchen." but by clever adjustments and combinations the necessary floor dimensions were secured without unduly cramping other features of the plan. the range, laundry tubs, and sink were conveniently located near each other with the tubs at such a height that when not in use the cover was flush with the top of the range, forming a shelf on which kettles and other kitchen utensils could be easily placed as they were moved back and forth from the range. it was thought that it would be very desirable, if not necessary, to have this shelf covered with zinc or some kind of sheet metal. it will be noted as a possible fault in the plan that the range is very near the door into the passageway leading to the bedroom, the living room, and the hall. this point received due consideration; but in view of the compensating advantages the arrangement was thought allowable, inasmuch as the door into the passageway would be used only occasionally. there seemed to be no more convenient location for the passageway, which was designed to give privacy to bedroom and bath room and, in cases of sickness or any emergency requiring it, easy communication between the kitchen and the bedroom. _special features._--the pantry was located between the kitchen and the dining-room for obvious reasons--to give easy communication in serving and to confine kitchen odours to their proper place. in place of a kitchen closet a cabinet was provided for as being on the whole the more serviceable of the two. it is always desirable to have an entry or lobby, with a convenient part of it reserved for the refrigerator; but the need of providing as much room as possible in the kitchen itself seemed to justify the omission of the lobby. another unusual feature--this time not an omission--is to be found in the window of the bedroom closet. such a window, although not common, was thought to be very desirable on sanitary grounds and as a possible protection against moths. _early plans for decorating and furnishing._--these were by no means all the features of design that had to be considered. as already suggested, there was much study given to the question of interior decoration and furnishing, even at this early stage. this was simply necessary forethought; for much of the attractiveness, restfulness, and homelike atmosphere of any house is created by the architect, who, in his arrangement of rooms, door-ways, and windows, disposes his wall areas so that they may be divided symmetrically and lend themselves naturally to colour toning, offering tempting spaces for a few choice pictures and opening up beautiful vistas. such house-planning, begun with clear vision and followed with taste and delicacy in every detail, may often lead to a harmony of effects as pleasing to people of artistic temperament as a symphony is to those who enjoy a fine musical composition. in fact, the parallel between sympathetic gradations of form and colour and harmony of musical tones is a very close one, and the appreciation of it is by no means rare. any intelligent person, on seeing a suite of rooms designed and arranged by a real artist, though he may not understand why, will be impressed by the rhythm of space divisions, the harmony of colours, the lack of any jarring or discordant notes in the decoration, the simplicity, fitness, and real beauty, not of any particular part, perhaps, but of the whole combination. we often find ourselves using the same language whether we are describing the work of an artist-architect or the work of a musical composer. fundamental principles of design _adaptation to purpose._--our young architects discovered that there are certain fundamental principles or laws that must be observed at the very beginning, if a really good and true design is to be made. the first of these laws is the _law of adaptation to purpose_. the application of this law was illustrated in the location of the various rooms in the plan of the house, in the dimensions agreed upon for each, and in the details of arrangement, especially in the kitchen and other rooms connecting with it. but this law is universal in its application. it determines not only the broad features of the plan but the details as well. it does not permit anything useless or superfluous to exist, for that would mean weakness. it aims at efficiency and strength. it dictates the details of construction all along the line, from the framing of the building to its finish and its decoration. it even determines the character of the furniture and the amount of it. adaptation to purpose is a ruling principle. _simplicity._--another great principle that revealed itself as the plans of the house developed may be called the _law of simplicity_. this is one of the elementary laws of nature transferred to the realm of craftsmanship. it is an axiom of geometry that the straight line is the shortest distance between two points. not less evident is the fact that when nature undertakes to do anything she goes about it in the simplest and most direct way. the natural tendency of all motion is along a straight line--so reads the first law of motion. analyze the most complex forms and processes of nature and we shall find them due to the harmonious combination of the simplest elementary lines and movements. but the same law of simplicity which invariably marks the works of nature gives strength and beauty also to the works of man. thus, in discussing the various problems that developed as the designing of the house progressed, it was found--as of course it should have been--that the solution which met the test of simplicity, while satisfying the law of adaptation to purpose, was the true one. _correlation._--a third great fundamental principle that found expression in these studies of the house plans was the _principle of correlation_. not only must each part of the design be adapted to its use in the simplest possible manner, but it must support all other parts and receive support in return. it is like cooperation or team-work in play or in the practical affairs of life. every room in a house bears some natural relation to every other room, and even the objects in the same room or in adjoining rooms must assist each other, whether their purpose be utility or decoration or a combination of both. only by due attention to the mutual relations of the various elements that must enter into the composition, can the designer produce those pleasing space effects, those blendings of colour tones, those manifest relations between the various objects, useful or decorative, that give order, unity, and sympathetic feeling to a complete design. the colour scheme _the floor the foundation._--almost unconsciously our young architects found themselves under the guidance of these three great fundamental principles of design. when they came to the problem of specifying the finish for the floors and other wood work of the hall, living room, and dining-room, they found that this problem was intimately associated with the larger question of the colour scheme as a whole. the mutual dependence of all the elements concerned could not be overlooked. it was evident that the floor, which is the foundation of the room, should be darker than the walls and ceiling and the general tone of the furnishings, in order to give the suggestion of sufficient weight and firmness for the support of the entire room and all it might contain. the effect of solidity could be produced by staining the floor boards or by providing a liberal supply of dark, rich-toned rugs, large ones as well as small ones. there was no question of carpets. these, of course, are not allowable in a model house. a few rugs were already available, and others could be procured by buying them or by making them. a properly toned floor, however, is desirable, even with a most generous covering of rugs. it was therefore decided to give the floor a coat of stain when it was ready to be finished. _importance of colour schemes._--but what was the colour to be? the designers were thus brought face to face with that difficult but important problem which all who plan houses have to solve before they can hope to bring their work into harmonious adjustment with the various natural and human conditions that must be satisfied in the final product, if it be made a good example of the designer's art. the problem of the colour scheme is fundamental. upon this depends not only the tone of the floors, the walls, and the ceilings, but also, to a certain extent, as has already been suggested, the kind of woods to be used in the interior finishing, and whether they are to be painted, stained, or left in their natural colours. it will determine the material and the colours of the portières, curtains, cushions, lamp shades, picture frames, vases; in fact, it will largely settle the decorative character of every article placed in the rooms. the consideration of movable objects, however, may be deferred till the more substantial and fixed elements are decided upon. _southern exposures and cool colours._--in settling the all-important question of the colour scheme the first point to be considered was the location of the rooms with reference to light and to external surroundings. rooms that have a southern exposure and nothing to interfere with their being flooded with sunlight need to be protected against the glare of too much light. for such rooms dull tones of colour are the best--dull browns, soft gray-greens, certain blue tones, and the medium grays--light, cool colours that counteract the overbrilliancy of direct sunlight and give a positively tempered feeling to the atmosphere of a room. incidentally, too, perhaps because they are the tints associated with distant views, the cool colours make a room seem larger than it really is. _northern exposures and warm colours._--northern rooms, on the other hand, do not generally suffer from excess of sunlight and heat. warm colours are needed in such rooms. deep reds, rich yellows, and golden browns will seem to bring sunlight into a sunless room. our designers noted the fact that many of the rooms in the house they were planning must be comparatively dark. the house was to face the high brick walls of the neighbouring school building, not more than twenty-five feet distant, and its principal rooms had a northern exposure. a warm colour treatment, therefore, was unquestionably needed. should red, brown, or yellow be the prevailing tone? the deciding point was the location of the hall and its relations to the other rooms. it was, first of all, the hall, the place of welcome for the guest; but it was dark. its walls must have the sunniest of all colours--a rich golden yellow. the same would serve the needs of the living room, or perhaps a brown with yellow enough in it to be well in tune. the dining-room could safely be darker and more luminous, in pleasing contrast with the golden yellow of the hall; but it must not be decidedly red. the ceilings of these three rooms, whether beamed or not, since they must be lighter than the walls, could have the same or nearly the same tint. this might well be a light corn yellow. the colouring of the walls of the bedroom, bath room, and kitchen was not so important a question as the decoration of the three front rooms. utility and sanitary conditions were important things to be considered. light tints were decided upon, which in the bedroom might be relieved, in the finishing touches, by delicate stenciled figures in some warm tone. _interior woodwork._--with the colour scheme settled it was a comparatively easy matter to decide what should be the general tone and character of the interior woodwork. the floors of the three front rooms, since they were to be closely associated, required the same solid colour, which could well be a walnut brown, darker than any of the walls. fumed oak trimmings were thought desirable for the dining-room and gum wood for the living room, either of which could be extended to the hall; but ivory white for the living room and the hall, leaving the oak for the dining-room, found much favour. it was finally decided, however, to adopt for the three front rooms the combination of natural woods first suggested. the bedroom and bath room, where suggestions of cleanliness are peculiarly appropriate, were specified to be finished in white. yellow southern pine was decided upon for the kitchen and its accessory rooms. organizing the work of construction as soon as the chief features of design were decided upon, preparations were made for carrying them out in the actual work of building; for the house was not to be a "castle in air." the first step was to put these ideas on paper and work out the details of construction in clearly executed and accurately dimensioned drawings. these included, as the first to be used, the working drawings for the framing and other rough woodwork, blue print copies of which were to be put into the hands of the boys of the elementary vocational school, who were to carry out this part of the building plans. [illustration: front or north elevation of the model house] _the working drawings._--a considerable number of detailed drawings had to be made before the work of construction could be wisely begun. this furnished an interesting set of problems for the mechanical drawing groups of the technical high school. the material for this work consisted of rough sketches in pencil, but with the correct dimensions as determined in the plan accepted as the result of the competition in design. these preliminary sketches required much study on the part of both boys and girls, under proper guidance, in order to find out what the elements of construction should be, what dimensions were required, and how the various parts should be put together. it was an experience of great value to all, but especially to those boys who were looking forward to architectural draughting as a possible vocation. they got an inside view of the importance, on the one hand, of accurate working drawings as a basis for good construction and, on the other hand, a practical illustration of the necessity of a thorough knowledge of constructive principles, in order to make correct working drawings. they saw that the efficient architect must be a builder, acquainted with all the detailed processes employed by the carpenter or mason, informed upon all the conditions to be met, and knowing the best ways of meeting them. they gained impressions which should help them, in studying the work of great architects, to look beyond the exterior, however pleasing it may be, for those elements of strength and beauty that characterize all good workmanship. [illustration: all the rough carpentry was assigned to boys of the woodworking section of the vocational school. plate i] _how the work was distributed._--it will be recalled that boys and girls were to be coworkers in the designing, planning, and building of the house. the boys were to be held responsible for the drawings, the decorating after designs made by the girls, and the higher grades of woodwork, including the finishing of the rooms and the making of the furniture. they were to do the wiring for the electric lights, the bells, and the interior telephones; and they were to install all the fixtures in connection with this wiring. boys from the metal-working sections were to do the necessary piping for gas and water and some of the work of plumbing; but, since the laws regulating plumbing are strict and well enforced, as they should be, it was necessary to keep this most essential feature of the work under charge of licensed plumbers. but this requirement did not remove even the plumbing of the building from the field of public school work; for, fortunately, this city has a well-equipped plumbing school in the trades school department, under the direction of licensed plumbers of high standing, who were glad to have given them, as an exercise for their classes, a practical problem in house plumbing. the boys in the forging classes were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house. many of the fixtures needed for use or ornament were designed to be made in the school forge shop. the girls designed and made rugs, curtains, portières, and cushions as a part of their school work in weaving and stencilling; and they contributed many decorative articles in clay, copper, leather, and other materials. thus every technical department of the school was brought into service; for in the building of a house there is to be found something to enlist the interest of every boy and girl. [illustration: the boys of the forging classes of the technical high school were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house. plate ii] _boy foremen in charge._--to bring about the right distribution of the work and to marshal the working forces effectually required the oversight and management of an experienced instructor. but much of the work of direction was delegated to competent boys. the preliminary tool work in the school shops had revealed those who were especially observant and capable as leaders, and those who worked best under specific directions. thus the twenty boys of the vocational school who set the posts and framed the house worked sometimes in pairs--one being the chief foreman and the other the helper--sometimes in gangs of three or four under a foreman. the plan was varied according to the nature of the work in hand. when leaders of more technical knowledge and skill were needed, as was the case in setting the window frames and directing the shingling, capable boys from the technical high school were placed in charge of groups of younger boys from the vocational school. in this way the work was advanced in several directions at the same time; and the advantage was not all in the advancement of the house construction. it was a delightful and profitable experience for all the boys, not unlike that which some of them will doubtless repeat when school days are over and they take their place in the more serious affairs of life. in after years they may look back upon the first house that they helped to build and recall the part they took, their companions in the work, and the good time they had withal. some details of construction _setting batter boards, posts, and sills._--the first step in actual construction was to mark off the lot and set the batter boards. these were made by driving three stakes to form a right angle about four feet from the point where each of the four main corners of the house was to be located. two rough boards, one for each side of each angle, were nailed horizontally to each of the four sets of stakes, with their upper edges all brought to the same level. it is very important to set these batter boards with accuracy, since their function is to carry the lines which mark the dimensions and level of the ground floor. in the present instance their first use was to locate the concrete posts on which the sills of the house were to rest. twenty-two of these posts, which were feet long and inches square, were put in position by first setting moulds or boxes, the interior dimensions of which were those of the posts, feet deep in the light soil and filling them with a mixture of concrete and crushed rock. it was not thought necessary to remove the moulds after the hardening of the concrete. in fact, the sills were framed and placed in position resting on these boxes before sufficient time had been given for the concrete to harden. the sides of the boxes, however, were scored with a saw cut so that they could be easily broken off just below the ground, exposing the projecting ends of the concrete posts for about one foot. the sills were of by -inch first quality spruce. they were set on the -inch face, the two long sills being spliced over posts, using a long halved joint. mortise and tenon joints, draw-bored and pinned, were used at the corners. the floor timbers of by -inch spruce were gained into the sills with the top faces flush with the top of the sill and crowning (_i. e._, bending) upward if at all. the spacing of the floor timbers was taken off at the sill on a strip of furring--spruce, / of an inch thick by inches wide--which was moved out to the centre near the line of bridging and lightly nailed, bringing crooked timbers into line. the bridging was then nailed in, the outside last to prevent springing the sills. [illustration: plan a. framing details] referring to the accompanying sketch (plan a) it will be noticed that the corner posts and centres were not mortised into the sills, but were simply butted on and heavily nailed or spiked. there was a time when carpenters would have regarded such a method as altogether wrong; but those were the days of great corner posts and heavy studding, placed two or three times as far apart as is the practice now. it was thought that placing the studs inches on centres, which is the common practice in modern house framing, removed the necessity of mortising into the sill. mortising is still recognized, however, as a good thing to do and is sometimes practised by first-rate carpenters. plan a also shows how the outside walls were trussed over openings; and plan b shows how the corners of the building were tied by the lapping of the double plate, and how the ceiling timbers and rafters were placed on the top of the plate. [illustration: plan b. details of cornice, sill, and roof a shingles b roof boards c rafter " × " " o.c. d plate " × " e rough boarding f stud g frieze h crown mold i bed mold j ceiling joist " × " k ground l lath & plaster m base n finished floor o lining floor p furring q sill r concrete post " × " s corner post t hip rafter " × " u floor joist ] the window frame details are shown in a series of cuts (plan c) which for the sake of completeness are drawn to show also the interior finish, not usually represented in the framing drawings. a detailed description of these features of construction is unnecessary, since the dimensions and relations of the various elements and the technical terms by which they are known are all clearly indicated in the illustrations. [illustration: plan c. details of interior finish a outside casing i header q surbase b back band j corner block r sill - / " th'k c head k rough boarding s inside casing d stop / " thick l shingles t soffit e sash - / " ditto m weight u bed mold f lath & plaster n pulley style v finished floor g ground / " th'k o parting strip w base h stud " × " p stool cap x lining floor ] in the same series of cuts a detail of the base is shown which includes the framing, the base board, and the lath and plaster. it should be stated, however, that a substitute for lath and plaster was recommended to the student architects--a new product in paper board especially designed for walls and ceilings, which it was decided to use. the use of this material removed the necessity of the "grounds" shown in the drawings and always needed as a nailing base for the wood trim when the walls and ceilings are lathed and plastered. in the detail of the dado cap, which will be found on the page of construction drawings, the dotted lines show how the cap was to be expanded into a plate rail, requiring the addition of brackets with a bed moulding between, in the finishing of the walls of the dining-room. among these drawings will also be found a detail showing a section of the beamed ceiling finish. it will be readily understood that none of the finishing work called for in the detailed drawings was begun until the rough carpentry on the house was practically completed. all the rough work, which included framing, boarding, shingling, laying of the lining floors, and putting up partitions, was assigned to boys of the woodworking sections of the vocational school. this is an elementary industrial or trade school, admitting from the grades below the high school boys who have attained the age of fourteen years and wish to learn some mechanical trade. it represents a new and promising experiment in american education. the building of this house furnished an excellent opportunity for the boys of this school to show the honesty of their purpose in enrolling themselves to learn the fundamentals of a trade and thus prove their right to have the chance. so the house was built by the combined efforts of the boys and girls of the public schools of this new england city, unassisted by professional architects or paid labourers. how they carried out with their own hands the designs for decorating and furnishing the house is told in the succeeding chapters of this book, which also suggests wider applications of the principles of household decoration as possible to be made in the homes of clever boys and girls throughout the country. to carry out these suggestions will mean work--but work of a kind that gives pleasure to the worker and to many others. it was work for the young designers and builders of whom this story tells, but they said it was "great fun," and there really is no pleasure quite equal to that found in doing with one's own hands an exceptionally good thing. the true craftsmen of all time have found it so. one of these master workmen, stradivarius, the violin maker, so george eliot tells us, made his confession thus: " ... god be praised! antonio stradivari has an eye that winces at false work and loves the true, with hand and arm that play upon the tool, as willingly as any singing bird sets him to sing his morning roundelay, because he likes to sing and likes the song." ii decorations and furniture have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful, or believe to be beautiful--_william morris_ the decorating and furnishing of a house have their true beginning in good architectural design. it is a mistake to proceed upon the theory that decoration necessarily implies something added for its own sake--something beautiful in itself but selected and applied without regard to the lines, spaces, and colours of the room in which it is to be placed and without considering the relation of this room to neighbouring rooms and to more remote surroundings. the truth is, a decorative object may or may not be intrinsically beautiful; but however beautiful it may be in itself, it finds its truest beauty in an appropriate setting. and the decorator who is actuated by the true spirit looks to the architect for inspiration and finds his greatest successes in acknowledging that leadership. to attempt to lead when one should follow is neither good art nor good sense. there is danger, perhaps, that this truth may be taken too seriously. it would also be a mistake to run to the other extreme and adopt at the outset a rigid plan of decoration and furnishing, specified like contract work to be carried out and completed on a certain date soon after the house is built. the problem is one of growing interest, especially as regards furniture, pictures, and the smaller objects of use or beauty, and for its best and happiest solution requires time and study. only the broad and fundamental features can be settled in advance. the important thing is to have the main lines, dimensions, space relations, and colour schemes settled with due regard to utility and appropriateness and, as the work of construction proceeds, to keep all details in harmony with this general plan. the floors, the walls, and the ceilings _colour harmony in the model house._--it will be remembered that the colour scheme of the hall, living room, and dining-room of our model house was settled quite early in the development of the design. standing near the centre of the living room and looking through the hall into the dining-room, one may see at a glance how some of the details of decoration were worked out in keeping with the general treatment. the walnut brown stain of the floors gives a good foundation of colour. it flows easily into the lighter browns and yellows of all the lower wall spaces. the suggestion of olive green in the frieze of the living room offers a pleasing contrast with the prevailing browns and harmonizes well with the woodwork of this room, which, it will be remembered, was designed to be finished in gum wood. this beautiful wood, when properly treated, presents a surface of satin-like texture and soft colour tone. in the dining-room a corner of which is shown in the frontispiece, the frieze lends a warmth of colour where it is needed and is in keeping with the fumed oak trim. the wide openings into the hall from the rooms on each side of it, together with the long, unbroken lines of the beamed ceilings, give the impression of generous width. the plain wall spaces, though varied in tone and relieved of monotonous spacings by the location of the necessary doors and windows, are of great assistance in increasing the apparent size of the room. plain walls are also the best of backgrounds for pictures. _redecorating old houses._--it is, of course, true that the decorating and furnishing of a house or an apartment cannot always have a new and original architectural design as the basis for the solution of the problems involved. as a matter of fact, in the great majority of cases, the houses in which homes are made are already built and have been previously occupied. often they are very old houses, presenting difficult and even impossible tasks for the decorator. sometimes, however, such houses are all the more desirable if they bear the marks of age that suggest a past of dignity and charm. but the spirit which inspires the artist in decorating and furnishing a house already built is the same as that which controls his thought when he can begin with the foundation of a new and original design. his first thought is to discover how beauty may be enhanced and at the same time unity of purpose and harmony of treatment be preserved. his constant care is to avoid incongruous elements, however beautiful they may be in themselves or however appropriate in other houses. his general aim is to use his art to develop the design as it is, if there be any design at all, and make the most of it. _decoration as a corrective._--but this does not prevent him from attempting to counteract the blunders of faulty design and bad architecture. such correction, indeed, forms a large part of the work of decorators and furnishers, both professional and amateur. if the lines and space divisions of a room be not good, the decoration must be planned with a view to giving the needed harmony of proportions, or at least the appearance of it. if the ceiling be too high, it may be made to "look" lower by carrying the ceiling paper or tinting one or two feet down the walls of the room to meet the picture moulding. the effect of reduced height is accentuated by a high base board or by wainscoting. if the ceiling be too low, the depressing effect may be largely overcome by extending the picture moulding along the top of the wall spaces close to the ceiling. this is a desirable thing to do in the living rooms of most modern houses. striped wall papers of proper tones may be used in low rooms with good effect in increasing their apparent height. bad wall spacing may also be corrected by enlarging door-ways, substituting portières for the doors, and by arranging the drapery over windows to give the effect either of increasing or of diminishing their height, as the conditions may require. _wall papers._--probably no element of decoration furnishes so many pitfalls to ensnare the unwary as wall papers do. it is easy to fall a victim to a captivating design as it appears in the few square feet of wall paper displayed on the dealer's rack. the same interesting figure, spread out in endless repetition on the four walls of the living room, may create an atmosphere of unrest and positive discomfort keenly felt by sensitive persons. a wise choice cannot be made in the absence of all the conditions that should really determine it. after all, it is not the paper which is beautiful in the roll that should be selected, but only that which will become beautiful when hung upon the walls of a certain room. papers with large figures should be avoided unless there is a special reason for using them. they always have the effect of reducing the apparent size of everything associated with them. they make a small room appear dwarfish and a large one over decorated unless well relieved by plain spaces harmonizing in colour with the large-figured patterns. strong contrasts in colour values should also be avoided, not only between the designs and the ground colour of the wall paper itself, but also between the paper and other objects of importance in the room. the principle of gradation in colour values, which does not as a general thing allow the placing together of light and dark shades or tints, is almost as important as harmony of colour tones. _nature of decorative design._--the one fact never to be lost sight of by the decorator is the real nature of true decorative design. it is never a picture. while it may suggest the natural forms of plants or animals, it does not aim to represent them in a naturalistic way. some of the best decorative designs do not even suggest natural forms; but, whether they do or not, the central idea is the repetition of good combinations of line and form in closely related colours and values on a flat surface. if natural forms are used, they should be more or less highly conventionalized. anything that destroys the idea of flat surfaces in the same plane is a false note in wall decoration. in the nature of the case, a wall can have but one plane. clusters of flowers or patterns of any kind that seem to hang in front of this plane, or back of it, are out of place and therefore offend the sense of fitness. such incongruities are sometimes so pronounced that they positively shock the sensibilities of refined people. extreme examples have been known to give such pain to sensitive persons as to drive them from the room. _advantage of plain walls._--decorative designs, however, are not essential in wall papers. the main point in the treatment of walls is to secure and preserve a good background. if one is in doubt as to the kind of figure or pattern to be used, which is often a perplexing question, it is well to leave them out altogether. plain walls are always good if the colour tone is right; for colour is the main thing in wall decoration. the decorative effects of form may be brought out in the portières and window draperies, which may easily carry more elaborate patterns when associated with plain walls than is desirable with figured wall decorations. in fact, with figured walls plain portières and curtains are much to be preferred. in our model house, as has been explained, the wall decorations were designed to offer a plain background of colour. the figured borders of the portières and curtains, combined with the careful gradation in the colouring of the floors, wall spaces, and ceiling, gave such a variety of tone to this background that nothing further was needed to avoid monotony. _trial needed in doubtful cases._--it is, indeed, a good rule to omit whatever is unnecessary. to observe this rule wisely is to escape much that is positively bad in decoration. overwrought designs, too great variety in decorative material, too many decorative objects, however great their individual beauty, too many odd pieces of furniture, too many interesting things in whatever direction one may turn, create an oppressive and disquieting atmosphere and a feeling of unrest which it should always be the aim of home decoration to dispel. and yet it may not always be best to set aside our treasures because they do not seem perfectly suited to the general scheme of decoration or are not apparently needed to complete it. it is, in fact, often very difficult to determine where the line should be drawn between what is needed and what is not needed. the fact that nothing seems to be lacking is not a final test if one has at hand useful or beautiful things that may be introduced into a scheme of decoration already well thought out and be given a trial. such experimenting will often reveal unsuspected needs or add a new charm that at once proves its right to be retained. to take a step like this, somewhat out of line with accepted rules as strictly interpreted, is entirely safe if this step is dictated by good taste and does not lead the young decorator too far afield. exceptional treatment of any kind should show proper restraint, and such restraint, when it is plainly indicated in any work of art, is in itself an attractive feature. _precise rules not always practicable._--the truth is, the rules of decoration, though founded upon fundamental principles of art, are not rules of precision like those founded upon mathematical principles. in the nature of the case they must in their application yield more or less to circumstances. it is, for example, a good general rule to determine the colour scheme and background first and accommodate other decorative features to these as a foundation; and yet it is possible for a situation to be so exceptional as to justify a complete reversal of this rule. here is a concrete case. a young artist was the fortunate possessor of a considerable number of japanese and chinese embroideries and other oriental ornaments. he wished to make these the main decorative materials for one of his rooms. the embroidered figures were in yellow and white on a deep, strong blue, the general effect being quite dark. there were in the collection several prints, showing the typical dull reds, dark blues, and yellows of japanese art. now the room itself happened to be one that, under the general principle of colour schemes as determined by exposure and other fixed conditions, would demand warm colours on its walls. it would easily support a rich red frieze with appropriate combinations in floor, dado, and ceiling. this would set off well the dark oak trim and the mahogany furniture, but it would rule out the oriental decorations. one or the other must give way; and, since the value of these decorative materials was beyond question, it was decided to try them, even at the cost of setting aside the general rule. the whole matter resolved itself into selecting a proper background for these beautiful pictures and embroideries; and for these the best colour was a gray blue--the coldest of colours. but when the whole decorative scheme was carried out to completion and the cold background was fully employed in setting off the rich colours and exquisite workmanship of the oriental prints and draperies, all the circumstances that ordinarily determine the choice of backgrounds were forgotten in the charm of originality. no one thought of the exposure as requiring warm colours, the dark oak trim was not noticed, and the mahogany furniture was still in keeping. the result was so absolutely satisfying that no one who saw it could question the good taste displayed in this very original plan of decoration. but such exceptional cases should not shake our confidence in the fundamental principles of decoration. it is true that these principles cannot be reduced to formulas to be applied invariably in all cases, and it is unreasonable to assume that any form of treatment is the only one possible in any given case. modifications in the application of these principles are always possible, but the principles themselves are as unalterable as the mosaic law. one is, indeed, tempted to summarize them thus as the ten commandments of decoration thou shalt have no household gods except those that be beautiful or those that be useful. thou shalt not make unto thyself any likeness that is in the heaven above or in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the earth, that does not find an appropriate setting in thine house. thou shalt not look in vain upon the creations of the great masters of decorative art. remember the colour scheme and keep a good background. honour the original design, however old it may be, and make the most of it. thou shalt not hesitate to correct the blunders of faulty design and bad architecture. thou shalt not kill thy neighbours or thy friends with over-decorated wall papers or oppressive decorations of any kind. thou shalt not bring together incongruous articles nor permit insane arrangements of anything that is thine. thou shalt not permit any false note to mar the harmony of thy decorations. thou shalt not imitate thy neighbour's house or anything that is thy neighbour's, for it is the glory of the good decorator to show originality but at the same time to acknowledge his dependence upon those who have preceded him. the furniture _relation of furniture to decoration._--so much for the treatment of floors, walls, and ceilings. we may now turn to the more special consideration of those objects of use or beauty that are to be associated with these backgrounds--furniture, pictures, lamp shades, and small ornaments. that these are closely related to decoration has been implied in all that has been said. they are, in fact, in themselves elements in the decorative scheme and as such must obey the same laws. their value, however, depends more or less upon their utility, and for this reason they seem to require consideration somewhat apart from their merely decorative functions. this is especially true of furniture, which would have very little reason for being if it were not for its usefulness. in designing the furniture for the model house the questions that constantly suggested themselves were: what is this piece of furniture under consideration to be used for? what form, construction, and finish will enable it to give the best service? what features of design are needed to render it suited to its surroundings? in considering the furniture for the model house it was most natural to apply these tests to the various rooms in order. [illustration: a library desk in fumed oak] _hall of the model house._--first, there is the hall. this is the room into which a visitor is first admitted, and from its atmosphere he gets his first impressions. but in this house it is a very small room and designed to serve not merely as a place for the formalities of welcome but also as an expansion of the rooms on either side. its furniture must consist largely of the fireplace. there is no room for a hall settle nor even for a chair. a mirror, simply but richly framed, might hang on the wall near the front door, balanced by a picture on the opposite wall behind the door. an umbrella rack should stand outside on the porch. [illustration: a hall chair] [illustration: a hall settle--simplicity, strength, dignity] _hall furniture in general._--the halls of modern houses vary greatly in their relative importance. in some the traditions of the old english manor houses seem partially to survive. in mediæval england the hall was the principal room, if not the only one comfortably furnished. when modern houses combine the living room and library or reception room with the hall, there is need of something more than hall furniture of the formal kind. the requirements of comfort must be met. but, generally speaking, hall furniture is of little real use. odd chairs, attractive by reason of their oddity, the richness of the materials used in their construction, or some other assertive quality, but not fit to sit in, are suitable or at least excusable in the hall. the hat and coat rack of our fathers has been declared insane and no longer appears in well-regulated houses. in place of it is found the hall settle, which is of real use. it should be designed on simple lines and give the impression of strength and dignity. if the hall is to be used as a waiting room for guests, a few good chairs, conveniently placed, will be needed for their comfort and a choice picture or two on the walls will add greatly to their pleasure. [illustration: two morris chairs that invite to solid comfort] [illustration: a satisfactory writing desk] _living room furniture._--in furnishing living rooms there is bound to be a wide range for the exercise of good taste because of the variety of needs to be met and the large facilities afforded in the markets for meeting these needs with due regard to artistic requirements. it will be quite impossible to go into detail in discussing so large a topic. the important thing is to keep in mind the central idea of a living room--the place of all places where the freedom, comfort, and protection of home life are to be enjoyed. the very atmosphere of the room should suggest simplicity, sincerity, and good cheer. every article of furniture should be there to serve a genuine need, and it should be strong enough to do its full duty. spider-legged, top-heavy tables; light, weak chairs; chairs on casters or rockers; sofas with carved backs or couches with none at all,--these have no place in the living room. the long, straight lines of the craftsman or mission style of furniture are in the right direction; but if these be used at all they must be made quite general, since few other styles harmonize with them. wicker or reed furniture is a notable exception. when well designed it will fit in almost anywhere. [illustration: an ample library table] [illustration: a plain but useful magazine stand] the frequent combination of the library with the living room requires a suitable adjustment of the furniture to this use. a plain, serviceable magazine rack, which may be easily made, will relieve the tables of an accumulation of weeklies and monthlies. moderately low bookcases, with or without doors, are to be preferred to the more ordinary high ones because this form harmonizes better with the lines of a room, which are generally longer horizontally than vertically. if doors are used, it is well to break up the glare of the glass by heavy sash, the spacing of which may be arranged in a very pleasing manner. good design in library tables calls for ample size. firmness and convenience as well as satisfactory proportions should control the choice of a writing desk. [illustration: a low bookcase with sash doors] _dining-room furniture._ only a few elements enter into the design for the furnishing of a dining-room; but they are evident and should have a controlling influence. the table and chairs are for a definite purpose and this should show itself in good design. heavy construction is permissible since the chairs are to be moved but little and the table is practically stationary. moreover, weight and generous dimensions are suggestive of bounty and good service. the rectangular extension table is most readily adjusted to varied demands, but the round table is preferable for the family circle; and for a company of twelve or fifteen a large, round, temporary table top, placed on an ordinary extension table, has been found very attractive. [illustration: a round dining table] [illustration: a sideboard of good proportions. convenient and generous but not overdone] as comfort is the chief result to be obtained in furnishing a living room, so richness, within one's means, is an appropriate aim in furnishing a dining-room. the history of sideboard design might be cited in proof of this statement, if proof were needed. probably no single article of furniture has been subjected to greater elaboration; but the desirable suggestion of plenty with convenience may be secured without overdoing it. the unique purpose of the sideboard makes it an interesting study for one who wishes to design and construct his own in conformity with the architecture of his dining-room. the buffet or serving table furnishes an equally interesting, though simpler, problem. [illustration: a buffet of simple but effective design] for the care of the china, the built-in cabinet as a feature of the architecture of the room is to be preferred to the movable cabinet designed for this purpose, because of its richer decorative possibilities. large, glazed doors are desirable in either case, not for the full display of china and glassware but to give a suggestive glimpse of it. as this cabinet is for decoration and not for show, it is well to avoid plain glass doors unbroken by sash. leaded panes are frequently employed with good effect. the decorative effect of old and odd pieces of china--not too many of them--is most appropriately employed by the use of the plate rail; but it is better to leave the plate rail bare than to load it with commonplace crockery and inappropriate ornaments. [illustration: a china cabinet. a part of the finish of the room] _chamber furniture._--the bedroom speaks for itself. a dainty freshness in all its appointments is conducive to sleep and rest, which it is the distinctive purpose of this room to provide. the necessary articles of furniture are a bed, a dressing table, a bureau or chiffonier, a few chairs, and, if there be no bath room attached, a commode or wash stand. a couch is an appropriate addition; and here, if anywhere, rocking chairs are allowable. when the bedroom must be used more or less as a living room or sewing room, as it too often unfortunately is, furniture to serve such uses must be provided. in selecting or designing all this furniture, lightness, and simplicity of design, combined with strength, should be allowed a controlling influence. the recognition of this idea has given great popularity to the brass or iron beds; but it is possible to design and construct beds of oak, maple, or other woods that harmonize with the rest of the furniture, carry out the idea of daintiness, and have sufficient strength for service. [illustration: leaded panes] many of these suggestions on furniture design are being carried out in fitting up the model house described in our introductory chapter. a small house like this, limited to one story, does not permit great variety in its furnishings. certain standard conditions, however, were to be met here, as everywhere else, and the young designers found much pleasure and great profit in working out the furniture problems. some of the construction details will be given in the later chapters. [illustration: a duxbury chair] arrangement of the furniture _arrangement follows selection._--the problem of furnishing a home is not fully settled when the questions of design have been answered and the right selections made. after selection comes arrangement, or, to speak more accurately, after a certain amount of selection a certain amount of arrangement; for, as has already been suggested, there is considerable dependence of one upon the other. it is not wise to drop the arrangement till the selection is complete, for the simple reason that the happiest choices are often the late ones, determined by the disposition of the earlier ones. and yet in the main the order as stated is the true one. it should be noted, too, that in arrangement there is a larger field for the exercise of individuality and taste. while artistic principles still hold sway, they yield more readily to exceptional interpretation by the ruling spirit of the household, to the demands of style, and to the larger number of possibilities for pleasing effects when the question is one of the arrangement of things already well chosen for their usefulness and for their artistic value. [illustration: a dainty bed in white maple] _utility the controlling principle._--the problems of arrangement, however, are by no means vague and uncertain. the natural law of adaptation to purpose is not difficult to follow. in some rooms obedience to it has become a settled custom. no one, for example, would think of placing the dining table in any other place than the centre of the dining-room or, if the room be a long one, in the centre of one end. the sideboard, serving table, and china closet likewise fall into their natural places. so also the bedroom and the hall, though perhaps to a less degree, present comparatively easy problems in furniture arrangement when due regard is paid to the purposes for which such rooms are designed. _importance of appropriateness._--but it is in the library and the living room that we find the most difficult and at the same time the most interesting problems. and this is due to the operation of the same law of adaptation to purpose. it is the variety of uses and the diversity of useful objects that make the problem somewhat complex. however refined and beautiful the different units may be, there must be some arrangement of them into working groups. the important elements should dominate and those of lesser importance should fall naturally into related but subordinate places. the easy corner with its couch, pillows, and its low seats, has a definite function to perform. so also have the piano and the music rack, the bookcases and library table, the morris chairs and tabourettes, the window seats and screens, the writing desk and its proper lighting by window or lamp, the fireplace and all the accessories of comfort that may belong to it. the various centres of interest should be accentuated by grouping around them the most appropriate furnishings and the most suggestive decorative features. it may be well to add one word of caution, and that is that a proper balance should be maintained between the various centres of arrangement in order that no part of the room may seem neglected and bare. _the danger of overcrowding._--finally, the one great danger to be avoided in meeting the requirements of good arrangement is the temptation to overcrowding. many otherwise excellently appointed living rooms suffer from an embarrassment of riches. such overcrowded rooms are worse than an overloaded ship because they cannot topple over and sink as one might well wish them to. to secure the right things and just enough of them, arranged with a proper balance between utility and beauty, is the true aim. it is as true to-day as it ever was in the arrangement and beautifying of the home, and, for that matter, in everything that concerns every-day life--just as true as it was in ancient times when men wrote those famous inscriptions over the doors of the temple at delphi: over one, know thyself, and over the other, the golden mean of not too much. iii pictures i now require this of all pictures, that they domesticate me, not that they dazzle me. pictures must not be too picturesque. nothing astonishes men so much as common sense and plain dealing. all great actions have been simple, and all great pictures are.--_ralph waldo emerson_ the decoration of a room is generally not complete without pictures. there is, of course, great value in good pictures entirely aside from their decorative effect; and too great care cannot be exercised in their selection. but our present purpose is to consider them as decorative features; for, though a decoration is not a picture, pictures themselves are properly regarded as important elements in the general scheme of decoration. and this is especially true as regards matting and framing, the distribution of pictures upon the wall spaces, and the method of hanging them. _importance of space relations._--a picture mat and frame are simply elements of finish, and their function is to give the picture a certain individuality and yet connect it harmoniously with the space in which it hangs. in fact, the wall space is a part of the framing of the picture. the importance of giving some study to the relations of all the spaces involved is evident. the mat and the frame should not be of equal width. here is a fine opportunity to secure variety in spacing. no definite rules can be given; sometimes the one, sometimes the other should give way. generally speaking, tall wall spaces require vertical pictures, and spaces longer horizontally demand horizontal pictures. but variation from this rule is possible and even necessary through the grouping of several pictures. in grouping, however, there is danger of being tempted to allow too many pictures. in the houses of the well-to-do, and even in the homes of those of moderate means, too many pictures, rather than too few, are often found. the example of one new england home, known to the author, may be mentioned. the house is new, of generous proportions, and it is the home of an artist. there are few pictures on the walls, but they are distributed with rare artistic effect. there are many good pictures stored in the attic because there is no suitable space in which to hang them. _the japanese way._--the japanese have taught us many valuable lessons in art, and in the matter of the number of pictures to be displayed they have a very interesting lesson to teach. it is their practice to hang a single choice picture for a season in a space where it may be best enjoyed, and then after a time to replace it with another picture, and this, perhaps, by another if circumstances permit. there are many conditions that determine the selection of the picture to be displayed. it may be the preference of a guest, or it may be the season of the year, or, in fact, any occasion that may give a certain picture special significance. there is, in this singular custom, a very definite service which the picture is made to perform, and it is given an individuality which perhaps has no parallel in our own practice. _grouping of small, simple pictures._--if a considerable number of pictures are grouped together, it is quite essential that all the pictures of the group should be of similar character and tone and similarly framed. it is hardly possible for them to be all of the same size, nor, indeed, is such agreement desirable except in so far as is required to give proper balance to the group. small pictures in light frames are, of course, the most desirable for such grouping, and if possible there should be an evident reason for the grouping. a series of photographs of a certain locality, for example, might form a group of four or five or even more pictures so that they could be easily seen together and so more thoroughly enjoyed. a collection of photographs in passe-partout bindings, especially if they deal with subjects in any way related, may form an attractive group. but pictures of any considerable size or those having decided individuality are generally not suited to any plan of grouping. they should appear by themselves, in frames and other surroundings which accentuate their peculiar merits. _the kind of frame._--the material of the frame, its colour, and the colour of the mat are determined by the tone of the picture. oil paintings easily support gilt frames and should be hung in good light. pictures of light values with white mats are well finished in narrow gilt frames. carbon photographs and other pictures of dull tones, are appropriately framed in wood of dark or medium colour, and appear best when hung against a dark wall. the truth of these statements will hardly be questioned by any one who has a good sense of colour harmony. but there are many other elements that enter into a concrete problem of picture framing that cannot be brought under general rules or formulas. it is generally best to depend largely upon the tests of trial. in framing and hanging pictures, as in many other things, observation and experience are the best teachers. some suggestions may be found in the following record of two actual framing problems that were satisfactorily solved. framing an old-time interior, drawn in colours the conditions which had to be met in this problem are plainly shown in the framed picture as it hangs on the wall. the picture itself is a small one, inches wide and inches long. it is interesting because of its representation of a sewing room in one of the high-class homes of the colonial period. the mistress and her two young daughters are engaged in sewing and embroidery. patterns are displayed upon the wall; the furniture is appropriate and evidently an example of the best of the period. all these details are suggestive of the delightful home life of our grandmothers. such a picture needs a mat to give it depth and to properly emphasize its details; and it requires a simple, narrow frame. the mat was accordingly made - / inches wide and the frame inch wide. the tone of the mat selected was a light bluish gray, forming a good connecting link between the bright colours of the picture and the gray of the wall against which it was to be placed. since it was to hang directly over a fine old mahogany table, it was thought fitting to give the frame a mahogany finish, connecting the furniture shown in the picture with that of the room. the frame was made with mitred corners of perfectly plain, square-edged birch, which readily takes a mahogany finish. the stain was first applied with a brush, rubbed in, and allowed to dry. a surfacing coat of shellac, coloured to match the stain, was next put on, allowed to dry, and then carefully sand-papered, special care being taken to guard against rounding the edges and corners. a coat of varnish was next applied, which, after hardening for one week, was rubbed first with pumice stone and oil and finally with rotten stone and oil. a final coat of thin finishing varnish was then put on, which was lightly rubbed with rotten stone and water to give the half dull effect required to match the antique mahogany table. framing a carbon photograph of a masterpiece the picture is a copy in sepia tones of murillo's saint anthony, inches in height by inches horizontally. the frame is made of quartered oak inches wide, slightly convex but smooth; and it is well joined with mitred corners. a picture of this character needs no mat. indeed, it would have been the height of presumption to strive to accentuate a masterpiece of such highly idealistic meaning and treatment. it must be left to itself as much as possible. the dimensions of the frame are therefore determined by the size of the picture itself. the picture hangs against a light gray wall in good light, somewhat apart from other pictures. it was a happy thought thus to recognize its dignity. it was given further distinction by finishing the oak frame so that it should not associate itself with the other woodwork in the room. since the room in which the picture was to hang has a light ash trim and most of the furniture a mahogany finish, this requirement was easily met. but there are many ways of finishing a frame to avoid too close association with the commonplace that would have been anything but appropriate to such a picture as this. a gilt surface, a silver-gray tone, or a highly polished golden oak are possible blunders. nothing should be done to call attention to the frame of any picture, least of all to one of such spiritual feeling as this one. the frame should seem to be a part of the picture, repeating its prevailing tones with a richness in keeping with the composition of the picture itself. the colour should be a rich, dark brown, but not so dark as to obscure the figure of the wood. the finish should be dull, but soft and smooth. there are several brown stains which, properly applied, would give the desired effect. for the colour it was thought best to rely upon van dyke brown, which may be used either with alcohol or turpentine. it is not desirable to use a water stain in a case like this because it would raise the grain, necessitating sand-papering, which should be avoided as much as possible on picture frames in order to keep the edges and corners intact. ammonia fuming preserves the figure of the wood better than any other form of staining, but it was thought that the oak might not take on a tone dark enough to meet the requirements. it was decided, however, to try the fuming method and to tone up with a thin coat of stain if the effect proved to be not sufficiently dark. the ammonia process resulted in a rich, soft surface, but in a colour too light. a thin van dyke brown alcohol stain was therefore applied and when dry this was followed by a very thin coat of shellac--mostly alcohol--coloured to match the stain. this was to fill partially the grain of the wood. finally, it was thoroughly coated with wax finish and well rubbed to restore the soft, satin-like surface. [illustration: a group of passe-partouts] passe-partouts framing pictures in passe-partout binding is one of the little arts of home decoration, though it is by no means an unimportant one. it is easy to learn and it involves small expense in time and money, but it furnishes a means of preserving many pictures of real worth in themselves or of value to their owners because of pleasant associations; and it is in itself a delightful occupation. it offers the same chances for artistic effects in colour harmony and contrasts, in spacing, and in the arrangements for hanging that the more difficult methods of framing do, with the added advantage that one need not be deterred by the question of expense from discarding an unsuccessful result and trying again. _varieties of binding._--passe-partout binding is made in a great variety of colours. it costs from ten to twenty cents per roll of twelve yards, according to colour and quality, and it may be purchased of dealers in artists' supplies. for general use the ordinary width of binding-- / of an inch--is required; but extra narrow widths are supplied when it is desired to add a margin of a contrasting colour. for these margins the gold and silver narrow bindings are, with certain pictures, very effective; but white and other light colours are often used for this purpose. _artistic colour effects._--the choice of the colour for the principal binding should be controlled mainly by the tone of the picture, with which, as a general thing, it should blend. if no mat be used, more or less of a contrast in colour between the picture and the binding is permissible; but the most artistic effects are obtained when mats are used. these should, of course, be in harmony with the colour tones and general character of the picture. it may be a harmony of agreement if there is a border of light tone between the picture and the mat, as illustrated in the accompanying drawing. without such a border it will be necessary to show a pleasing contrast of tone. but in almost all cases when a mat is used the outer binding should repeat the predominant colour or some other prominent characteristic of the picture. for example, if it be a picture of an english hunting scene with mounted sportsmen in red coats, the mat may be of a light greenish hue and the binding red. if it be a landscape photograph in sepia tones, a white or light coffee-coloured mat with a dark brown binding is a good combination. a scotch scene is appropriately framed in a plaid binding. in this case it is the subject of the picture rather than the colour that suggests the binding. but in all cases opportunity is offered for carefully selecting the colour combinations, planning the spacing, and arranging the grouping of pictures of like character. thus one of the simplest of decorative processes presents large artistic possibilities. _an actual problem._--the various steps in the process of framing a picture in passe-partout binding may perhaps be best understood by giving an example of it. the actual problem is to frame a silhouette--an original drawing in black india ink on light gray paper, by inches in size, with the longer dimension vertical. _materials and tools._--the materials and tools required are as follows: a piece of glass the size of the picture ( by inches), since no border is needed; two pieces of thin pasteboard, which may be cut from an old box cover, the same size as the glass; a generous yard of black passe-partout binding; two passe-partout rings, which cost five cents per dozen; a little photographers' paste; a sharp knife or a pair of scissors; and an awl or a pointed nail. _the process._--with these materials in hand it will require scarcely more than twenty minutes to complete the work. the first step is the setting of the rings. this is accomplished by punching two small holes in one of the pieces of pasteboard two inches from the edge chosen for the top and about one inch from each side. through these holes the points of the rings are pushed until the ring is close to the pasteboard. bending the points over in opposite directions fastens the ring firmly. this is a comparatively large picture. had it been small--say by inches or smaller--only one ring in the centre, fastened about - / inches from the edge, would have been needed. the picture is now mounted on the second piece of pasteboard by fastening it at the upper corners with a little paste. it is desirable to use as little paste as possible. the two pieces of pasteboard are then brought together, care being taken that the rings are on the outside, and the glass laid over the picture. these parts are now ready to be bound together. the sides are bound first. this is done by cutting two pieces of the binding / of an inch longer than the short edges of the picture, wetting the gummed side and laying it along the edge of the glass so that it will lap / of an inch over the face of the glass. each end of this binding will extend / of an inch beyond the glass. the rest of the binding is now folded over upon the pasteboard back, taking pains to draw it down close to the edge of the glass and pasteboard before it is permanently fastened. the / of an inch that projects at each end is then folded over the corner and pressed down as close as possible to the edge of the glass and pasteboard. the upper and lower edges are bound in the same way, excepting that the pieces of binding are first cut the same length as the edges over which they are to be pasted, and, before they are pasted on, the two corners on the side to be pasted to the glass are cut off / of an inch back at an angle of degrees, and the other corners are also trimmed back to about / of an inch. the accompanying drawing shows more clearly how these binding strips are trimmed. the purpose of it is evident; for when the strips are pasted over the top and bottom edges of the glass, it is seen that they have been cut to give the appearance of mitred corners, and that when folded over the edges upon the back of the pasteboard no rough edges of binding are left exposed at the corners. [illustration: how the binding strips are trimmed] one of the lessons of experience in this work is that it is well to take great pains in centring the binding strips accurately before pasting them on, as they do not stick well if the attempt is made to correct a mistake by removing the binding and pasting it on again. the more elaborate passe-partouts, requiring mats, borders, and double bindings, are scarcely more difficult than the simple example just described, though they will require more time. it is well to begin with the easier problems. when borders and double bindings are used the narrow passe-partout strips are pasted on first, with proper care to cut the mitres correctly and to centre the strips accurately before pasting them down upon the glass. the edges are bound last. this partly covers the brighter-coloured strips previously pasted along the edge of the glass, and leaves a narrow line of colour exposed as a border just inside the binding. hanging pictures [illustration: a correct method of hanging pictures] _how to hang pictures._--if wire be used for hanging pictures, it should be as small and inconspicuous as possible. in place of the braided steel wire, which may be needed for large pictures, a single brass or copper wire is much to be preferred for those of lighter weight. in all cases where the wire shows it should appear as two vertical lines against the wall and not as a single wire bent over a single hook in the form of an inverted v, so commonly seen and so manifestly failing to conform with any lines of a room. levelling the picture may be easily managed by using only one wire, making it continuous through the screw eyes on the back of the picture. these screw eyes should be placed near the top of the frame--about one sixth the whole vertical width of the picture from the top--so that the picture may hang nearly flat against the wall. whenever possible, however, pictures should be hung without showing the wire at all. this may be easily managed without seriously marring the finish of some rooms by driving two fine finishing nails in the part of the lower wall which is to come directly behind the top of the picture, allowing them to project about / of an inch and bending them up a little with a pair of pliers so that the wires will not slip off. choice, small pictures may be hung in this way on fine upholstery tacks. it is often possible, when the wire must be exposed, to stop it just below the dado cap and thus avoid showing the wire over the frieze. whenever it is necessary, as it often is, to suspend wires by means of the so-called picture hooks from a picture moulding or cornice strip placed above the frieze, some attention should be paid to the colour of these hooks. bright metal hooks showing over a delicately coloured moulding are in bad taste. some people prefer to use the inverted v suspension in order to reduce the number of these picture hooks. but it is far better to retain the straight, fine, and nearly invisible wires and colour the hooks to make them less conspicuous. in determining the height of pictures it is only necessary to remember that they are placed upon the walls to be enjoyed. while monotony in height is to be avoided, the average eye level should not be disregarded. the frontispiece illustrates an effective placing of a picture in the dining-room of the model house. iv the arrangement of flowers "i know not which i love the most, nor which the comeliest shows; the timid, bashful violet, or the royal-hearted rose; "the pansy in her purple dress, the pink with cheek of red, or the faint, fair heliotrope who hangs, like a bashful maid, her head." --_phoebe cary_ formerly when the furniture, pictures, and draperies had been arranged in our rooms, with perhaps a few pieces of bric-à-brac, we considered their decoration quite complete. but we have learned how much cheerfulness a few simple flowers, properly arranged, impart to the same rooms; and so flowers have come to be considered as almost essential to the complete decoration of the home. _a lesson from the japanese._--if we have learned much from the japanese in regard to the arrangement and hanging of pictures, from them we have learned more about the artistic arrangement of flowers. they have taught us to value the stem and leaves of the flower as essential to an artistic arrangement, that flowers of the same kind should be grouped together, and that harmony and blending of colour are necessary to secure the most artistic effects. _flowers of a kind grouped together._--we may have been in the habit of putting several different kinds of flowers together and of being satisfied with such a composition; but the japanese would tell us that when several different kinds of flowers are combined in one grouping the full beauty of each is lost; and after a few experiments we shall come to see the truth of this. here is an illustration: at a summer camp with which i am familiar it was the daily duty of one of the younger boys to go for the wild flowers we used for keeping the camp gay. he often brought home snug little bunches of the flower of the wild convolvulus and the wild rose, to be used together. no pleasing arrangement could be made from such a handful, so he was asked to bring long pieces of the vine of the convolvulus and gather branches of the rose, especially those with the buds. the convolvulus we arranged in a flat dish at one end of a gray stone mantel, letting the vine hang over the mantel, and he quickly saw that it "looked prettier--more as though it were growing." when a few of the stalks of the wild rose were arranged by themselves in a green glass vase he pronounced them much "prettier than when mixed up with other flowers." _the way of the garden._--in our gardens we plant the sunshiny daffodils by themselves, the sweet peas grow in a mass together, and we have beds of roses. if we follow the same plan in the arrangement of our flowers indoors we shall realize their decorative qualities to the utmost. so we may consider it a safe rule to follow in arranging flowers,--to use only one kind of flower, with its stems and leaves, arranging them loosely, rather than to have many in a compact grouping. one single, long-stemmed rose, with its beautiful foliage, in a tall, slender glass is more decorative and gives us more pleasure than a dozen roses stripped of their foliage and crowded into a small vase. _exceptions._--while the above rule should be generally followed, there are exceptional instances of the perfectly harmonious arrangement of flowers of two or more kinds together. among these we may mention the combining of field daisies and buttercups, or buttercups with the grasses among which they grow. so, too, the lacy flower of the wild carrot may sometimes be effectively combined with some other flower. the spikes of the cardinal flower, for example, are gorgeous in colour, but very stiff and difficult to arrange; so the addition of a few sprays of the wild carrot softens the effect and makes it more pleasing. colour arrangement we have just considered the grouping of flowers by themselves. there is another element to be considered before we can have artistic results, and that is arrangement as to colour. _colour grouping._--we may not all be sensitive to colour ourselves, but in arranging flowers we should always keep in mind the pleasure that is to be given others, and so we wish nothing in our colour grouping that will offend those whose colour sense is keen. there are three colour schemes that can be followed with success and satisfaction to all. in one we group together only flowers of the same colour, as red roses, pink sweet peas, yellow iris, not red, pink, and white roses, nor all of the various colours of sweet pea. another arrangement calls for shades and tints of the same colour. with many flowers it is possible to get exquisite effects by following this scheme. for instance, pansies ranging from a pale lavender to deep purple are lovely arranged in a low basket of damp moss. sweet peas have beautiful shades of pink that can be combined, as well as shades of red and of lavender. nasturtiums are never so effective as when the various shades of yellow, orange and brown are used together. the garden aster of to-day is another flower that affords much pleasure in colour arrangement; for it has lavenders and purples, a variety of pink tones, beautiful reds, and perfect white ones. and the white ones! what shall we do with these? three or four pure white asters of the same variety may be used together; or two or three white ones may be grouped with a few lavender ones, or pink ones. white may be combined with any colour with good results. nature is a good teacher here for she gives us both the coloured and the white in almost every variety of flower. for example there are crimson cosmos and white cosmos, scarlet geraniums and white geraniums, blue violets and white violets, and so on through a great many varieties. _combination of complementary colours._--another colour grouping that is sometimes desirable makes use of the complementary colours. the salpiglossis, a garden flower that ought to be better known than it is, gives us examples of these, with its blue and orange-yellow flowers that are so effective together. the iris also has flowers of complementary colours, yellow and violet blue being common among them. the flower holders _a flower composition as a picture._--having learned something about the artistic use of colour, we come to the consideration of the arrangement of the flowers, and this includes the vase or other receptacle used for holding them. an artistic flower composition is a picture; and as the mat and frame give finish to a picture hanging on the wall, so the vessel holding flowers should give the required finish to the flower picture. like the frame, it should be simple in design, have graceful lines, and serve only as a medium to set off the flowers to the best advantage. there should be as little decoration as possible, and when jars or vases of colour are used they must blend or harmonize with the colour schemes of the flowers placed in them. _receptacles for flowers._--it often is a problem to find the most fitting thing for holding flowers; but in the reliable japanese shops one can always find some simple holders, and there are very good designs in the clear and in the green glass that are inexpensive and appropriate. as a rule the less expensive the article the better adapted it is as a suitable holder for flowers. one need never mourn that she cannot afford cut glass vases for flowers, as they and their cheap imitations are among the most unsuitable of holders. _four typical flower holders._--let us suppose our equipment includes four simple receptacles,--a small, clear glass fish globe such as may be had for twenty-five cents; a clear glass vase, about twelve inches in height, cylindrical in shape though flaring a little at the top, costing twenty-five cents; a large cylindrical japanese jar of a pale green tint, eighteen inches in height and costing about one dollar and a quarter; and a deep green one, about eight inches in height, which may be bought for sixty or seventy cents. the fish globe is very effective when nasturtiums and their leaves are loosely arranged in it. the stems show through the water and glass and form a part of the composition. short stemmed roses may be most artistically grouped in it. i have seen a very charming combination of mignonette and bachelor's buttons in the same bowl, as well as a harmonious picture in yellow, composed of the various shades of california poppies and their foliage. [illustration: a fish globe with daisies] the tall glass sets off two or three long stemmed roses: and a few yellow daffodils or the narcissus with their leaves look equally well in it. poppies for a day, in the same vase, have given pleasure to the beholder. at easter it has joyously borne a stalk of two perfect lilies, and in the autumn tall spikes of salvia have been equally at home in it. our tall japanese jar is suited to larger arrangements, for we need to remember that in tall or vertical compositions the vase should be about one third the height of the whole combination; so this is adapted to holding branches of apple blossoms or mountain laurel; or, if one is fortunate enough to find tall lilac bushes, about three branches from these are effective in it. tall-growing golden-rod looks equally well placed here. it furnishes a modest setting for dahlias and chrysanthemums, and one of its most decorative compositions has been two or three branches of pine bearing their brown cones. the possibilities of the smaller green jar are numerous, and only a few are given as suggestions. a loose arrangement of jonquils and their leaves, or of white narcissus, is effective. the shorter stemmed lilacs, either the purple ones or the white ones, may be placed in it. an arrangement of white field daisies, and one of yellow roses, have been found equally successful. one soon discovers the harmony and balance that exist between the flower and holder. [illustration: a tall vase with narcissus] the background _space and harmonious surroundings._--to obtain the largest decorative effect we must have not only artistic grouping and harmonious setting of flowers, but space and background, just as are needed for the hanging of pictures. many a floral composition has lost all decorative effect from being placed in too small a space and surrounded by distracting objects. a few days ago i stepped into a room on an errand and forgot my errand in the pleasure i derived from seeing some beautiful yellow chrysanthemums, three or four, i think, in a yellowish brown jar on a large mahogany table, having for a background the upturned leaf of the table. it stood some little distance from anything else, a shaft of sunlight lay across the whole, and as i looked at it i thought: here is all that constitutes a decorative arrangement of flowers. it was the feature of the room that held one's attention. [illustration: an arrangement for the tall japanese jar] _flowers for the dining table._--if we can have flowers in but one room in the house, it may be difficult to decide which one it shall be. since it often happens that the dining-room is the only room where a busy family comes together for any length of time, flowers should certainly be introduced here that all may share their beauty and cheer. any arrangement for the home table should be moderately low; and there are many simple flowers that can be used in this way to advantage. for instance, one can gather a quantity of the innocence or common bluet (root and all), to be found in any field in the spring, and put them in a shallow glass dish. simple and effective decoration for the table is the result. flowers with any degree of fragrance should never be used in the dining-room. the fragrance of some flowers is offensive to many people, and when combined with the odour of food doubly so. [illustration: an arrangement of roses in a small jar] at a luncheon served by the girls in the model house the floral decoration for the table was a half dozen single, yellow jonquils with their foliage, placed in a creamy brown vase made by one of the girls. their dishes being in white with a gold edge and the walls and furniture in browns, nothing could have been more harmonious than these few simple flowers. _expensive flowers not necessary._--it is evident that for floral decoration neither expensive nor lavish displays are necessary, that simplicity is the thing to strive for, and that a few sprays of wild flowers in their season are more truly artistic than many expensive hot-house flowers. in this country we do not, as the japanese do, make a festival in honour of certain flowers; but if we rightly appreciate and utilize the flowers of each season, we may give a touch of festivity to the life of every day. in the early spring nothing can be more appropriate than an arrangement of pussy willows or branches of the alder with its tassels, while the red maple when in flower gives a touch of colour that will brighten any room. a clump of blood root in a small jardiniere is as decorative as the expensive plants one may see in the home of some friend. the flowers of the field and the garden offer so many possibilities for decorative results that no one's home need lack the cheery touch which they can give. there is a personal element in flowers such as is not found in any other means of decoration, not even in pictures, with the single exception of good portraits. they seem to speak to us. we can almost believe that they feel an interest in all that we have said about them. if they really could know, would they not approve the principles that we have laid down? we may fancy that they _would_ approve and that, if they could really speak and we would listen, they would tell us so in some such language as the following: what the flowers say about it don't mix us; we are exclusive and prefer our own kind. don't make a confusion of colour with us. don't arrange us in snug, solid masses. don't neglect to use our stems and foliage as a part of the decoration. don't tie us with ribbons, nor put paper-lace frills around us. don't crowd us in with an assortment of household goods; we need space and a background. don't arrange us in tall, stiff forms for the dining table. _do_ love us and use us in the home as much as possible. this is well for you. by so doing not only will your love of us increase, but your artistic perception of the fitness of things will constantly enlarge. for truly has it been said, "the poorest woman in the world, if she has faith in beauty, will always be able to fill her home with light; she can always place there some flowers." v decorative fabrics portiÈres, window draperies, cushion covers, table mats the very need of ornament arises out of a certain innate discontent with plain, smooth surface--_lewis f. day_ no kind of decorative art offers greater possibilities for touching the right--or the wrong--chord than that which makes use of fabrics. portières, curtains, cushion covers, table runners and mats, lamp shades, and many other furnishings, in which fabrics are involved, present problems that quickly engage the interest of the amateur decorator who wishes to avoid the commonplace and, when well worked out, add greatly to the attractiveness of artistic surroundings. and every house becomes a studio for problems peculiar to itself, when the possibilities of development in this direction are realized. here, as everywhere else, decorative art is secondary to architectural design and must never fail to acknowledge its dependence. its glory is to follow. to attempt to lead means miserable failure. _example of the model house._--the wide doorways connecting the hall, the living room, and dining-room of our model house made doors undesirable and portieres necessary to assist in marking the division between the rooms and to soften the lines of the wood finish. they were made to harmonize with the colour scheme but were darker and richer in tone. the multiple windows, with the absence of direct sunshine, suggested the light style of drapery; and the preference given to straight-lined, substantial furniture, made in the school shops, led as a natural consequence to cushions and coverings of leather or coarse fabric, in order to bear out the idea of simplicity, directness, and durability in craftsmanship. velvets and satins would have been out of place. _utility to be regarded._--the highly decorative function of such accessories makes it doubly necessary to exercise care in selecting materials, designing the ornamental features, and properly placing the completed article, in order that the requirements of use be not subordinated to the demands of art. it must never be forgotten that utility is the basis of all true decoration. portieres were originally a substitute for doors--a means of closing an opening between rooms. it must be possible always for them easily to serve this purpose. hence loops or rings, which slide easily over a pole, should be used. portières may properly be made of heavy cloth and they may have a lining harmonizing or in pleasing contrast with the tone of the principal fabric. they should always be at least opaque. window draperies, on the other hand, are not a substitute for shades or curtains. they should not shut out the light but soften it. they should, therefore, be made of light, washable, and durable material, and be hung so that they can be easily taken down for cleaning. the simplest style of hanging, by means of a brass rod and plain brackets, is the best. since there is no need of frequently sliding them over the rod, it is well to hang them by means of a hem, stitched two or three inches from the top of the drapery, through which the rod may be easily pushed. cushion covers and table runners, made of durable material and decorated with colours that are washable, are manifestly more serviceable than those that look fresh only when new, and hence are more in keeping with the idea of sincerity in household decoration. there is necessity for honesty in decoration as well as in plumbing if it is to meet the tests with equal success. [illustration: pillow cover with geometrical designs printed on dyed cotton cloth. table runner of russian crash with block printed and embroidered end panels. plate iii] how such decorative features are worked out from beginning to end, is told in the following directions for a few practical problems which are known to be practical, because they have been actually carried through from the design to the completed article. this detailed and complete explanation, with the accompanying illustrations, will suggest many similar problems which every home offers. block printing problem: _decorating a table runner_.--this problem is easily separated into four distinct parts--making the design, cutting the block, printing, and finishing. the materials needed are as follows: ( ) making the design ordinary drawing paper rice paper charcoal pencil japanese or sable brush, medium size water-proof india ink ( ) cutting the block gum wood small penknife vise sand-paper, fine ( ) printing the design printing board sheet of glass oil paints turpentine palette knife cotton batting cheese cloth ( ) finishing the runner embroidery silk or mercerized cotton [illustration: the peacock design] _the design._--to carry out the problem as illustrated, it is necessary, first of all, to make the design. geometry, nature, and the imagination are satisfactory sources upon which to draw for the motif. if the inventive faculty is quite undeveloped, one should study for suggestions the figures in oriental rugs, photographs of early eastern art, and the fine old tapestries in museum collections. some good geometrical designs, like that used on the pillow cover illustrated on page , were made by school-girls after drawing many figures found in rugs; and interesting bird patterns, after studying numerous reproductions of coptic designs. in no case was the block pattern in the least like the designs studied. they served only as ideas to start with and led to the production of truly original work. it is essential to keep a few simple principles in mind in working out the design: ( ) both the dark and light shades in the patterns should be varied in size and form to avoid a monotonous result and should be as beautiful in proportion as possible. ( ) there should be a centre of interest, one part of the design dominant--more attractive than any other. ( ) the design must be a unit--_i. e._, the parts must hold together. all feeling of unity is lost if the parts of the design call attention to themselves to the exclusion of the whole. [illustration: block used in printing the peacock design] _preliminary sketches and the drawing._--it will be found desirable to make many preliminary sketches in charcoal or soft pencil, rubbing in a part of each sketch with a tone in order to secure immediately the dark and light effect. these should be compared, keeping clearly in mind the principles stated above. when one possessing the right qualifications has been found, the next step is to draw on a fresh piece of paper an accurate -inch square and copy upon it the satisfactory design in pencil outline. this should be done very carefully, that the spirit of the original charcoal sketch may not be lost. when the drawing is completed it must be put into shape to be transferred to the block. to do this we fasten a piece of rice-paper over the drawing and trace with very light pencil lines, filling in the dark spaces with black ink, using a brush. this brush work may be done directly without the pencil line if the drawing underneath shows very plainly through the paper. when the ink has thoroughly dried, the design may be cut out on the edge of the -inch square. [illustration: bird pattern] _laying the pattern and cutting the block._--a block × × / inches will now be required. this should be procured and sand-papered. one face of it should then be covered with a coating of library paste, the pattern laid upon it, and rubbed down smooth. if the design is symmetrical it should be pasted on the block, ink side up, but otherwise with the ink side down, or the design will be reversed upon the cloth. when the paste gets quite dry one may then fasten the block in the vise and, holding the blade of the knife at a slight angle and always away from the dark spots, proceed to cut the design along the outlines. these must be kept very smooth and sharp. all of the white shapes should be cut out, leaving the black ones in relief. usually an eighth of an inch will be deep enough for the background, but it will be found after practise in printing that the larger spaces should be cut deeper and that, when the edges or corners of the block form a part of the background instead of the dark pattern, they also need a deeper cut. the paper that still adheres to the face of the block may now be removed by rubbing it upon a sheet of sand-paper laid upon something hard and smooth like glass in order that the block may have an absolutely level surface. [illustration: a flower and leaf design] [illustration: block used in printing this design] _the padded board._--all block printing should be done upon a padded board. a very convenient one can be made by laying upon a bread board three or four sheets of blotting paper, and tacking over these several thicknesses of cheese cloth. in place of these an ironing board may be used. _material required._--it is essential to select for the runner a piece of crash of fine texture and even weave. this is sold under the name of russian crash and is from to inches wide but varies considerably in quality. it is very difficult to print well upon the coarser grades. [illustration: alternating animal and geometrical design] [illustration: blocks used in printing this design] _trying the colours._--after deciding upon a colour which will harmonize with the general colour scheme of the room in which the table runner is to be used, it is in order to mix the paint and try the block upon a small piece of crash. to prepare the paint, squeeze a small quantity of the true colours chosen upon a sheet of glass and blend thoroughly with the palette knife, thinning with turpentine to the consistency of cream. it is seldom that a colour right from the tube will prove a pleasing one to use. other colours mixed with it will change its hue and intensity; black or white will alter the value. tie a little cotton batting up in a small square of cheese cloth or old handkerchief linen, being careful to remove from the raw edges all ravellings that might drop into the paint. spread out quite thin upon the glass a small portion of the prepared paint and press the pad into it a number of times until it has absorbed all it will. now charge the block by lightly pounding its surface with the pad. press the block upon the cloth evenly. only by repeated experiment will it be possible to determine just the right quantity of paint to mix, its brilliancy of tone, its consistency, how heavily to charge the block, etc. a good print shows the texture of the cloth through it, is even in tone, and has clear-cut edges. if the print looks like a painted spot, or if, when quite dry, you find it has stiffened the cloth, the paint used was too thick or else the block was too heavily charged. different materials require different treatment. for a thin silk the block should be very lightly charged and lightly though evenly pressed upon the material. in printing upon crash it is necessary to press the block very firmly upon the material; and frequently, to insure getting a sufficiently strong impression, it is advisable to tap the block lightly with a hammer or wooden mallet. if one has a steady hand, the block can easily be lifted at one side to determine just where the extra pressure is needed. the block should be thoroughly rubbed with old cloth after each impression is made and occasionally sand-papered to remove any paint that may adhere to it. the first print made after sand-papering the block is liable to be a little less distinct than the others and should therefore be made upon an extra piece of the material. _centring the work._--a good way to plan the placing of the panel design is to run a basting thread across the crash between two of the woven threads. mark the centre of the runner upon this thread, and, using these guides, print the design, beginning with one of the central units. _additional features._--considerable charm can be added to the pattern by filling some of the spaces with a simple darning or running stitch in some bright colour. the embroidery thread used should be rather fine. it is well to finish the ends of the runner by button-holing with ravellings of the crash. tiny dots of some colour used in the panel may be embroidered at intervals just above the button-holed edge. _colours._--the following list of oil colours will be found practical: ivory black, flake white, burnt sienna, light red, crimson lake, chrome yellow, chrome green, permanent blue. _materials._--linen, cotton, soisette, all or part silk pongee, crêpe de chine, cheese cloth, and unbleached muslin are excellent materials for block printing. beautiful background tones can be obtained by dyeing the two latter with easy dyes. in place of the gum wood for the block, basswood, maple, or holly may be used. it is possible to get along without a vise by fastening the block between two cleats nailed to an old table or heavy board. success is sometimes achieved in cutting blocks while simply held in the hand. _laundering._--if the material used for the foundation is washable, block printed articles can be satisfactorily and easily laundered in soapy, lukewarm water. the colours are not injured in the least. a liquid called stencil mordant is sometimes used in place of turpentine, insuring still greater permanency of colour. _other applications of block printing._--other articles suitable for decoration by block printing are curtains, pillow covers, table covers, cushion covers, bureau scarfs, portieres, table mats, bags of many sorts, etc. printing may also be used to ornament articles for personal use, such as aprons and scarfs. stencilling problem: _window draperies_.--making the design, cutting the stencil, printing, and finishing form the divisions of the problem to be worked out. a list of necessary materials follows: ( ) making the design charcoal pencil reflector ordinary drawing paper tracing paper carbon paper stencil paper ( ) cutting the stencil sheet of glass sharp penknife ( ) printing large board blotting paper turpentine oil paints bristle brushes pins _the design._--suggestions as to the method of procedure in making a design have been already given in the section on block printing. the principles of design to be considered are outlined there also. in working out this problem, however, several new things come up for explanation: ( ) the difference between a design to be stenciled and one to be printed by means of a wood block; ( ) the method of joining units to form a border; ( ) the method of turning a corner in a border design. [illustration: window draperies with stenciled border. designed and executed by a school girl. plate iv] _the stencil bands._--by studying the illustrations accompanying this section and by experimenting with the charcoal or soft pencil, it will be seen that in a stencil design the dark spots which stand for the color in the finished work are completely separated from one another by bands of varying widths. [illustration: a stencilled pattern--portion of pillow cover] these bands, or bridges, as they are called, serve to hold the stencil together and are connected throughout the design. though they may be as wide as one desires, it is seldom wise to make them much narrower than one eighth of an inch, as they are easily broken; and, unless carefully pinned down when stencilling, the paint is liable to run under them and ruin the work. in a block print design no connection of the light or separation of the dark parts has to be considered. in the illustration of the stencil observe that the dark and light are reversed as compared with the stencilled pattern--_i. e._, the dark represents the stencil paper, the light the openings through which the paint is applied. [illustration: the stencil for this pattern] _the complete unit._--it will be readily understood that a border may be made up by repetition of one unit which is a complete thing in itself. the unit in such a case may be made very long and narrow, so that in repeating it along the vertical edge of a curtain it produces a narrow band, while along the horizontal edge the band is broad. a border worked out in this way, with perfectly straight and practically continuous margins, is very structural in character, emphasizing, as it does, the vertical and horizontal edges of the drapery. the effect is strong and dignified. the corner in this kind of border presents no difficulty. _the subordinate unit._--by studying the illustration in plate iv it will be seen that the unit of the border in this case is not complete in itself, but that the very conventional flower and stem composing it are joined to the next unit by what might be called a subordinate unit, composed, in this case, of a leaf form. the units are so closely spaced that a structural effect is fairly well obtained--_i. e._, the upper and lower edges of the border are nearly straight, giving a feeling of restfulness to the design that never accompanies one with broken or wavy edges. _designing the corner._--having planned a design for the straight running border of the curtains, take a reflector and experiment with the corner. the reflector can easily be made by cutting from an old discarded looking-glass a small rectangular piece, - / by inches being a convenient size. the edges should be very straight and the corners square. hold the reflector at various points along the border and always at an angle of degrees. study these possible corners which will be reflected in the glass, and when one sufficiently strong and interesting is found draw a light line along the edge of the reflector. this line, of course, exactly bisects the corner of the border to be made. avoid making a border of this kind too deep or, when turned for the vertical edges, it will form a very broad and heavy band. _the outline drawing._--the dark and light design having thus been worked out in charcoal, the next thing to do is to make a very careful pencil-outline drawing of the same. it is well to draw the corner and one unit free-hand and trace the rest. to do the tracing, pin a piece of very thin paper over the finished part, and trace with a well sharpened and fairly soft pencil. turn the tracing paper upside down, fitting a part of the tracing to the drawing underneath. after tacking it down, trace the remainder, using a firm, even pressure and being careful exactly to follow the line. strengthen the part of the pattern thus transferred by going over it with a sharp, hard point, and continue as before until you have a border of which both the vertical and horizontal sections are from to inches long. _transfer to stencil paper._--now, take a piece of stencil paper and square up one corner. fasten the pencil drawing securely to the stencil paper along one edge, slip a piece of carbon paper between the two, and trace the design. _cutting the stencil._--before cutting the stencil for the curtain a beginner should do a little practising upon an extra piece of the paper. trace a portion of the design upon this piece, lay it upon a sheet of glass or very hard wood, and with a sharp penknife cut along the outline of the pattern. the knife should be held at a slight angle and the cut made completely through the paper. the pieces of stencil paper should never be pulled out but will fall out without aid when the cutting is completed. after a little practice it will be found a simple matter to cut the design with perfectly smooth edges. _suitable materials for stencilling._--for the curtains fine cheese cloth or batiste will be found excellent. even unbleached muslin will make attractive curtains where expense must be carefully considered. unless the woodwork of the room is white, the pure white materials will be found less pleasing than those that are quite creamy in tone. scrim in a charming, grayish tan colour is obtainable, and, if of good, soft quality, makes most satisfactory curtains. it is not advisable to hemstitch this material before stencilling as in case of accident or failure so much work is lost; but the hems should be carefully planned and basted, those along the inner edges of the curtains being narrower than the bottom hems. _the colours._--the color scheme of the room should be carefully considered in deciding upon the colour or colours to be used in stencilling. if two colours are chosen, they should be of the same value--_i. e._, the two colours should form equally dark spots in order that the pattern of the border may appear in the same dark and light as the original charcoal sketch. _pinning the stencil._--when ready for the actual process of stencilling, lay a large sheet of blotting paper upon a board and over this place the corner of the curtain. pin the stencil securely to the curtain so that the edge of the border when printed shall be about half an inch from the hem and the edges of both shall be absolutely parallel. use as few pins as possible but enough to keep the stencil close to the cloth. _testing the paint._--having mixed the oil paint with turpentine or stencil mordant, using an old cup or glass for each colour, practise stencilling upon a small piece of cloth. put blotting-paper under the cloth and pin the stencil down with great care. use short, stiff bristle brushes for the stencilling, one for each colour. remove almost all the paint from the brush by pressing it upon blotting-paper. when it leaves scarcely a mark, proceed to stencil the pattern by pounding the brush upon the exposed portions of the cloth, working close to the edge of each spot. if, upon removing the stencil, the edges are blurred, the paint was too thin or the stencil not carefully pinned down. if, on the other hand, the coloured spots look thick and painty, so that upon drying, the cloth is found stiffened in these places, you may be sure that the paint used was too thick or that the brush was too wet. the secret of good stencilling is to use the paint as thin and the brush as dry as possible. hold the stencilled sample up to the window and see whether, when the light shines through it, the colour appears right. _the real process._--when confident that the process is understood and that the colour is satisfactory, proceed to stencil the corner of the curtain. always have at hand a bottle of turpentine and a clean piece of cloth to use in case of accident. when removing the pins from the stencil wipe each one carefully. clean the stencil, too, handling it with care that none of the slender bridges may be broken. replace the stencil, fitting a section of it to the finished work. put the pins in the holes already made, otherwise the paint will get into them and disfigure the work. continue the stencilling, a section at a time, until the border is completed. do not fold the curtains until the stencilling is thoroughly dry. if the threads of the material can be easily pulled, a hemstitched edge will make the best finish; but careful hand hemming will look well upon material like fine batiste. _the valance._--the curtains should hang in vertical folds from the top of the window to a point slightly below the window sill. they should be drawn back at each side of the window and the space between at the top filled by a valance about a foot deep, perhaps deeper if the window is very high. this valance should have the border stencilled upon it and should be tacked just underneath the edge of the curtains. sometimes, as in the illustration in plate iv, a valance running across the entire width of the window is used. in this case it is run upon an extra rod in front of the one from which the curtain hangs. double rods for this purpose can be bought. _other possible problems._--as stencilling can be employed in practically the same place and upon the same materials as block printing, it is only necessary to refer to the lists given at the end of that section of this chapter for suggestions as to further possibilities in the way of home decoration by stencilling. embroidery problem: _table mat_.--as in the preceding problems, the first thing to do is to plan the design roughly in charcoal or soft pencil in order to get the dark and light relations and the best proportions possible. if convenient, the mat should be made for use with some special lamp or vase. by measuring the base of this object it is easy to determine the size of the plain central space, which may be either circular or square in shape. the forms in the decorated part may be made of various shapes, but it is well to keep them very simple in outline. straight lines alone may be employed, as in the mats illustrated in plate v, or a combination of straight and curved lines, as in the one shown in plate iii. after working out the design very accurately with a hard pencil, the next thing in order is to transfer it to a piece of coarse russian crash or heavy linen by means of carbon paper, taking great care to get the straight edges of the design even with the threads of the crash. _desirable combinations of colour and stitches._--the simple running or darning stitch should be employed in embroidering the pattern. two or more colours may be used. darning in dull green and outlining with black in the same stitch makes a very attractive mat. other good combinations are green and white, blue and white, blue and green, soft dull blue, and pinkish orange. this by no means exhausts the pleasing contrasts that may be found. the brighter colour should always be employed in the smaller quantities. the mat illustrated in plate v was embroidered in dull green and red mercerized cotton. after the darning was completed it was found that the red used in the small circles alone was too conspicuous, although it was very dull in tone. this defect was completely remedied and a perfect unity given to the design by outlining the forms in a couching stitch, using both colours. this was done by laying a green thread along the edge of each spot and taking a stitch of red over it at equal intervals. [illustration: crocheted panels a linen workbag with conventional landscape in darning stitch a crash table mat embroidered in darning and couching stitch designed and executed by school girls. plate v] after the embroidered pattern is done one may finish the mat with fine, close hemstitching or by button-holing the edge with ravellings of the crash. the latter method is usually more pleasing. the simple darning stitch can also be used to make very attractive borders for table runners, sofa pillows, decorations for work bags, as illustrated in plate v, besides being used to enrich a great variety of block printed or stencilled articles. _the satin stitch._--another effective and easy embroidery stitch to be used in decorating articles for the home is the over-and-over or satin stitch. when planning to use this stitch upon coarse linen in which the threads can be easily counted, transfer the design, after having carefully drawn it in pencil outline, to paper marked off into little squares. this can be bought where kindergarten supplies are sold. redraw the outline of the design, following exactly the lines on the paper, and at the same time keep as close as possible to the original form. let a certain number of threads of linen represent a square of the design and copy the pattern in the satin stitch or even the cross stitch if preferred. no transferring of the pattern to the cloth is necessary. a pattern worked out on cross section paper in this way can also be crocheted, as illustrated in plate v, and set into linen or some of its many imitations to decorate numberless articles for home or personal adornment. this crocheted work, if evenly done in fine thread, is quite suggestive of the italian filet lace. vi dress and the principles of decoration "a foolish little maiden had a foolish little bonnet with a feather and a ribbon and a bit of lace upon it; and that the other maidens of the little town might know it, she thought she'd go to meeting of a sunday just to show it. 'hallelujah! hallelujah!' sang the choir above her head. 'hardly knew you! hardly knew you!' were the words she thought they said." in considering the dress of the person as related to home decoration one is not so far afield as one may seem to be at first thought. it is true that dress has a variety of functions to perform that have no connection with the subject of decoration; and yet there is much that is common to both. well-dressed people of whatever age or sex, in the design and general make-up of their costumes, must observe the same laws that govern design wherever it is applied, as an expression of the artistic sense in the affairs of every-day life. beauty of line and proportion, harmony of colour, adaptation to use and to a great variety of special conditions, simplicity, symmetry, restraint, are all involved in personal attire, as they are in the decoration of a room; and in most cases success or failure in one field has its counterpart in the other. have we not often remarked of a house or of a room that it looks "just like her" or perhaps "just like him"; and do not attractive costumes give pleasure to others than those who wear them for the same reasons that properly decorated and well-arranged rooms afford similar enjoyment to those who live in them? _art and the fashions._--in discussing the parallel between art in clothing and the more stable art of home decoration it must be admitted, of course, that style in dress introduces some embarrassing questions; for the styles, especially for women, suffer wonderful changes with every season. and yet people of artistic feeling and good taste, succeed in maintaining a fair degree of harmony between the changing demands of fashion and the established principles of art as applied in dress. _how to be well dressed._--the well-dressed woman knows how to select her clothes and how to wear them. she must study her own figure and know her defects as well as her good points. with this knowledge she can learn to subdue the one and bring out the other. she should have a clear conception of the ideal figure and strive to adapt herself to it. to acquire this training the principles of the art of decoration must be understood and applied. she should never wear a garment of a certain style simply because it is the fashion, but strive to make it conform to her individual type. _good lines._--decorative design in dress must follow the construction lines of the figure and not destroy them. these are the much discussed good lines of which we hear and read so much. horizontal lines break the figure and increase the breadth, while vertical lines give the appearance of height. it is the simple lines, conforming to and following the lines of the ideal figure, which are the best. the taste of most women leads them to desire simple clothes; but through ignorance or inexperience many of these women fail to achieve that aim. a stout woman with a round back is sometimes seen wearing a dress with lapels or ruffles over the shoulders. this only serves to accentuate her defect. _unity and harmony._--in all forms of decoration harmony is essential--_i. e._, all the parts that are to be combined must agree with one another and with their surroundings. to secure this in dress is to give unity to the entire costume. a dress hat with plumes should not be worn with a tailored suit in the morning; and yet we often see such a combination. here the lack of harmony is between the parts of the costume; but the entire costume must be suited to the peculiarities of figure. there are women who never look well in the straight lines of a tailored suit: the severity is not becoming to them. they must tone down the effects of the lines by ruchings, ruffles, a soft stock, or some such softening elements of dress. others do not look well in fluffy things. each must know what is becoming and dress accordingly. _importance of colours._--every season we hear that certain colours are to be worn. many women will choose a colour because they like it without considering whether it is suitable for them to wear. a little attention to a few well-known facts will help them to avoid failures of this kind. it is generally recognized that light colours seem to increase the size. striped materials should not be worn by the stout women unless the stripes are very indistinct. dots are also very dangerous for her; but she may choose a pattern with pin-point dots scattered over the surface at some distance from each other. she is always safe in a plain, dark colour. _colour and complexion._--in deciding on a becoming colour one must take into account the colour of the hair and eyes and the tone of the complexion. it has been thought that young girls can wear clear, light shades and that older women should keep to dark, quiet colours; yet there are older women who wear pale gray, mauve, and lavender charmingly and many young girls who cannot wear blue or pink. it is quite impossible to make accurate colour rules, because it would be hard to find two complexions that require exactly the same colour setting. it is well, however, to study combinations of different colours with the idea of finding the right colour, to use in any costume, the amount of each, and the best arrangement to give a proper balance. _proportion._--the importance of the principle of proportion is often overlooked, but beauty of dress is never possible if it be neglected. a well-dressed woman, in selecting her hat, must have given consideration to the relation of the size and shape of the head to the lines of the entire figure. strictly speaking, a hat is a covering for the head, and it should seem to belong to the head, to protect it, and, through harmony of colour and proportion of line and mass, to improve the appearance of the whole costume. the artist, when drawing a figure, uses the head as the unit of measure. therefore in choosing a hat one should select a style that is in good proportion to the size of the head and to the height of the figure. if the mass of the head is increased disproportionately by too large a hat, the entire figure is apparently shortened and the natural proportions destroyed. one often wonders why photographs of people with hats on look so old-fashioned and sometimes so ridiculous. it is because the hat is not in good proportion. the gainsborough and reynolds ladies with hats never look queer. their hats bear the right relation to the head and the figure. _appropriateness._--the general proportions of a hat or a gown may be good, but the addition of the decoration may destroy all the good effect obtained by securing the right relation of line and mass. the aim of all decoration should be to harmonize and strengthen the whole. beauty of dress, therefore, depends upon simplicity and appropriateness of the material used as well as upon the form and arrangement of the material. wherever ornament is used it must fulfil the condition of fitness to place; otherwise it is not really decorative. in trimming a hat, the one who is to wear it should take her seat before a mirror, and place the hat comfortably upon her head; then with the aid of a hand glass she should try the trimming in different positions until the best effect is obtained. the designs in trimming should be appropriate to the garment. the size of the design and the kind of form used should be considered. simple forms are the best for all decorative art work. in fact, there is great advantage in plain materials. they always work to greater economy than stripes or plaids. _influence of occupation._--the well-dressed woman should realize how great is the influence of occasion and occupation. some gowns were intended only for afternoon wear in the house; but we often see them worn on the street cars or for shopping. i have always approved of the rule in many shops which requires the clerks to wear plain black gowns. formerly it was the old finery which was used for every-day wear. now the business woman to be successful has to exercise more thought upon her clothes than the woman at home. her clothes have harder wear and must be appropriate for her work. the dress of school-girls and children must not be overlooked. it should be as simple as possible and above all else it should be comfortable. it should never bind or pinch; indeed, the clothing should not interfere with any function of the body. but we often see children dressed with much lace, with many ruffles, and even with jewellery; and we have seen school girls wearing net waists, plumed hats, and high-heeled shoes. what an infraction is this of the principle of appropriateness in dress! vii furniture making it is only by labour that thought can be made healthy, and only by thought that labour can be made happy--_john ruskin_ the chief purpose of this chapter is to outline the most important general facts upon which good furniture making is based and to give specific directions for working out a number of typical problems, following designs which have been proved in completed articles made, for the most part, by school-boys and tested by use. no attempt is made to give this great subject complete and systematic treatment; for this would involve many problems in constructive design and a corresponding number of working drawings, with specifications for the selection and preparation of materials and for the work of construction--a subject so extensive that it would easily overrun the limits of a single chapter. the aim is rather to select a few of the most suggestive lessons of experience in constructive work with special reference to our main subject of household decoration. it is taken for granted that the interested reader is familiar with the use of the common hand tools for woodworking or that he can, with some assistance, perhaps, easily command their use. it is not thought necessary, therefore, to describe in detail the proper method of using tools, but rather to offer practical suggestions on the selection, preparation and constructive use of woodworking materials and, in the series of problems which follow, to give some helpful hints on the way woodworking tools should be used. it is also assumed that in most cases the very great advantage of woodworking machinery may be utilized, especially in preparing the materials and bringing them within easy reach of the hand-tool processes. the true art-craft spirit, which always honours handwork as the supreme method, may not hesitate to command the services of machines so long as it does not become slavishly dependent upon them. selection and preparation of stock the first thing that should claim the attention of the artistic woodworker is the selection and preparation of his materials, commonly known as the stock. the sculptor selects his marbles with the greatest care. so should the cabinet-maker make sure that his woods are taken from the right parts of selected timber and that they are properly sawed and well seasoned. the importance of this cannot be overestimated. hard wood boards, cut from the sides of a tree, will in drying, invariably curve across their grain. it is only those that are cut from the centre to the outside of the tree that may be depended upon to remain approximately true; for, after this cutting, the grain runs directly through the thickness of the board, or nearly so. boards taken from timber in this way are said to be "quarter sawed"; those cut by sawing through the logs from side to side, as is always done with soft woods and often with hard woods, are said to be "plain sawed." this is illustrated in the accompanying drawings. _quartered oak._--in the case of oak, the quarter sawing not only maintains a flat surface but greatly improves the appearance of the stock when finished. the popularity of quartered oak for furniture may therefore be said to be well founded, for it is the sincerest of woods. it is as good as it looks. [illustration: quarter sawed log] quarter sawing, however, is very largely confined to oak because the appearance of the grain and the strength of most woods is far from being improved by this method of cutting. thus ash and gum wood and all the softer woods sometimes used in furniture making are plain sawed. we shall, therefore, generally find stock from these woods curved and twisted badly so that it will be necessary, in selecting material for large surfaces such as table tops, to pick out the straight parts for these surfaces and save the remainder to be cut into the smaller pieces which will always be needed. these pieces can be easily planed without much loss of thickness. [illustration: end of quarter sawed board] [illustration: plain sawed log] [illustration: end of plain sawed board] _kiln-dried lumber._--this bending and twisting of the boards does not take place as soon as they are sawed out of the log, but gradually during the process of seasoning; and, unless the lumber is kiln-dried, the more gradual the seasoning the less the bending. lumber is kiln-dried by stacking it, with air spaces left between the boards, in steam-heated closets or kilns, where the process of drying is carried on evenly though rapidly. kiln-dried lumber, therefore, retains its shape quite as well as that which is dried slowly in the lumber pile. but whether kiln-dried or not, it should be allowed to remain in a dry place as long as possible before using it so that it will have a chance to change all that it is likely to and so lessen the subsequent shrinking and warping. a good cabinet-maker never undertakes to make furniture from stock that he does not know to be perfectly dry and well seasoned, not only because unseasoned lumber is more likely to shrink, warp, and crack, but also because it cannot be depended upon to hold the glue, take varnish well, or respond readily to other methods of finishing. _planing down to a flat surface._--since boards are seldom perfectly flat, even if one has taken the greatest pains to select well-seasoned stock, it will almost invariably be necessary to work them down to a plane surface when they are glued up or joined together in any way. to accomplish this result it is necessary to plan the arrangement of the pieces in such a way that the concave of the bend shall fall on the same side, as shown in the illustration, and thus provide for the final working down with the least possible removal of stock. they can be arranged on a level bench top or floor with the convex side down so that they will lie as flat as possible. the boards should then be taken out one by one and their edges should be carefully planed so that they will match together in the position in which they are laid. it will be necessary to take each board from its place and return it several times in order that this matching may be made as perfect as possible. the object of all this is to prevent the entire arrangement from springing--_i. e._, from acquiring any new bend or twist when the parts are glued up. in joining boards to form large pieces of glued-up work, like table tops, it is customary to strengthen the joints by means of dowel pins. small table tops and similar work may be safely glued up without dowelling. [illustration: boards placed for planing to flat surfaces] _fastening glued-up work._ it will be readily understood upon a little reflection that all plain glued-up work should be allowed to move slightly upon the framework to which it is attached; for even after it is well seasoned and well finished all woods will swell slightly in a damp atmosphere and shrink slightly when the air is dry, the greatest movement being across the grain. solid table tops, therefore, should never be fastened down firmly upon the framework with glue or with screws, but should be secured by means of buttons screwed to the under side of the top which travel in grooves cut in the framework and thus allow for expansion and contraction. a drawing is shown to illustrate the method of attaching the table-top buttons. much of the warping and splitting of furniture is due to the failure of the designer or maker to observe this precaution. [illustration: method of fastening table tops] in planing up stock, whether it be a single piece or several glued together as just described, the cabinet-maker planes off one side first and then, using this side as the working face, gauges to the required thickness and planes off the other side if necessary. if the work be upon glued-up stock, it is well to plane off the projecting edges of the concave sides first, as that is generally somewhat easier and may be all the planing that will be necessary. if it be single pieces of stock that need to be planed up, the natural twist or "wind" is first planed out to a flat working face on one side before putting the plane to the opposite side. _the surface plate._--planing to a flat surface requires some device to guide the eye. if the surface be very uneven at first, a beginning may be made in the planing without much assistance; but a point will finally be reached when neither the unaided eye nor the hand can determine whether or not a surface is flat. to determine this a surface plate, as it is called, is needed. this consists of a block of cast-iron, thick enough to prevent it from being bent--_i. e._, an inch or more--and with a somewhat rough but perfectly flat surface on one side. this surface is well chalked over. when the wood surface which is being planed down is laid upon this chalked surface and slightly moved it is readily seen that the highest places on the wood will become marked with the chalk and so indicate to the cabinet-maker what parts are to be removed. by making several tests of this kind he is able to plane to a good flat surface. [illustration: winding sticks] _winding sticks._--if the amateur's workshop is not provided with a surface plate, a simple means of testing for a flat surface is by means of two narrow straight edges or "winding" sticks, placing them on their narrow edges across each end of the piece, as shown in the illustration, and sighting across their upper edges. the slight projections in the surfaces of the board can be determined in this way and planed off until the two top edges of the sticks are found to be level. these winding sticks are simply wooden strips, accurately made, with opposite faces parallel. their dimensions may be × - / × inches. _importance of true surfaces._--it may be well to add that all this care to produce flat and parallel surfaces is not merely for the purpose of giving a good appearance to these surfaces. true surfaces are necessary for the good of the work as a whole, for they form the basis from which other surfaces are gauged and other parts "trued up"--_i. e._, made square or otherwise geometrically correct. when the main surfaces of a piece of cabinet work are properly shaped, all the framework and other parts may be brought into line without bending or twisting. all such strains should be religiously avoided in good cabinet work. the natural curves, twists, or projections of the stock used should be removed by the use of the proper tools and never be strained to force any of the parts into their proper places or shapes. such efforts produce strains which are transmitted to other parts, displacing them, causing new defects or a general failure of the parts to support each other. _a systematic plan of work._--when the cabinet-maker undertakes to make either a single piece of furniture or several pieces, he goes about it in a very systematic way. consulting his working drawing he makes an accurate list of the different pieces that will be required. for example, if he is to make a morris chair he notes the fact that he will need four legs or posts - / inches square by - / inches long, a front rail and a back rail each / × - / × inches, two side rails / × - / × inches, and so on until the list of necessary parts is completed. with this list in hand he makes a careful selection of the lumber and prepares the pieces in the rough, allowing economically for the necessary working waste. economy of time and labour is also secured by keeping together all parts on which similar work is to be done. thus, if several parts are to be sawed to the same width or fashioned to the same curves, it is generally the best plan to work these parts out together while the machines and tools are set for this purpose. such a plan not only saves time but, partially at least, it obviates the danger of mistakes. it is important also to follow a systematic order of work. all sawing to rough dimensions should be done before the pieces are dressed to drawing dimensions, and the latter operations should generally all be completed before laying out and cutting the joints. as the work progresses toward completion great saving of time and much comfort will result from keeping the completed parts in good condition and so arranged that they can be easily assembled. gluing _necessity of good joints._--after the selection and preparation of the material for the stock, the next important general process that demands attention is gluing; for good cabinet work implies good glue and a knowledge of how to use it. prepared glue, such as is sold in bottles, is unsatisfactory for work of any consequence. a good woodworker always has his own glue pot and sees to it that it may be made ready for use on short notice. the glue should be fresh, thin, and hot. it should be applied quickly in a warm room and the parts to which it is applied clamped up quickly before the glue chills. it is the glue which penetrates the wood that holds the parts together and not a layer of glue between the joined edges or surfaces. it is therefore evident not only that joints and surfaces should be well smeared with glue, hot and thin enough to be quickly absorbed, but also that the parts should be clamped up quickly while the glue is still hot so as to prevent any surplus from remaining in the joint. this is an additional reason for making close fits in all joints--in those which are to be glued up as well as in those which are not. it is a common fault of beginners to be satisfied with loose mortise and tenon joints, counting upon the glue to fill up the spaces. much of the furniture found in the markets falls to pieces for the same reason. such work should never be allowed to pass. it is based upon an entirely mistaken notion of the true office of glue and is nothing more nor less than a falsehood in wood. [illustration: method of holding framing parts square while glue is setting] _systematic methods required._--as in the preparation of stock and working it up, so in gluing, system is all important. the hand screws or clamps should be made ready and adjusted to the required width so that they may be quickly placed in position as soon as the glue is applied. the whole process must be managed as quickly as possible because the joints must be tested before the glue has had time to set. a carpenter's large square should be used for testing the right angles, since it is more reliable than the small try squares. it will frequently be found necessary to hold framing pieces square while the glue is hardening. this can easily be done by nailing small strips of waste stock across the parts, as shown in the drawing. a beginner should be cautioned not to attempt to glue up too many joints at one time. two opposite corners of a framing piece should be glued up separately and left to set before the attempt is made to glue the whole rectangle together. the two remaining joints, however, should be glued and clamped together at the same time. picture framing _inexpensive framing stock._--picture-frame stock can be easily obtained of dealers in artists' supplies and in furniture stores in a great variety of styles. much of it is so well prepared and so nicely finished that it leaves little to be desired. it is, therefore, often best to secure the stock for frames in this way. it is, however, somewhat expensive, so that, when economy is important, it behooves the young woodworker to prepare his own framing stock. very satisfactory frames inches in width or less may be made from matched oak flooring, a section of which is here illustrated, by planing off the tongue and cutting away one side of the groove to furnish the inset for the glass. wider flat frames of any thickness can, of course, be cut out from the ordinary stock. a special tool for cutting the inset is desirable but not necessary. a / -inch saw cut may be made with a circular saw or even with a hand saw and the necessary removal of the wood accomplished by means of careful chiselling. [illustration: picture framing stock made from oak flooring] [illustration: the mitre joint] _mitres._--frames may be joined at the corners in various ways. a common way is by the mitre joint illustrated in the drawing. to secure good joints of this kind it is necessary that the mitres be cut on an angle of exactly degrees and that the pieces for the corresponding sides of the frame be precisely of the same length. hand sawing is generally not exact enough to produce angles of sufficient accuracy even when an ordinary mitre box is used. hand-sawed mitres, therefore, will require a little truing with a small plane. great care must be exercised also in fitting the corners together. the common bench square is not large enough to prove the work. a better way is to lay a carpenter's framing square on the bench and fit the two pieces of the frame against the sides of the square, testing each corner in that way. [illustration: clamping mitre joints] _gluing the joints._--if the corners are unusually well fitted, a good joint can be made by first sizing the ends with glue and then firmly pressing the pieces together upon a true surface, leaving them undisturbed for four or five hours until the glue is hard. by sizing the ends of the joints is meant thoroughly filling the end pores with glue, rubbing it into the pores with another block. generally speaking, however, it is necessary to make use of a mitre-clamping device. if a special clamping device is not available, one can be easily made by gluing small soft wood blocks to the parts of the frame near the corners, as shown in the accompanying drawing. in a half hour or so these blocks will become firmly set so that the mitre joints may be glued together, clamping them up with a hand screw. as already explained under the general directions on gluing, it is good practice for a beginner to glue up opposite corners and not attempt to glue up the two remaining corners until the first two are well set. when the first two corners are well set they should be nailed; and before the two remaining corners are glued it is well to try the parts together to see if they do not require a little correcting before gluing. these joints also should have light nailing after the glue has been set. in nailing, small holes should be made with a brad awl or drill in order to avoid splitting the corners, and long finishing nails should be used. _the defect of shrinking._--with proper tools the mitre joint is the easiest one to make, but it has one unavoidable defect, especially in wide frames. it is very difficult to get stock well seasoned and almost impossible to get it perfectly seasoned, so that wide frames, however well finished, must be expected to shrink a little after they are joined together. as most of this shrinking is across the width of the stock it is evident that it will tend to open the mitre joints on the inside of the corners. this is what happens almost invariably with joints made in this way from wide stock in picture framing. the same defect is also frequently observed in the interior finishing around windows and doors. there are three other methods of joining the corners of picture frames--_viz._, the halved lap joint, the mortise and tenon joint, and the dowelled joint. a drawing is shown to illustrate these three kinds of corner joints, and it is hardly necessary to say that no one of them is open to the same objection that attaches to the mitre joint. all these joints require accurate cutting and rather more of it than the mitre joint requires, but they are more easily glued up. the halved lap joint is easily clamped up with a common hand screw, even when the frame is a very large one. but the other two require long clamps in order to pull the joints up well. [illustration: halved lap joint] [illustration: mortise and tenon joint] _character of the frame._--the kind of joint required depends upon the general character of the frame--whether it is to be heavy or light, wide or narrow, and whether made of picture frame moulding or of the plain framing stock with round or flat face; and the character of the frame is a matter of design, determined by the kind of picture, by its setting, and by other considerations discussed in chapter iii. how the plan for the construction of the frame for any given picture is influenced by such considerations may be seen in the example which follows: [illustration: dowelled joint] making a frame for a large photographic reproduction this photograph is inches long by inches wide. it is a copy in brown tones of a classic painting by otto kneille--_the education of athenian youth_, the original of which hangs in the royal gymnasium in berlin. it represents a spacious hall or court showing three of the large marble columns and a massive seat in which an old man reclines while another old man is expounding some doctrine to him and to a group of younger men gathered around. in the centre of the scene a boy lies flat upon the pavement reading a manuscript. near him several youths under the direction of a master, are contending in feats of strength. the composition is one that suggests weight and power. it may appropriately hang in the hall or in the library over a wide, low bookcase. a picture of this character needs no mat and must have a wide, heavy frame. the stock chosen was oak, inches wide, - / inches thick, and flat faced. the size and weight of such a frame, including the glass, demand firmness of construction as the first consideration. the stock is too wide for successful mitring because shrinking would naturally open and weaken such joints. it was therefore framed together with mortise and tenon joints, well glued. a dowelled joint might have sufficed, but it would not have the same strength. the mortises were cut in the vertical ends and the tenons were left on the long horizontal pieces. this was in conformity with the usual method of joining framework--for example, door frames, window frames, panel frames, and other interior woodwork; for the greatest possible length is invariably given to the vertical parts. the frame was given a dark brown finish, repeating the darkest tones of the picture. long screw eyes were fastened to the back inches from the top, so that the picture might hang nearly flat against the wall. a strong braided wire about inches long was run through the eyes and securely looped at each end, so that a little more than an inch of wire on each side passed through the eyes. since the picture was to have a prominent place on a certain wall, two nails inches apart allowing for the two widths of the frame as well as for the length of the picture were driven into this wall, and the heavy photograph was easily hung and balanced without exposing the wire to view. to make a knock-down bookcase [illustration: a knock-down bookcase] _the design._--the problem of design was to plan a simple, inexpensive bookcase which could be easily transported and set up in a student's room and which would hold approximately two hundred books. the drawings show how these requirements were met in the design. when in use it is held together by keyed shelves at the top and bottom. the necessary stiffness is given to it by the base pieces which are fastened both to the sides and to the bottom shelf by screws. additional stiffness is given by drawing up the three middle shelves to the sides by means of screws. upon removing the screws and the keys the bookcase is easily taken apart so that it may be crated in compact form for transportation. it is equally easy to set it up again. it has no back and may therefore stand away from the wall as well as against it. its contour is plain, with few curves, giving a simplicity which will harmonize with modest surroundings and yet not bar it from keeping company with more pretentious furnishings. the original of this design was actually made up in white wood, stained and finished to harmonize with black walnut furniture; but it may be made up in oak, ash, cherry, or any of the common woods used for furniture. for one bookcase the stock required is as follows, the sizes allowing for finishing to the dimensions as given in the drawing: for the ends, two pieces / inch × - / inches × feet - / inches; for the short shelves, three pieces / inch × - / inches × feet inch; for the long shelves, two pieces, / inch × - / inches × feet inches; for the base pieces, two pieces / inch × - / × inches × feet; for the keys, one piece / inch × / inch × foot. in addition to this there should be two dozen no. round-headed blued screws, and one half dozen - / inch no. flat headed blued screws. the tools needed are as follows: rip saw, cross cut saw, back saw, compass, jack-plane, smoothing plane, block plane, spokeshave, try square, steel square, rule, knife, hammer, mallet, screw-driver, / , / , and / inch bits and bitstock, and / and / inch chisels, gauges, and sand-paper. [illustration: details and dimensions for a knock-down bookcase] _construction._--all the stock should be jointed, planed to width, and smoothed with sand-paper. the two end pieces should be squared to length, the top corners rounded, and the curve at the bottom cut as shown in the drawing. care should be exercised in sand-papering not to round the edges. the correct spacing for the shelves should then be marked off on the end pieces and squared across, care being taken to have both ends spaced alike. to do this plane the ends together, with their edges flush; and, beginning at the bottom, measure off each of the spaces with correct allowance for the thickness of the shelf and mark these spaces across the edge. then, separate the end pieces and with the marks on the edges as a guide, square across each of the end pieces on the inside and mark with a knife. in allowing for the thickness of the shelves it should be remembered that the stock, though originally / of an inch in thickness, has been planed and sand-papered, some of the shelves perhaps having been finished down more than others. it will therefore be necessary to measure and allow for the thickness of each shelf separately. [illustration: method of gaining-in the shelves] the three middle shelves are "gained" in--_i. e._, set into grooves in the upright ends-- / of an inch deep, as shown in the sketch. it will be better craftsmanship if the grooves are not carried across the full width of the end pieces but stopped, say, one inch from the edge, the shelves being cut to fit, as shown in the drawing. if this be done, the grooves should be cut out carefully with a chisel. if the grooves be carried across the full width of the end, they may be cut down with a back saw and then chiselled out. to insure a good fit in either case care should be exercised not to cut outside the knife lines. chisel the bottom of the grooves carefully so that they will be uniformly / of an inch deep. the next step is to cut the mortises for the top and bottom shelves. the dimensions for these should first be laid off on the stock by means of a gauge. they should then be bored well inside the marks and carefully chiselled out. before this chiselling is done, however, knife lines should be marked on the outside of the end pieces exactly opposite the gauge lines. in mortising, as in cutting the grooves, the greatest care will need to be exercised that the chisel does not cut outside the knife lines. in working for a close fit it is better to err on the side of removing too little stock at first, if one must err at all, since it is quite easy to remove a little more in the final fitting. it is quite impossible to replace stock once removed. in measuring for the length of the shelves it should not be overlooked that the top and bottom shelves are to carry the tenons to be keyed through the end pieces. these tenons should be cut out accurately with a rip saw, and the stock between them removed with a chisel after a deep knife line has been made. after fitting these tenons to the mortises and finishing them, the mortises for the keys should be cut, using a small chisel. it should not be overlooked that the outside face of each key mortise is cut on an angle, as illustrated. the three middle shelves are then cut to length, the ends squared by means of a block plane, and corners cut out to fit the grooves. [illustration: details of the keys] the parts are now ready to be put together temporarily and squared up in order to fit in the base pieces more perfectly than could be done by mere measurement. it will add a pleasing detail to set back these base pieces / of an inch from the front and back faces. after all the parts are carefully fitted they should be assembled and the key and screw fastenings inserted. when this is accomplished the bookcase is ready for finishing. as this is a distinct part of furniture making it is reserved for treatment in a later chapter. a hanging book rack [illustration: a hanging book rack] _the design._--it is designed to plan a light but strong book rack, to be fastened to the wall of a chamber. since it is intended to occupy the space that might be given to pictures it is properly as simple in construction as a picture frame, depending upon good proportions and symmetry to give a pleasing effect. the straight lines of the design, which is illustrated above, meet these requirements and also harmonize with the general form and outline of books. both shelves may be used for books, if desired, but the design permits them to be confined to the lower shelf, reserving the upper one as a suitable place for a bit of pottery or two, or some other choice bit of bric-à-brac. the mortise and tenon joints give the essential stiffness and strength without requiring the use of heavy stock. _materials and tools._--since strength with lightness is an essential feature to realize in the working out of this design, soft woods should be avoided. ash is probably the strongest of the light woods in common use. oak is much stronger but heavy and hard to work. white wood is comparatively light and very strong. gum wood is classified with ash excepting that it is closer grained. since this book rack is to be used in a chamber in which the wood trim is in enamelled white and most of the furniture of a mahogany finish, it will be equally appropriate to make it of white wood, to be finished in enamelled white, or of bay wood as a basis for mahogany finish. it was decided to adopt the latter course. the stock requirements for carrying out this design are as follows: back posts, - / inch × - / inch × inches; front posts, - / inch × - / × inches; centre uprights, / × × inches; back rail, / × - / × inches; end rail, × - / × inches; and shelves, / × by inches. [illustration: construction details and dimensions for hanging book rack (front)] the tools needed are much like those required in the previous problem--_i. e._, the same planes, saws, bitstock, squares, and the gauge; but there will be needed a / -inch bit, / -inch and / -inch chisels, a knife rule, a rabbet plane, a mitre box, and a mallet. _construction._--the details of construction required are as follows: dressing the stock pieces, cutting the posts to length, cutting the points on the posts, rabbeting the cross rails and cutting them to length, cutting the mortise and tenons, halving on the end rails, cutting and fitting the shelves, cutting, fitting, and fastening the back rail, arranging the clamps and other appliances for gluing up, and cleaning off the glue after hardening. [illustration: construction details and dimensions for hanging book rack (end)] [illustration: how the tenon is applied to the rail] the stock pieces should be first "dressed" down to the drawing dimensions. this means that they should be planed and sand-papered preparatory to laying out the cutting dimensions. the front and back posts should be cut to length in the mitre box, care being taken to allow an extra / inch for the pointed ends at the top and bottom. these pointed ends are cut in the mitre box by raising one end of the post and sawing to lines squared around the post / inch from the other end. the angle of the cut is made uniform by resting the raised end of the post on a block lightly nailed on the inside of the mitre box, thus giving the same elevation for all the posts. the -inch by - / -inch piece for rails is rabbeted out, using the plane designed for that purpose, and afterward cut to length as called for. the blind mortises should be made not more than / of an inch deep, and the tenons / of an inch shorter in order not to strike the bottom of the mortise. one of these rails should be accurately laid out with knife lines and the rest marked from this as a pattern. the drawing shows the location of the tenon with reference to the part of the rail on which the shelf rests. this is the most convenient position for cutting the tenon and it also gives greater strength. the centre uprights should be halved on after the end rails are in position, being cut for this purpose as illustrated in the drawing. they may be allowed to stand out / of an inch beyond the face of the end rail, and in making the joint an equal amount of stock is to be taken from the rail and from the upright. the shelves are then easily cut to length and the ends fitted with the block plane and dropped into place, being lightly glued and nailed with brads from the under side of the rabbet. finally the top back rail should be halved in, being left to the last in order that the more important fitting of the shelves may be more easily accomplished. [illustration: how the centre uprights are halved on] in gluing up the mortise and tenon joints care must be exercised to set clamps out ready for use before the glue is applied so that the parts may be promptly drawn up in position. after gluing they should be allowed to remain about ten hours in order that the glue may properly harden before the clamps are taken off. all the extra glue squeezed out of the joints in clamping must be scraped off with a chisel, after the glue has hardened a little; and any remaining spots of glue must be carefully removed with fine sand-paper so as not to leave anything to interfere with the filling and finishing. an umbrella stand _the design._--so far as the question of use is concerned, no problem of design could be more definite than this one, since an umbrella rack can have but one use. the only elements of beauty possible are found in simplicity, proportion, and the general effectiveness of the construction for meeting the demands of use. the drawing shows four square, straight posts, squared at the ends, which are allowed to project a little above the top to avoid a box-like effect. all the joints are mortised except the division bars at the top. the cross pieces at the base are made wider not only to conceal the drip pan but to give a more stable appearance to the whole rack. _materials and tools._--oak is selected as perhaps the most appropriate wood; but other woods, if the surroundings require it, may be used to good advantage. oak is one of the strongest and most durable of the woods used for furniture and takes well a great variety of finish. it is also quite easily obtained. [illustration: an umbrella stand] the stock requirements are as follows: four corner posts - / × - / × - / inches; four top rails / × - / × inches; four base rails / × × inches; two division bars / × - / × - / inches; four cleats / × / × inches; and one board / × - / × - / inches to support the pan. the same tools in general will be required as in the previous exercises, but it will be necessary to add a / -inch bit, a / inch chisel, a steel scraper, and two short clamps. [illustration: details and dimensions for umbrella rack] _construction._--all the stock should be planed to size, scraped, and sand-papered with the exception of the base board for the pan, since that is hidden from view. the scraper corrects all slight unevenness of surface and removes scratches and other blemishes. care should be taken in sand-papering to rub always with the grain of the wood and to avoid rounding the corners. the corner posts should first be cut to proper length and the tops and bottoms slightly chamfered. mortises are then to be located, bored, and chiselled up. the top and bottom rails should be laid off and the tenons gauged and cut, care being taken not to have them too long. the inside edges of the tenons have to be pared off slightly, as illustrated in the drawing, to allow room for each when they come together. [illustration: top rail tenons] [illustration: bottom rail tenons] the next step is to assemble the parts, clamp them up, and test them for accuracy. while these parts are in the clamps, measurements should be taken for the cross pieces, which may then be made, allowing extra length of / of an inch in each end for the tenons to enter the top rails. these cross pieces are to be halved together at the centre, as shown in the drawing. the base rails are designed to be thick enough to take up all the space on the inside of the posts so as to hide the corner, as illustrated in the sketch showing the bottom construction. the next step is to assemble the parts for gluing. it is not necessary to explain this process in detail, since it has already been thoroughly explained in the general section on gluing. it is not necessary to glue on the cleats on which the pan rests; they may be nailed in. when the base is glued together measurements may be taken for the pan. a magazine stand _the design._--this problem calls for an attractive article of furniture which should also be useful as a receptacle for magazines and current newspapers. an enclosed portion between two of the shelves is desired to conceal from view and preserve for a time the more valuable papers, parts of magazines, or clippings, as may be found convenient. the perspective sketch on this same page shows how these simple requirements are met. the overhanging top adds character and strength to what might otherwise seem too light for the load it is intended to carry. [illustration: a magazine stand] _materials and tools._--oak is selected as a suitable wood because of its strength and durability; for this stand is likely to be in almost constant use. a light wood, delicately finished, would soon show wear. the stock list, according to the drawing, may be itemized as follows: corner posts - / × - / × inches; upright slats / × × inches; four shelves / × - / × inches; one piece for the top / × × inches; top rails × - / × inches; piece for the door / × × - / inches for the ends and the back of the closet piece / × × inches; pair - / -inch brass butts with screws for the hinges, and one brass knob or catch. the tools needed are a jointer, a block plane, a smoothing plane, steel square, try square, knife gauge, fine cross cut saw, / -inch bit and bit stock, key-hole saw, / -inch chisel, mallet, nail set, hammer, screw-driver, and steel scraper. the principal operations are as follows: planing to size; scraping and sand-papering stock; squaring ends and smoothing them to the required length; laying out gains at corner posts; making mortises for top rails; making the rails; assembling the main parts; fitting ends and sides of the closets; hanging the door and putting on the fixtures. [illustration: details and dimensions for magazine stand] _the construction._--smoothing with the plane and scraping are very important and they should be completed before any sand-papering is done because particles of sand (silica), adhering to the wood, will dull the steel tools. all three operations are needed to remove the marks of the machine tools of the factory, in order to give a good finish in the end. the scraper follows the plane, removing the unevenness which the latter leaves on board surfaces. sand-papering gives the finishing touches. [illustration: method of mortising] after the stock is well smoothed, the top and the shelves should be squared off, cut to length, and block planed. the posts should then be cut and accurately trimmed to dimensions. they may be marked with a knife line for the gains into which the corners of the shelves are to be fastened. since the posts are perfectly square, no attention will have to be given to their exact location in marking or cutting the gains; but when the mortising for the rails is laid out, care must be exercised to mark them so that the mortises will come on the proper faces for assembling. in mortising for the top rail it is well not to work up to the end of the post but to cut back, say / of an inch, as shown in one of the details. the rails may now be laid off and the tenons cut and fitted. it is exactly - / inches between the shoulders of the rails. since the shelves are - / inches wide, one inch is thus left on each side to be gained into the posts. the parts are now ready for the first assembling. to do this it is convenient to have a clear bench top on which the posts may be laid on one side, face down. the rails and shelves may then be slipped into place, the other two posts placed on top, and the whole clamped firmly together. this is the preliminary assembling for the purpose of testing the accuracy of the work. if it be found all right, it should be taken apart again, and, after glue has been applied to the tenons and to the ends of the shelves, the parts should be quickly re-assembled and clamped up as before, with the angles kept true. before the glue hardens the shelves should be nailed into the posts, as indicated in the drawing. in this case it is the nail that is the main stay. the glue is accessory, adding much to the stiffness of the construction. [illustration: method of fastening shelf] the top may now be set on and fastened by screws or by brads driven through into the posts and well set so that they may be concealed by putty, coloured to match the stain used. the end slats should be fastened on in the same way. the back and ends of the closet are next cut to size and bradded in. the door is then fitted and, to break the surface a little, an ornamental design is cut in the centre. still further relief is given by setting in the door / of an inch from the edge of the shelf and ends of the closet. the door is now hung on brass hinges, the stop and catch added, and the stand is ready for staining and finishing. [illustration: method of fastening posts to the top] a light library table _the design._--this is to be a table designed on simple lines and of good proportions. it is to have no drawer but as much shelf room as conveniently possible. the under shelf is designed to be cut out to allow a chair to be drawn up on either side. the end shelves may be regarded as designed to combine a bookcase with the table, thus adding much to its usefulness. _materials and tools._--for a table of this kind oak is very appropriate. the following list gives the stock required for one table. the widths and the thickness are as called for in the drawing, but the lengths are given a little long to allow for cutting. a board not less than inches wide and feet long will be needed as stock for the top, the dimensions of which are / × × inches. a -inch board, - / feet in length, will also be required for the shelves. there will also be needed four legs - / × - / × inches; eight slats / × - / × inches; two back pieces / × × - / inches; two rails / × × inches; and two rails / × × inches. [illustration: a light library table] the same tools will be required as in the foregoing problems excepting that a / -inch bit and a / -inch chisel will be required for mortising, and two -foot clamps. _construction._--the first step in the construction is to dress the stock, smoothing, scraping, and sand-papering it, and working the various parts to size. the lengths, however, of all parts excepting the legs are not cut accurately until, in the process of construction, these parts are needed. the legs are at once cut to length and the mortises laid out, bored, and cut. a gain should also be cut in each leg, into which the bottom shelf is to be fitted, glued, and bradded from the under side. the end and side rails may then be laid off for shoulders and tenons, and cut. in this case the tenons should be made / of an inch wide. [illustration: construction details and dimensions (a) front; (b) end] in gluing up, the top should receive attention first, in order to allow the longest possible time for testing the work under the inevitable changes due to continued seasoning. great care must always be exercised in making the glued joints. it is often necessary to make them over on account of the development of cracks. proper care, however, will prevent this. the general directions for gluing, given at the beginning of this chapter, will be of service. as soon as the top has been glued the four short side pieces may be glued to the shelf, taking pains to make good joints before applying the glue. it should be noted that the inside ends of these short pieces are to be inches apart, and it is important that the ends on opposite sides should be exactly squared across, as indicated in the drawings. this may be accomplished by first locating the centre of the shelf, at the intersection of lines, marked c in the drawing, and measuring - / inches each way to the line of the back pieces, which are to run across the whole bottom shelf. as soon as the glue is hardened the ends should be squared and made true to set into the gains when the table is assembled. finally, the legs, the rails, and the shelf may be assembled, glued, squared up, clamped, and set aside to harden before the clamps are removed. it is a good plan to brad the shelf in from the under side before the glue hardens. after standing a few hours the table will be ready for the / -inch strip which forms the back of the shelf. this is to be fitted and bradded in. then the slats may be cut to length. they project slightly below the shelf, and are fastened in position by screws. the top may be cut to length and its ends smoothed, after which it may be fastened on the frame by means of screws and buttons, as already described in the early part of this chapter. a heavy library table _the design._--this table, as the illustration shows, is designed to be of simple style, without a drawer or side shelves, and with the bottom shelf keyed into the base rail. heavy, square legs, and mortise and tenon joints are called for. [illustration: a heavy library table] _materials and tools._--the mission type of furniture, to which this design belongs, suggests oak as the fitting wood. the stock for the top, the dimensions of which are to be / × × inches, may be cut in three pieces from a -inch board, feet long. for the shelf a board / × × inches is required. there are needed also four legs - / × - / × inches; two side rails / × × inches; two end top-rails / × × inches; two end bottom rails - / × × inches; and for keys a strip × × inches. [illustration: construction details and dimensions (front)] the same tools are required as were needed in the foregoing problem. _construction._--since this table has a larger top than the light library table, even greater pains must be taken than in the case of the smaller table to join the boards for gluing up. all like parts should be laid off together and the necessary mortises and tenons cut and fitted, as in the previous case. the two end rails may be glued into the legs first and clamped, leaving the side rails to be put in place last, when the bottom shelf may also be fastened in without gluing by means of the tenons and keys. the latter should be cut somewhat longer than is really needed so that they may appear to be as effective as they really are; and they should be tapered at least / of an inch in order to drive up well. a small brad may be driven in to keep them from getting loose when the work shrinks. [illustration: construction details and dimensions (end)] a bookcase with glazed doors _the design._--this is to be an upright bookcase, with five shelves and an overhanging top. some variety of surface is afforded by the arrangement of the sash, as indicated in the drawing. the shelves are made to be adjustable, and not fixed as in other problems. _materials and tools._--the stock required for one bookcase of this pattern is as follows: two end pieces / × - / × - / inches; for the top and bottom, two pieces / × × inches; four shelves / × × inches; for the sides of the doors, four pieces / × × inches; for the top and bottom rails of the doors, four pieces / × - / × inches; for the middle rail, one piece / × × inches; for the sash, one piece / × / inch × feet; for the back, enough / inch stock to cover the space × inches. in addition to this there will be required four hinges, two catches, a lock, and glass for the sash as dimensioned in the drawing. it is not necessary, however, to cut the small lights. one large pane of glass may be set in the full width of the door so that the small sash divisions may be apparent rather than real. [illustration: bookcase with glazed doors] the tools for this problem are the same as those used in previous problems with the addition of a / -inch bit and / -inch chisel, and a rabbet plane, or a universal plane for cutting out the rabbet for the glass. [illustration: details and dimensions for bookcase] it is not necessary to give directions for the treatment of the stock, since it is practically the same as that employed in preceding problems. the details for cutting dimensions are given in the accompanying drawings. it would be well for the young woodworker to study these carefully and make out a working plan of procedure similar to that which has been outlined in other problems. _construction._--the first thing to do is to erect the bookcase--_i.e._, to cut the sides, the top, the bottom, and the back pieces to proper form and dimensions, bring them into position, and fasten them. it will be noticed that the sides and top are rabbeted out, as indicated in one of the small drawings, so that the edge of the back will not show when it is nailed in position. the bottom shelf is also made narrow enough to allow the back boards to be brought down over it and nailed to the edge. [illustration: method of concealing ends of back boards] after the case is erected the doors should be laid out according to the drawing for mortises and tenons, and the inside edges rabbeted to give an inset for the glass. if it is decided to use one large light at the top of the door instead of six small ones, the sash effect for this light will have to be made of pieces thin enough to allow this arrangement. when the doors are ready for setting the glass it may be held in place by small / round strips, bradded in behind it. great care should, of course, be exercised in gluing up the doors to avoid strains which might give them such a twist that they could not be fitted to the case. careful fitting of all the mortises and tenons and the usual assembling of the parts of each door before gluing is attempted is a wise precaution. it will also be wise to allow a little stock for trimming off, both on the sides and on the ends, when the doors are finally fitted in. a round centre table [illustration: details and dimensions for round centre table] [illustration: detail of top mortise] [illustration: details and dimensions for round centre table] _the design._--this problem calls for a table of mission style with square legs set into the circumference of the table flush with the top and having tenons exposed on the face of the legs. simplicity of form combined with strength characterizes the design. _materials and tools._--quartered oak is recommended for a table of this design. the stock required for one table is as follows: four legs - / × - / × inches; two cross rails - / × × inches; one piece of × × inches for the curved rails; and stock enough to make a round top - / inches thick and inches in diameter. the only tools desirable to provide, in addition to those previously used, are a trammel and spokeshave or a circle plane. _construction._--the first step is to join up and glue the top so that it may have ample time to harden and dry while the other work is being accomplished. the stock for the legs may then be dressed and the bottom mortises marked and cut through the posts. care must be taken to transfer the marks to the opposite side so that the mortises may be accurately outlined on the face. care must also be taken in cutting the mortises, in order to make good, clean joints. a dimensioned detail of the top mortises, which are to receive the tenons of the curved rail, shown on page , should be consulted before laying out this work. it should be noticed that the legs project - / inches above the top rail. after the top mortises are cut the cross bottom rails should be halved together and the tenons laid off and cut. it will be noticed that the projecting end of the tenons is to be bevelled off, but this should not be done until the fitting is completed. in laying out the plan of work for the construction of the curved rails the trammel comes into use. with this, mark off carefully the inside and outside curves on a thin piece of board and, with a large steel square, draw straight lines from the centre or pivot point, making an exact quarter circle. this is shown in one of the drawings on page . then, parallel with each straight line and on the inside, mark off other lines one half the thickness of the leg. this locates the shoulder of the tenon. the pattern should then be carefully cut out of the thin board and used as a template for marking out on the stock the form of the curved rails. after these rails are band sawed and smoothed, the tenons may be cut. when the framing parts of the table have all been cut and fitted they may be assembled and glued. finally the top is placed face down on a bench top or on horses, and the inverted frame laid over it and centred to give the correct position of the insets for the legs. these should be laid off with great care, the outline reproduced exactly on the opposite side, and the stock cut out. the top and frame should then be fastened together from the under side. after a few finishing touches have been given to the projecting ends and exposed surfaces, the table will be ready for the filling and varnishing. a library desk this is the most ambitious of the special problems in furniture making here suggested. details are given in the drawings on the opposite page. if the young woodworker can give sufficient time to it and can command the services of a few machine tools it will not be an unreasonable task to undertake. most of the operations required in its construction have already been carefully explained and need not be repeated as detailed directions. there are, however, one or two principles of cabinet-making called for in this problem which were not required in the others. they will therefore need explanation. [illustration: a library desk] _panelling._--to avoid the difficulties which would result from the swelling, shrinking, and warping of wide surfaces in furniture it is common practice to make use of the panel. the design of the panel is easily understood. it consists of a framework of ordinary thickness, put together usually with mortise and tenon joints. the inside edges of this framework are grooved, and into the groove is fitted a piece of stock generally thinner than the frame which fills the space between the sides of the frame. the panel board may be in one piece of wide stock or it may be glued up. it may be of very thin stock inset on both sides of the panel, or it may be of thicker stock inset only on one side, and perhaps not inset on either side, in which case only the edges of the board are made thin enough to run in the groove of the panel frame. in this problem the panel board is to be made of / -inch stock, flat on the outside, and inset / of an inch. the back of the panel board is flush with the frame and is chamfered off to give the necessary tongue all around to run in the groove. the narrow stock of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink appreciably and, if well constructed, cannot become warped or twisted. the panel, on account of its greater width, may and generally does swell and shrink considerably; but it should be fitted to move easily in the grooves so that its changes may not be noticeable. should it be desired to finish the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to the rails, not to the panel board. _danger in the power saw._--the panel frame may be constructed by hand, but if a circular saw be available it will be found of great service. beginners, however, should employ the services of an expert sawyer and not assume the great risk involved in the use of a circular saw or even a band saw, especially if these saws are without guards. the necessary operations should be carefully laid out on the partially finished stock, with a good square and gauge. a combination plane is quite essential for cutting the grooves; and this carries its own gauge. care should be taken to make all measurements from the centre of the piece, and gauge and square always from the face sides and from the face edges of the joints. the cuts that it is necessary to make for the joints are indicated in the drawing. in gluing up, the directions already given in the section on gluing should be followed. _sand-papering._--there is a legitimate use for sand-paper in the finishing stages of the work on this desk, as there is, in fact, in almost every kind of fine woodwork. its use has already been advised in the directions for furniture making. in furniture manufactories sand-papering machines are among the most expensive machines to be found in the shops; and their high cost is of course justified by their productive value. it is quite impossible to work down large pieces to a good surface by the process of planing. if a sand-papering machine is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker, it will be very desirable for him to send all large pieces like the tops of tables and panel boards to the factory in order to have them run through the machine. the expense is very slight. in sand-papering by hand considerable pressure should be applied as evenly as possible and always along the grain. any movements directly across the grain or at an angle are sure to show through the finish. the process is facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper around a block of wood about × inches in diameter or, better still, a block of cork of the same dimensions. a morris chair _history of the design._--among furniture designs the morris chair has become a classic. it takes its name for its originator, william morris, the great english designer and reformer, to whom, perhaps more than to any other person, we are indebted for sane and honest work in furniture design and in all forms of household decoration, not only in england but in other european countries and in america. and probably no one of his creations has done more to teach the lesson of simplicity, comfort, and utility in furniture than the morris chair. [illustration: a morris chair] [illustration: details and dimensions of morris chair (front)] [illustration: details and dimensions for morris chair (side)] it may be well to add, however, that like many other famous works of art, the original design of william morris has suffered much in countless imitations. the furniture shops display carved and otherwise embellished monstrosities under the name of morris chairs which are nothing less than an insult to the great name they bear. but the life of all imitations of original and really great ideas is bound to be short. only the good and true, which are the original, survive. the really valuable features of the original morris chair design, combining beauty of material with simplicity of form and construction, have taken a lasting hold upon the hearts of all people who have found solid comfort in these chairs. the chairs contemplated in this problem are illustrated on page , chapter ii. both are in quartered oak. the one on the right is stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the seat and a pillow cushion for the back, in medium brown leather. the one on the left is in light fumed oak with cushions of mahogany velour. on account of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter in weight than the one on the right, and the dimensions of the smaller one will be followed in this problem. this chair is an exact copy of one in ash which, with a centre table and stool, were designed and made for a college girl's room; and a large part of the work of constructing the three pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself. by careful examination of the dimensioned drawing shown on the preceding page the young woodworker who undertakes this problem should select his stock according to the following list: legs - / × - / × inches; two arms × - / × inches; two bottom side rails - / × × inches; two top side rails / × - / × inches; two bottom rails (front and back) - / × × inches; one top rail (back) / × - / × inches; two back uprights - / × - / × inches; three cross pieces for back (lower) / × - / × inches; one cross piece for back (top) / × × inches; one bracket × × inches; four pins - / × - / inches square. [illustration: detail of morris chair arm] [illustration: detail of pins] in sawing up the stock, allowance should be made of course, for necessary waste in working down to the drawing dimensions. the arms are drawn with a curve and may be fashioned by band sawing them out of -inch stock. there will be a considerable saving in material and labour, of course, if the arms are made flat; but the effect of the curve is very pleasing. the back slats may be sawed to a slight curve, which is another attractive feature; but flat slats are easier to make and just as serviceable. the process of construction does not differ in general from that already described in some of the foregoing problems, and need not be repeated here in detail. the method of finishing this and all other furniture referred to in the problems will be explained in the following chapter. since the morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture, it will be necessary to provide casters for it. the acme pin caster, so-called, was used in the chair referred to in this problem. it makes use of a steel ball turning upon ball bearings, and is set up into the legs so as to leave only about / of an inch of the ball exposed. a hall clock [illustration: a hall clock note.--the original of the hall clock was designed and made by mr. egbert e. macnary.] _design._--this clock was designed and built to conform to the requirements of the space allotted to it. the lines of the case are all straight; there are no spires or gables or fantastic curves on the top. a hall clock is indoors, and the top should be horizontal; for all the other lines such as tops of window casings, picture moulding, etc., are horizontal. if the clock stood out of doors under the stars, then the top might be spired or pointed. [illustration: construction detail of a hall clock] the construction, as indicated in the sketches, is simple and substantial. the long sides extend the entire height of the clock, being firmly joined into the base and head. the works are supported between these sides. the wood is / -inch quartered oak, hand dressed, and stained a warm brown. the dial, hinges, catches, pendulum, and weight are of brass. _cutting glass with a wheel cutter._--the long door has a panel of transparent leaded glass. this leaded glass work is a most fascinating process. the lead strips required for it were purchased of a dealer in lead specialties. stained glass window concerns are usually willing to sell this lead. a full-size drawing was made of the design for the glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the pattern. a ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used. one caution, kept in mind, will enable one to use a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it. _it should never be used twice in the same cut._ one stroke of a few inches over a cut previously made will ruin the wheel; but if the wheel is not abused by tracing over a cut, it will last a long time. the glass should be laid on a level table and the cutter used with a firm hand, making a continuous cut against a straight edge. _soldering._--the long lines of the design are in one piece; and there is a strip around the entire outside edge. to solder the pieces together, the glass and lead strips are laid in position on a board, and brads (about inch long) are driven part way into the board close against the outside strips, so as to hold the pieces in position. a small bead of soldering paste is placed on each joint. a small soldering "iron" (which is really copper) and wire solder are used. the copper may be "tinned" by filing the point bright, heating it, dipping it in the soldering paste, and then quickly touching it to the solder wire. the point will become coated with the solder, or, as we say, "tinned." the iron will need frequent heating. a quick, light touch of the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the best result. [illustration: method of holding glass and lead strips for soldering] the two rings in the brass dial were "raised" by driving the brass into a groove in a piece of oak with a hard wood wedge. the piece of oak was revolved around the dial by means of a nail driven through the centre of the dial into the oak piece. when a short arc of the ring had been raised, the grooved piece was swung around about inch and the groove continued. [illustration: method of raising the dial rings] the length of the pendulum depends upon the number of teeth in the escape wheel. it was necessary in the case of this clock to take out the escape wheel, which had teeth, and substitute one of teeth to accommodate the length of pendulum desired. [illustration: dimensioned dial piece of clock before edges are turned] outdoor furniture the greatest charm of home life in the summer season is rarely found within the house. this is especially true in the village or in the country, where nature is at her best; but even in city homes that are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings a small yard, a bit of garden, or any means of connecting the home with "god's great out-of-doors," though it be but a sheltered balcony or a window garden, the touch of nature is not lost. it is possible, however, for art to assist nature; and in many cases her assistance is very much needed. it is certainly true that nature cannot be left wholly to herself in the neighbourhood of the village or city home. if there be a garden, as much forethought must be exercised in planning it and as much pains taken in developing and caring for it as is called for in working out any form of interior decoration. there are problems of design and construction suggested by the need of suitable chairs and settles for the piazza, comfortable hammocks and couches for the balcony, awnings for the windows on the sunny side, and the right furniture, perhaps, for an out-door dining-room. the more decorative features are found in the rose arbours, the trellises, the garden screens, the lawn tent, the pergola, and the garden gate; and all these offer problems that easily come within the reach of enterprising and capable young craftsmen. _general types._--in the designing of out-door furniture there are two suggestions from nature that may appropriately find expression. on the one hand large masses, as seen in the hills and rocks, suggest solidity, weight, and permanence. this idea is embodied in walls of masonry, stone posts, iron gates, stone or concrete pedestals, or in some other kind of heavy construction. on the other hand, there are the suggestions of lightness, delicacy, and growth, seen in the growing vines, shrubbery, and small trees, which are carried out in the so-called rustic furniture, trellises, arbours, and garden screens. _an example of heavy furniture in wood._--a settle designed for comparatively permanent use in some cool or retired corner of the garden may be made of native pine, white wood, or spruce, well protected by several coats of paint. a suggestion is here given for such a design, laid out on substantial lines. ordinary × spruce, planed, may be used for the posts, pine or white wood for the rest of the construction, -inch stock being used for the back pieces and arms, and / -inch boards for the rails and seat. mortise and tenon joints should be used in the framing. the illustration shows also a simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated in the two front posts. it is a decorative feature which seems to counteract, somewhat successfully, the general severity of the lines on which the settle is designed to be built. [illustration: a garden settle] _concrete furniture._--still more substantial out-door furniture may be made of concrete cement. this material has come into use for sidewalks and pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone masonry in retaining walls, bridge abutments, and in a great variety of heavy building construction. concrete is, in fact, an artificial stone, made by mixing portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in the right proportions, thoroughly wetting the mixture with water, and allowing it to harden. it is so commonly associated with heavy, crude work that it is not easy to believe that it may be also fashioned into anything of an artistic or decorative character; and yet it is capable of a wide range of out-door decorative uses. gate posts, pedestals, fountains, window boxes, urns, and other forms of garden pottery in great variety, tables, and garden seats, have been successfully moulded in this material. its natural stone gray colour and surface are well suited to many of these uses; but it may be given a variety of colour effects in bold design if occasion requires it. in weight and durability it leaves nothing to be desired. _the wire form._--concrete cement cannot be modelled like clay. in its formative state it is too soft for such manipulation. it must be supported in some way while it is being worked into the desired shape and until it has hardened. in general there are two methods of giving the necessary support: _viz._, by employing an interior framework or skeleton, generally of wire lath, which is permanently encased in the cement; or by using a plaster or wooden mould into which the material in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which it is removed when hardened. the latter method has been elaborated quite extensively for commercial purposes, because it readily yields an indefinite number of marketable results from the same moulds. the simpler wooden moulds may be easily made by a clever boy; and after a little experience he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly and mould a form successfully. for single pieces of concrete work, however, the wire forms are to be preferred. a suggestive illustration of this method is found in the following problem: a cylindrical garden vase the dimensions called for in this design are a diameter of inches and a height of inches. the wire form must therefore be made to approximate quite closely to these dimensions. a good material for the form is galvanized wire lath of / -inch mesh. this problem will require a piece about inches wide and inches long for the convex side, and a piece about inches square for the base. from the square piece a circle inches in diameter should be cut out. a strong pair of tinners' shears will be needed for this purpose. in bending the long piece into the cylindrical form it is well to proceed slowly in order to produce an evenly curved surface--_i. e._, one free from angular bends. a good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece down on a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical wooden block. if nothing better is available a rolling pin will serve this purpose. when the bending is nearly complete, the two ends of the piece should be brought together, lapped over about an inch, and bound together with free ends of the strands of wire. a pair of pliers will be of great assistance. if this part of the process has been carefully done, there will result a cylindrical form inches in diameter. the circular piece should now be attached to one end of this form by means of the free ends of the strands found there, bending the projecting wires over and clinching them at convenient points on the circumference of the circular piece where there are uncut meshes of the wire. the form is now ready for covering with the cement. [illustration: a garden vase] the first step is the mixing of the cement for what is known as the scratch coat. this is made by mixing portland cement with fine, clean sand in the proportion of one part cement to two of sand. these ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together in the dry state, and then there should be added a small quantity of goats' hair, well picked apart. for the problem at hand about five pounds of cement will be needed and as much goats' hair as can be held in the hand. the whole should be thoroughly wet down with just the right amount of water. it is important that the mixture should not be made too soft. a scratch coat should be given a consistency that will enable it to be easily spread over the wire form and, at the same time, to hang well together. when a sufficient amount of the right mixture has been obtained, it should be spread upon the wire form by means of a small mason's trowel or a large knife. it is well to begin at the bottom of the convex side of the cylinder, working upward, taking no pains to make this first coat smooth, since roughness is desirable, and paying no attention whatever to the inside of the cylinder, excepting to see that the cement is forced well through the meshes so that the whole mass will be held together firmly when dry. the inside is given a smooth coat as a part of the later finishing process. when the convex surface has been well covered, the form should be turned bottom up and the cement spread upon the base of the cylinder in the same way. after the wire has been completely covered, the form, which is likely to be somewhat distorted, should be corrected by careful manipulation till a true cylinder has been obtained. this is allowed to stand for about five hours until the cement has thoroughly hardened. it is then ready for the finishing coat. the next step in the process is to make the cement for the finishing coat. considerable variety is possible here, depending upon the colour and other surface effects that are desired. in this design a light, sparkling surface when finished is required. to produce this effect a mixture of one part portland cement and two parts marble dust will be needed. this should be mixed without hair to a consistency like that used for the scratch coat. before applying the finishing coat the surfaces should be thoroughly moistened by means of a brush well filled with water. there are various methods of applying this coat. the simplest is carefully spreading it on with a trowel and smoothing it with the moistened hand. when the surface has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible to improve the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper or a coarse file. it is not possible to produce perfectly even surfaces in this way; and yet the method has the characteristic freedom of handwork in general, and yields very satisfactory results. [illustration: a vase with blocked rim] _the decoration._--a great variety of decorative effects may be obtained in concrete pottery and in other articles made of this material for out-door use. in pottery these decorations may take the form of raised figures or ornaments, of borders or designs cut in the surface, and of inlays in colour. whatever the form of design, the necessary cutting for it is best made when the cement has become well set but not very hard--_i. e._, from to hours after the finishing coat is applied. a stout, sharp, pointed knife blade is all the tool that will be required. a narrow chisel, however, may be found desirable for deepening the cuts. the knife should be guided by means of a ruler, which should be flexible if used on curved surfaces; and the depth of the cut will depend somewhat upon the size of the piece. in work similar to that described in the problem just given, a depth of / or / of an inch is sufficient. this cutting, of course can be made after the cement has hardened, by the use of hammer and chisel; but it will be much more difficult. [illustration: a square form] _the colours._--colour cement for inlaid designs is made by using the best quality of white portland cement as a base, colouring it with dry mineral pigments which are sold by dealers under the name of lime or cement-proof colours. among the pigments suitable for this purpose are red oxide of iron, which produces a red; oxide of cobalt, which gives a good blue; chromate of lead, which produces yellow; carbonate of copper, which gives a good dark green; and burnt umber, which yields a good brown. these come as dry powders and should be mixed with the dry cement and marble dust, making a mixture of uniform colour, before the water is applied. in order to determine the right colour it is well to experiment with a small quantity of the various ingredients until a satisfactory shade has been found. then with this as a guide a sufficiently large quantity should be mixed, in the same proportions, to the consistency of a thick paste, and applied to the design, which has been previously cut in the surface to be decorated. to insure thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete, the cutting should be well moistened with a wet brush. a number of suggestive designs are shown in the accompanying drawings. _rustic furniture._--the lighter out-door furniture can be easily made up in a great variety of designs. the form of rustic settles and chairs is determined largely by the material which is available. very useful and ornamental effects are produced by using sticks cut from the tops or from branches of small trees. birch saplings, easily found in the second growth of some wood lots, afford a good supply of material. it is not necessary that the sticks be straight; the natural crooks and notches are often very useful in bracing the framework. chairs, settles, tables, standards for flower boxes, and other articles of furniture may be made out of this rough and unfinished material. [illustration: a garden screen] _lattice work._--trellises and garden screens have been made in an almost endless variety of forms. among the most satisfactory is the plain lattice work in squares and rectangles. its simplicity and evident durability are points in its favour. experience proves also that vines and other plants needing support are readily adjusted to this form of trellis. the size of the stock required in making the right-angled lattice work depends upon the uses to be made of it. for a garden screen the uprights need to be of × inch stock and of any convenient length. end posts of × inch stock will be required, to give necessary stiffness; and, if the screen be a long one, intermediate posts of the same size should be placed at intervals of ten or twelve feet. the horizontal pieces may be strips of / -inch stock, inches wide, set their full thickness into the uprights. spruce furring, which lumber dealers supply in -inch widths, is suitable for the small rails; but if chestnut be used for the uprights it is well to use the same wood for the rest of the construction. the top and bottom rails should be of heavier stock, not less than by inches. the best foundation is a line of concrete posts, firmly set into the ground at intervals of feet, to which the bottom rail or the uprights are fastened by means of irons set into the cement when the posts are formed. two coats of dull green paint will protect the wood and properly subordinate the lattice work to the trailing branches which it supports. viii finishing and re-finishing 'tis toil's reward that sweetens industry--_ebenezer elliot_ in the commercial production of furniture the cabinet-maker has nothing to do with the finishing of his work. this essential part of furniture making is turned over to artisans who are finishers by trade. in a separate part of the factory they attend to the cleaning and filling of the wood and to whatever finish is applied to the work of the joiner. it is hardly necessary to add that the finishing of all kinds of woodwork is quite as important as any other feature in its production; for, however good the lines of design may be and however thoroughly the design may be carried out in the construction of any piece of furniture or other woodwork, it may be and often is spoiled as a work of art in the finishing. [illustration: finishing a library table. plate vi] but the amateur cabinet-maker should be his own finisher. he should familiarize himself with the various kinds of finish that may be applied to the different woods. he should know the object of filling wood and how it is done. he should understand the processes of fuming, staining, and varnishing so well that he can produce with certainty the results desired. cleaning, surfacing, and filling _first steps in finishing._--the first step in finishing woodwork is to clean it up and prepare it for the filler. too great care cannot be taken in examining all surfaces for slight oversights that have occurred in the joinery work or for blemishes that have been acquired in any part of the process of construction. light planing, chiselling, or scraping, and perhaps a little sand-papering, always with the grain, may be needed to remove these faults and blemishes. the most serious of these generally result from gluing. all surplus glue should be carefully removed, even to the film that soaks into the surface of the wood. the slightest spot of glue remaining will keep the filler out of the wood and show through any kind of finish. _importance of filling._--as soon as the furniture is thoroughly cleaned, if it is to be finished in the natural color, the grain of the wood must be filled with a light, transparent, semi-liquid substance, known as the filler, which, after standing from five to seven minutes, should be thoroughly rubbed off with a piece of coarse cloth or a handful of shavings. this process, as its name indicates, fills the pores of the wood and protects them against the absorption of moisture and the consequent swelling. but this is by no means its chief purpose. strictly speaking, filling is the ground-work of all subsequent finishing processes and, for that reason, it may be said to be the most important operation connected with wood finishing. if improperly done, no amount of good work with the varnish brush will remove the fault. in fact, good work is impossible after a bad beginning. good varnishing or good finishing of any kind requires that, before the final finishing processes begin, the surface should be made perfectly level and smooth, free from all unevenness or roughness or minute openings of any kind that might allow the varnish or other finishing material to penetrate the wood. if the filling has not been so thorough that no part of the subsequent finishing material can be absorbed by the wood, a rough surface will be sure to follow. this may, of course, be rubbed down and re-finished, but never with that perfection of result which is assured by laying a good foundation in correct filling. it may be set down as a fundamental principle of wood finishing that the best result is obtained when the filling or surfacing has been so thoroughly done that the thinnest of finishing coats, few in number, are required to produce the desired result. _liquid fillers or surfaces._--there are many kinds of fillers in common use, but they may all be considered as belonging to one or the other of two classes. they are either liquid fillers or paste fillers. woods differ greatly in the coarseness or fineness of their grain. the coarse or open-grained woods require a filler with body enough to close up the pores of the wood and give that perfectly even surface necessary as a foundation for good finishing. the close-grained woods, on the other hand, do not present the same filling problem. they could not absorb a paste filler. in fact, it is hardly too much to say that the fine, close-grained woods, like maple, gum wood, and birch, do not need a filler at all; and there are some coarse-grained woods, like southern or hard pine and cypress, the pores of which are naturally filled with gummy or resinous substances and will not absorb an artificial filler. but all such woods _do_ need to be given a finishing surface which will prevent the finishing coats from soaking into the fibre of the wood. this is the office of the so-called liquid fillers, which are very properly called "first coaters" or "surfacers." _how to make a liquid filler._--a standard formula for the preparation of a liquid filler is as follows: mix four parts by weight of carbonate of soda with six parts of china clay, and grind this mixture in about eight parts of japan, thinning the product with turpentine or benzine to the consistency of linseed oil. laundry starch may be used in place of china clay, giving a filler which is somewhat easier of application than the clay filler because it does not settle. it lacks in durability, however, especially if it is not well covered. the finest grained woods do not require the addition of any material to the filler to give body. a great variety of liquids may be easily obtained which, without being mixed with anything, will give the necessary surface. glue size, water glass, and the cheaper grades of varnish, thinned if necessary with benzine or turpentine, are often used for this purpose. but these are all inferior to the standard surfacers and never should be used on the best grades of woodwork. shellac is always preferred as a first coater for hard pine, as it keeps the resinous sap in the pores of the wood and preserves the natural colour of the grain. if oil is applied to hard pine without first applying this protecting coat of shellac, the wood blackens with age. shellac is an excellent first coater for other woods also. it is commonly used in house finishing as the surfacer for the interior trims. but it dries rapidly, and generally with a rough surface. the first coating of shellac, therefore, requires careful sand-papering before the varnish is put on. _time needed for a shellac coat to dry._--it may be well to caution the amateur finisher as to the time required for the thorough drying of shellac. while it may be truly said to dry very rapidly, the first drying is necessarily upon the outer surface, forming a hard coating which delays somewhat the drying throughout, so that a shellac filling is not really dry enough to sand-paper a half hour or so after it has been applied, though it may appear to be. it is a good rule to allow at least twenty-four hours for thorough drying; and it may be well to add that all methods of filling, rubbing off, etc., require for the best results more time than energetic workers sometimes allow. _cost of surfacing._--a practical question that the amateur finisher will ask is, how can one know in advance how much filler is needed for given pieces of work, and what will be its cost? for a good quality of liquid filler it is safe to say that one pint will cover eight square yards with one coat. the cost varies greatly, depending upon the quality of the filler and whether it is home-made or obtained of a dealer. a good commercial filler or surfacer can be bought for $ . per gallon, making the cost per square yard of one-coat surfacing about - / cents. a small can costs cents. good work cannot be done with the cheaper grades of filler. shellac, which is, all in all, the best of surfacers, can be bought for $ . a gallon, which would make the cost of surfacing somewhat under cents a square yard. _how to make a paste filler._--a good paste filler, such as is required for the open-grained woods like oak, ash, baywood, and poplar or white wood, may be made from pulverized and floated silica as a base, thoroughly mixed with raw linseed oil, turpentine, and japan in equal parts, with enough silica added to the liquid mixture to form a good paste of a consistency somewhat thicker than paper-hangers' paste. if the mixture should prove to be a little too thick, it may easily be thinned with turpentine. the final mixing of this filler requires grinding in a hand mill. unless a considerable quantity of it is needed it is quite as well to purchase a can of the paste filler of a dealer in painters' or finishers' supplies, though commercial fillers are not generally quite so good as a one made on this formula. they often contain wax and whiting and other materials as a base which are not so satisfactory in the long run as the floated silica. _how a paste filler is applied._--paste fillers should be spread on the surface to be filled very liberally with a wide, stiff brush, allowed to stand from five to seven minutes, and then rubbed off with a piece of burlap or a handful of fine shavings or excelsior. but it must not all be rubbed off or drawn out of the grain. this is an easy mistake for an inexperienced worker to make. the thing to do is to rub it in and at the same time leave the surfaces smooth. the surfaces should then be allowed to dry for about twenty-four hours before receiving the final finishing coats. varnishing the importance of a good foundation surface--even, smooth, and free from unsealed pores that would absorb and thus undermine the first coat of varnish--has been explained in the section on filling and surfacing. if this foundation has been well laid, the amateur finisher may enter upon the varnishing stage of his work with confidence; but he will soon learn that there is much call for skill in order to produce the desired results in this part of the finishing process. the selection, preparation, and application of varnish is a special calling, and great skill comes only as the result of experience; but certain main facts and principles are easily learned. _how a good varnish is recognized._--it is hardly necessary to say that a superior varnish must be clear, transparent, and brilliant. these qualities are always associated with this kind of finish. but durability is also a necessary quality. an expert will, with his eyes shut, recognize a high-grade varnish by its peculiar odour, which is to him an agreeable one. he will at once detect inferior grades by the rank, sharp odour of resin and benzine used in their manufacture. the range of quality and cost in varnishes is probably greater and more varied than in any other finishing material. for fine, artistic work only the best varnish is allowable; and this may be bought for $ . a gallon. _"sag" and how corrected._--a good varnish flows easily from the brush, spreads evenly, and dries slowly, thus allowing plenty of time for its proper distribution over the surface. and time enough should be taken to apply an even coat which will not dry unequally and lead to cracking due to irregular contraction in the process of hardening. it is of the utmost importance that each coat be spread evenly over the surface when first applied. great care should be taken not to brush long in one place. re-brushing after a brief interval leaves brush marks which are objectionable. unequal spreading on broad surfaces often causes the varnish to run or "sag." a tendency to sag may be brushed out if attended to promptly. but, if it is not noticed until the varnish has begun to set, the only way to prevent a bad blemish is to absorb the thickening parts of the coat by means of a partly dried brush; and this must not be attempted three or four minutes after the varnish has been put on. by that time it will have become quite well set and a sag will be beyond repairing by any simple means. _time required between varnish coats._--the best varnishes, as has been stated, dry quite slowly, and they seem to dry and harden not, as shellac does, on the top first, but from the under surface outward. this peculiarity emphasizes the need of allowing sufficient time between coats. and it should be added that mere drying is not all that is required. each coat must harden; and during the process of hardening slight movements take place throughout the mass of the coat until it becomes permanently set or hardened. the time required for this permanent setting or seasoning, as it may be called, varies with the character of the under coat, with the temperature of the room in which the finishing is done, and with the thickness of the varnish coat itself. five days is usually thought to be a short seasoning period. as many weeks would not be too long for the best results. it is folly to attempt to hurry up a job of varnishing. in the nature of the case it cannot be hurried without yielding disastrous results. there is no other kind of work in which "haste makes waste" with the certainty that it does in varnishing. great pains must be taken with each coat. least of all should the under coats be slighted, for solidity and depth in the appearance of the finished surfaces depend upon there being plenty of evenly laid and well hardened varnish before the final or finish coat is applied. all this work should be done in a well-lighted room, free from dust, and with a good supply of fresh air, kept at an even temperature, of about degrees--certainly not colder than this, since a lower temperature prevents varnish from spreading evenly. _number of coats needed._--the number of coats of varnish required vary with the character of the work. what is known as piano finish requires from three to seven under coats of good elastic rubbing varnish, each well hardened and rubbed down to give under surfaces more even than the best brushing can give. in addition to these under coats a final finish coat is needed to give brilliancy and lustre. _how to rub down varnish._--rubbing down varnish is a unique and important part in the process of finishing. the beginning of the operation consists of long and persistent rubbing with pulverized pumice stone mixed with oil or with water, if the work is such that water would have no chance to soak into the pores of the wood. whichever liquid is used, a rubbing pad will be found necessary. this is a block about inches square, made of thick, loose cloth like felt or hair cloth. in use it is first moistened in the oil or water and then dipped into a box containing a quantity of powdered pumice. with this the varnished surface is rubbed vigorously, giving a circular movement to the pad in rubbing down the broad surfaces. as the smoothing progresses, less and less of the pumice powder is used. near the end of the process enough will be found on the surface or adhering to the rubbing pad. what remains on the surface is finally all wiped off carefully with chamois skin, when it will be found that the surface has been levelled down but that it is covered with fine scratches due to the grains of the pumice. these are removed by a second rubbing in rotten stone and oil or water. _dull finish and flat varnish._--for many purposes good finishing requires but one under coat rubbed down and covered with a finish coat; and this finish coat is often not allowed to retain its natural lustre. for furniture a dull finish is much to be preferred. it is more durable, it harmonizes better with its surroundings, and it is more in keeping with the idea of simplicity and usefulness. in working for a dull finish it is not so essential to secure depth and evenness of surface as it is when a high lustre is required, and therefore fewer coats are necessary. in fact, a dull finish may be given to furniture without any varnish at all. two or three coats of shellac, each well rubbed down, give a very satisfactory result. wax finish, to be described later, gives beautiful effects. there are varnishes known as flat varnishes which give a dull finish without rubbing. they are made by dissolving beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two ounces of the solid to a pint of the liquid, using moderate heat and mixing the wax solution while warm with four times the quantity of warm varnish. what is known as the old dutch finish is obtained by using over the proper stain one coat of wax varnish. but there is no kind of dull finish so durable as that given by several coats of high-grade varnish, each well rubbed down. wax finish _how to prepare and apply finishing wax._--the simplest and at the same time one of the most attractive methods of finishing woodwork is rubbing it with finishing wax. this is one of the old processes which has of late years been revived by the arts and crafts societies and is becoming deservedly popular. finishing wax may be purchased ready for use or it may be made by dissolving yellow beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two parts wax and one of turpentine. to do this the wax should be cut into small pieces or shavings, placed in a dish, and covered with the liquid. the solution may be hastened by heating in a water bath; but, if a gas flame be used for heating the water, care should be exercised to extinguish the flame before bringing the turpentine near, on account of the inflammable character of turpentine vapor. this mixture, which is too thick to spread with a brush, may be applied either hot or cold by means of a piece of soft cloth. soft cloths, like clean cheese cloth, should be used also in rubbing. the rubbing should be continued for a considerable time, but it is by no means so tedious a process as the rubbing down of the several coats of varnish. less rubbing is required if the wax is applied hot. one of the greatest advantages of the wax finish is that it may be quickly applied and immediately rubbed down, after which the furniture is ready for use. filling and finishing are accomplished together. it is also easy to apply a fresh coat of wax at any time. in fact, it is desirable to re-finish new pieces of furniture in this way several times during the first few months of their use, and after that about once a year. staining _object of staining._--up to this point the processes of finishing considered have assumed that the wood treated is to retain its natural colour, excepting that it may darken with age. but it is often desirable to give artificial colours to woodwork--_i. e._, to dye or stain it. this is done for a variety of purposes--to reduce to one tone the different shades of the natural colour often found in the same kind of wood, to bring out the natural beauty of the grain and texture, to give an entirely new colour to the cheaper kinds of wood in imitation of the more expensive kinds, and to produce tones that will harmonize with various colour schemes. to accomplish this great variety of results, scores of different kind of wood dyes or stains have been put upon the market in almost countless shades and tints, but they are all easily classified under three heads. they are oil stains, water stains, or alcohol stains. _a perfect stain._--a perfect stain, if it could be obtained, would be a clear, limpid liquid, free from all solid particles or specks of colouring matter that might clog the pores of the wood and interfere with the absorption of the filler--so clear and transparent that it would in no way obscure the grain of the wood, which in many varieties is the chief element of beauty--so limpid that it would easily soak deep into the pores of the wood, carrying to a considerable depth below the surface an artificial colour which will not fade on exposure. _water, alcohol, and oil stains compared._--the water and alcohol stains on the whole meet these requirements better than the oil stains do. they are clear, and without body, and they have great penetration. but they are not free from faults. many of the water stains are made from aniline dyes which are not durable. the alcohol stains, however, are generally permanent. both the water stains and the alcohol stains raise the grain of the wood and are liable to show darker in corners and on end grains and to show laps from re-brushing. the oil stains, on the other hand, are free from these faults. they spread easily and evenly, they do not raise the grain, they do not double up or show laps or streaks, and they do not fade; but they have a few defects which overbalance these good qualities. they have considerable body which prevents them from penetrating equally all parts of the surface, so that they do not carry in the colouring as either the water or the alcohol stains do. their oily nature causes them partly to close up the filaments of the wood and thus interfere with the subsequent process of filling. this is so bad a defect that oil stains are not to be recommended for open-grained woods, the fine finish of which depends so much on correct filling. they are more successful with the close-grained woods, which need only to be surfaced with shellac or the ordinary liquid filler. _how stain is applied._--if furniture or any kind of woodwork is to be artificially coloured, staining is the first of the finishing operations to be attended to. the stain should be spread upon well-cleaned surfaces by means of a brush, a cloth, or a sponge, and allowed to stand for a few minutes so that it may penetrate well into the wood. the surfaces should then be carefully wiped off with clean, soft cloths or cotton waste to remove any stain that may not have soaked into the wood, and thus prevent a streaked or painted effect. after the stained surface is thoroughly dry, a filler, coloured to match the stain, should be applied and rubbed well into the pores, as already explained in the section on natural finish. the beginner will need to be cautioned again and again not to rub the filler all off or draw it out of the grain, but to rub it in as much as possible. he will also need to be on his guard against the presence of moisture or grease, which will interfere with good results. excellent prepared stains in great variety may be easily obtained of dealers in painters' supplies. they will not always produce the effects claimed for them, but with a little experimenting it is possible to find prepared stains that will give almost any desired result. they are somewhat expensive, however, and the amateur finisher may prefer to develop his own stain. following are some suggestions along this line: _asphaltum and golden oak stain._--a good chocolate brown stain may be produced on almost any light-coloured wood by a very thin varnish made by colouring turpentine with asphaltum and applying with a brush. a considerable quantity of asphaltum should be used, but not enough to make a sticky liquid. this will need to be finished with shellac or finishing varnish. when applied to quartered oak it produces the beautiful effect known as golden oak. it may also be used on white wood to give an imitation of black walnut; and georgia pine under this stain takes on a very attractive tone without obscuring the natural figure of the wood. _mahogany._--a clever imitation of mahogany may be made by staining birch of the right grain with logwood stain. the stain is made by boiling together equal parts of logwood chips and water for about three hours. while the mixture is hot, chloride of tin is added gradually until the right shade of colour is produced. the stain should be allowed to cool before it is applied, and then several coats may be needed to secure the right depth of shade. the filler used should be coloured with burnt umber and sienna. the finish may be a brilliant or a flat varnish, or wax. _baywood as mahogany._--mahogany stain is also applied to baywood, resulting in what commonly passes for real mahogany. the genuine article, however, is an imported wood coming from south america, mexico, and africa in several varieties; and it is a much harder wood than the american baywood imitation. both the birch and the baywood imitations of mahogany may be so well stained and finished that it is difficult to distinguish them from the imported varieties. _flemish oak._--the various oak stains are worthy of special mention. flemish oak finish is very dark, almost black. it is prepared by first applying a stain made of bichromate of potash dissolved in water in the proportion of one half pound of bichromate to a gallon of water. the solution should be strained and applied with a stiff brush. after drying, the surface is well sand-papered and a coat of thin black stain is applied, made by dissolving japan drop-black in turpentine. this is allowed to stand a few minutes, then wiped off, and when the surface is thoroughly dry a coat of thin shellac is applied. after a thorough drying and hardening the surface is smoothed down with fine sand-paper and finished with wax. _mission oak._--the so-called mission oak finish may be in several colours, but as a rule it is of a dull gray with the flakes slightly reddish. the stain is made from drop-black in oil, tinged with a little rose pink, and thinned with japan and turpentine. the mixture should be strained through cheese cloth and applied with a staining brush. wax finish is invariably used for mission oak. _forest green oak._--forest green oak is among the best of the green effects in this wood. the stain is made by mixing two parts of chrome green with one part of chrome yellow for the colouring material. this is added to a mixture of three parts turpentine and one of raw linseed oil, with a little white japan. the resulting stain should be somewhat thinner than linseed oil. after this has been applied to the oak surface, rubbed in and dried, it is given a coat of thin shellac coloured with tumeric and a very little green aniline. this should have a wax finish. _gray oak._--a gray stain may be given to oak by a solution of iron sulphate, made by dissolving a small quantity of chemically pure crystals in water, and giving the solution a strongly acid quality by adding a little sulphuric acid. this solution is most conveniently used by placing it in a box tank large enough to contain the pieces of wood to be stained, as they must soak in the solution until they are thoroughly saturated. the pieces may be kept separate by stout cords tied around them, and they may be held under the solution by means of weights. when taken out they should be allowed to dry before they are rubbed down. _weathered oak._--weathered oak stain is made by taking two ounces of copperas and the same quantity of dry tannin, dissolving them separately in about a quart of water, and when thoroughly dissolved mixing them together. when applied to oak it gives it the natural weathered tone with a slight bluish cast. it may then be oiled, shellaced and finished with a flat varnish or wax. _fumed oak and chestnut._--but the most satisfactory method of giving a brown tone to furniture or other woodwork, is without question, by fuming with ammonia, though this process is limited to two woods, viz., white oak and chestnut. all other woods, including red oak, are deficient in tannic acid, the essential element to combine with the ammonia gas in the production of the stain. this method requires a fuming box of sufficient dimensions to contain the article of furniture to be fumed. it must be carefully constructed with all its joints made vapour proof by pasting over them strips of paper and covering them with shellac. the top or one side of the box should be fastened with screws, so that it may be vapour proof when the box is in use and yet easily removed. the operation of fuming consists simply in placing the furniture in the box with one or more shallow pans filled with the strongest ammonia--not the household ammonia, which is too weak--screwing the top or cover on, and allowing the apparatus to stand from to hours, according to the shade desired. if the fuming box be provided with small glass windows in its adjacent corners, a good light will be thrown across the furniture so that the development of colour may be observed without opening the box. when the desired shade has been obtained and the furniture removed, it is best to give it a good wax finish which will develop a beautiful velvety texture. _peculiarities of fumed finish._--it will be observed that the toning of quartered oak by the fuming process develops the beauty of the grain far better than any other process of staining; and there should also be noted the still more remarkable fact that the contrasts of tone are the reverse of those given by staining; _i. e._, the parts that appear lighter in the one case are the darker parts in the other. this gives a certain distinction to the fumed finish and furnishes a means of detecting that which is not genuine. white enamel a vivid and very effective finish for furniture as well as for the trim of some rooms is white enamel. it is used on new work and also in re-finishing old furniture and other woodwork. in the latter case the old finish, whatever it may be, must be removed and the surfaces thoroughly sand-papered. but whether the wood be old or not, a satisfactory enamel finish cannot be produced by using the white varnish alone, since, like all other varnishes, it is somewhat transparent. it is necessary, first, to coat the wood with flat white--a paint made of white lead with some zinc oxide for hardening and thinned with turpentine. oil should not be used in any part of the process. three coats of this paint will generally be needed to produce the right surface for the final finish. each of these coats should be allowed to dry and become well hardened. two or three days, better still a week, should be allowed for hardening between coats, since insufficient hardening leads to cracks in the subsequent coats and develops a tendency to chip off. when a surface is ready for the enamel, only one coat of it should be applied, and that should be given not less than one week to harden before it is exposed to wear. enamel is simply a good varnish coloured with zinc oxide ground in varnish. it may be thinned, if necessary, with turpentine, and it is applied with a brush like any other varnish. problems problems in filling and finishing were developed in the series of furniture making problems in chapter vii. it is only necessary to bring forward the unfinished work there described and apply to it the finishing methods outlined in this chapter. our problems are, therefore, the following: _the knock-down bookcase._--if made up in white wood it may, like its original, be stained in imitation of black walnut and waxed. it may, however, be of oak, ash, or cherry, and finished to harmonize with the furniture with which it is to be used. _the hanging book rack._--in the design for this rack it was suggested that it might be made of white wood and given a white enamel finish, or of baywood with a mahogany stain and varnish. _the umbrella stand._--oak was advised for this piece of furniture. it needs to be treated with a paste filler and given two coats of varnish, well rubbed down. _the magazine stand._--oak was suggested for this stand. the color will depend upon the surroundings. filling and varnishing will be required if it be given a liquid stain, and wax finish if it be fumed. _the light library table._--oak was mentioned as a very appropriate wood for this table, but some lighter wood like ash may be used. it will be remembered that all open-grained woods require treatment with a paste filler before they are finished. _the heavy library table._--as this was designed in the mission style, oak was chosen as the most suitable wood. it may be given the so-called mission oak stain and a wax finish. _the round centre table._--this may be made in any of the woods commonly used for furniture, but quartered oak was mentioned. a golden oak finish will be found very satisfactory. _the bookcase with glazed doors._--this may be made up in ash, in quartered oak, or in gum wood. the finish will depend upon the kind of wood used and the furniture with which it is to be associated. _the library desk and the morris chair._--the originals were made in quartered oak, fumed, and waxed. _the hall clock._--this may be made in quartered oak and given a weathered oak stain and wax finish. re-finishing old furniture there is nothing that affords more satisfaction to one looking for pleasing effects in household fittings than the occasional piece of genuine old furniture repaired and re-finished. some of the rare old colonial designs are of exceptional merit. this is proved by the high prices which they often command. these designs originated in the days of the genuine hand crafts, before the invention of machine-made, cheap furniture. the work of the older designers was characterized by a certain individuality which gave it artistic value; and the craftsmen who worked out these designs did their work with such care and thoroughness that what they produced has had a lasting quality. it is for these reasons that we find it still in existence and so much desired. _caution as to repairs._--in the work of renovating old furniture, problems are met which are very different from those which have to be considered in the production of new work. all questions of design are settled. there is generally enough of the original article to show what the design was. the problem is one of restoration; we must supply the missing parts and re-finish the whole. the first thing to do, therefore, with any piece of genuine antique furniture is to look it over carefully from the point of view of the cabinet-maker, note its defects, supply the missing or loosened parts, and mend the breaks. it will be found that the wood is generally exceedingly dry and brittle on account of its age, and that it will therefore need to be handled more carefully than new wood; and, in matching up, it will often be found desirable to make use of parts of other old pieces rather than to add new wood to the old. this is especially true of veneering, which cannot be well matched in any other way. old bits of veneer, on the other hand, may be so deftly fitted into the spaces where they are needed that the grafting is entirely obscured by subsequent finishing. _scraping._--after the necessary repairs have been made, the next thing to be done is to remove the old finish. if the varnish is dry and brittle and somewhat cracked, it may be removed by means of a well-sharpened scraper, great care being taken, however, not to injure the wood surface, especially at the corners and edges. if the scraper does not take off the varnish well at certain points, fine sand-papering may be resorted to. it is generally wise, also, to give the entire surface a light sand-papering before it is cleaned up for finishing. _the varnish remover._--it often happens, however, that the scraper will not accomplish the desired result. in that case the liquid varnish remover is necessary. this may be found at the paint stores. the best formulas for producing these varnish and paint removers are known only to the manufacturers. it is therefore not wise for the young finisher to attempt to make his own remover. he should provide himself with a can of it and a bristle brush with which to apply it to the furniture. after putting on a good coat he should let it remain a few minutes and then try to scrape off the softened finish with a putty knife. if it doesn't come off readily, it should stand a little longer. the amount of time required depends entirely upon the hardness of the old finish. but in due time it will become soft and can be very quickly and effectually removed. a putty knife, however, will not remove it all. after scraping off as much as possible from the plain surfaces and from the corners, a careful washing with turpentine or benzine will clean off what remains. it is of the greatest importance that none of the old varnish nor any of the varnish remover should be permitted to remain. either of them will show through the finish as stains on the broad surfaces and collect in the corners when the new finish is put on. _re-finishing._--the re-finishing process is much like that described for new work, the chief exception being that there is generally no need of filling unless it has been found necessary to add new wood in making the repairs. generally speaking, the re-finishing begins with the surfacing, which may be done with thin shellac coloured to match the stain of the furniture. this is sand-papered lightly before receiving the one or more coats of finishing varnish necessary to produce the desired effect. very often all that is needed is a well rubbed down wax finish. problem: re-finishing an antique mahogany table the table with which this problem deals was found in an old furniture shop among a large number of pieces probably of equal antiquity but of poor design; for all old furniture was not conceived on beautiful lines. much of it was quite as ugly as some of the modern furniture. this table, however, when separated from the rubbish which almost concealed it, was found to have good proportions, with simple but graceful elements designed to make it useful as well as attractive. it was a drop-leaf table, the leaves being cut in with a double curve at each of the four corners. the legs were of turned stock and fluted, terminating in brass thimbles with casters. one leg was broken off, one of the leaves had broken away entirely from its hinges and the other was partly broken, the table top had received some hard knocks, and the entire surface was so begrimed with dust and dirt that it was with difficulty that one could tell the kind of wood of which the table was made. it took some imagination to conceive the possibilities which lay in this much abused and dilapidated old relic. the first thing to do was to wipe off the dust and dirt as well as possible with a damp sponge. the part of the top that remained on the frame was then removed so that the repairs could be easily made. the broken leg was replaced by boring each of the broken parts and setting them together with a / -inch dowel, glued in. the brass tips and casters were removed and set aside to be burnished. the missing parts of the top were replaced by new pieces of baywood, fitted in, glued, and stained to match the original wood. after the necessary repairs had been made the entire table was treated with varnish remover and the old finish scraped off with a putty knife. this part of the process was completed by washing all the surfaces thoroughly with turpentine, carefully picking out with a pointed knife from corners, cracks, and openings of any kind, all remnants of the old finish and of the varnish remover. after carefully wiping off the results of this treatment with clean cheese cloth all the broad surfaces were then smoothed off with fine sand-paper. it was found that the wood was well filled, so that all it now needed was a final finishing with wax. the transformation from the begrimed old table found in the shop to a graceful and beautiful article of antique furniture was complete. ix hand weaving and aphrodite came to comfort them with incense, luscious honey, and fragrant wine; and heré gave them beauty of face and soul beyond all women; purest artemis endowed them with her stature and white grace; and pallas taught their hands to flash along her famous looms. the "daughters of pandarus" (from the "odyssey," lib. xx). translation by mrs. browning. among the home industries which the arts and crafts societies have lately revived, perhaps none invite more interest or deserve greater honour than weaving with the hand loom. weaving is an ancient art. if we were to seek its origin we should have to go back to the time when men adopted homespun clothing in place of rude coverings made from the skins of animals. that was a great change, for it meant the beginning not only of the textile industries but of civilization itself. it is no wonder that the distaff and the loom were highly honoured in ancient mythologies. not less honour is due the spinning wheels and looms of our grandmothers, which played an important part in the early beginnings of our own history. the new england colonists spoke with pride of communities which showed progress in the weaving of cloth; and this was then largely a home industry in the hands of honourable women. it was a work of necessity, but not without love and devotion. many evidences remain in beautiful coverlets or bedspreads, in towels of homespun flax, in durable linen sheets and table-cloths--examples of unfailing patience, great ingenuity, and marvellous skill--handed down from generation to generation to their present fortunate and proud possessors. [illustration: weaving a rug. plate vii] _the primitive loom._--in the orient, where our choicest rugs are made, two trees growing near each other, some strings and pieces of bamboo, and a few simple accessories, are all the worker requires. this is a primitive loom. the modern hand loom is the same in principle; and the looms of our factories do not differ from it essentially. while it is true that their productive power has been enormously multiplied, this great improvement, which was actually one of the chief causes of a great industrial revolution, was due mainly to the inventive genius of two men who harnessed the motive powers of nature to the english hand looms. [illustration: shuttle and bobbin] _warp and woof._--the fundamental process in all weaving is essentially the same; and it is exceedingly simple. it consists in passing one set of threads between two other sets of threads which cross each other alternately and are moved first up and then down to allow the passage of the shuttle with its bobbin and thread. the set of threads which cross each other and which, by being moved up and down, interlock the thread which is passed between them, is known as the _warp_. the thread which the shuttle carries across and between the warp threads is called the _woof_. by careful selection of materials, by skilful design in the dyeing and arrangement of these materials, and by proper management of the warp and woof to express the design, the most beautiful oriental rugs are fashioned; and, though we may not be able to reproduce these in our homes, very beautiful and very useful things may be made upon the hand loom by those who have the necessary enthusiasm and patience. [illustration: the hand loom] [illustration: the reed] _what the hand loom is._--the hand loom consists of four uprights or posts, joined on two sides at the top and bottom by cross pieces. attached to the lower cross piece are two other uprights, one on each side of the loom, bolted in such a manner as to give free play back and forth. this is the beater. these cross pieces are grooved on their inner edges, and into this groove is slipped the reed, which is a frame divided into sections by short, stiff wires, making from to or more sections to the inch. it is called a reed because it was formerly made from reeds. the sections of the reed are called dents, and through each one is to be threaded a single strand of the warp. from the upper cross pieces extend two other uprights, one on each side, to a height of about two feet above the general framework. they are united at the top by a round piece called the roll, over which, near each end, are passed cords attached to pulleys which in turn carry other cords fastened by means of screw eyes to inch-wide sticks extending across the width of the loom. these sticks are in pairs and carry cords or wires of uniform length through the centre of each of which a thread of the warp is passed by means of an eye in each wire, as through the dent of the reed. this is called the harness. there must be at least two of them, and there may be more. two are necessary for the simplest weaving of a plain surface, and more than two if the work is to be more complex, as is required for scarfs with fancy borders, cushions, or any figured products of the loom. near each end of the loom are two rollers to which the two ends of the warp threads are attached when the loom is set up for weaving. these rollers are called beams. over one of them the woven product passes as the loom is operated, while the other holds the unwoven warp. at the back of the loom is still another cross piece, underneath which pedals are fastened. these pedals connect by chains with the harnesses in such a manner that when the foot is placed on one of them the cords attached to it play over the pulleys, throwing the harness and the warp threads which it carries below the level of the other set or sets of warp threads. an ingenious device of cogs at the side of the loom holds the work taut and enables the worker to let out fresh warp and also to roll up completed work. the process _preparing the warp._--when the essential parts of the hand loom and their uses are understood, the amateur weaver is prepared to make ready the warp and attach it to the machine. the thread or warp is taken from spools or cones, four threads at one time, which constitute what is called a bout. after determining how many threads will be required, allowing so many threads to form one inch of the woven cloth, the operator must decide how wide her warp is to be and how long. with the width, the length, and the number of threads to the inch in mind, she proceeds to wind upon her warping bars or frame the requisite amount until she has it all in one great skein. in putting this upon the bars or frames she should be very careful to cross each bout--_i. e._, each four threads--so that one bout shall go above and one below, in order to allow the introduction of a pair of sticks, called lease-sticks or leash-sticks. these attachments keep the order of the threads so that they may be drawn into the harness in the same order in which they are wound on the beam. _warping the loom._--to warp the loom the operator loosens one end of the skein and, passing it from the warping bars to the loom, attaches it to the roller or beam at the back of the loom, after carefully dividing it so that it may be evenly distributed. at this point an attachment called a rake is firmly fastened to the loom by cords and a certain number of threads placed in each division. by the aid of the lease-sticks, which are inserted, and with the assistance of a second person to hold the skein firm, the threads are wound upon the beam. the rake is now removed and the worker proceeds to set up the piece. [illustration: warping hook] _drawing in the warp._--as has already been explained, two harnesses only will need to be used for simple weaving. taking the first bout of four threads, the weaver draws the first thread through the centre of the first loop in the first harness, or the one to which the right-hand pedal is attached. the next thread is put through the centre of the first loop of the second harness, or the one attached to the left-hand pedal. the third is drawn through the second loop of the harness connected with the right-hand pedal, and the fourth, in turn, through the second loop of the harness attached to the left-hand pedal. great care must be exercised that no mistakes are made; for a single misplaced thread means that the work of drawing in must be all done over again. a special kind of hook is used to assist in drawing in the warp. when the drawing in is completed properly, the operator begins at the right-hand side of the loom and, measuring the reed, allows one half the width of web from the centre of the reed and draws each thread through each dent in regular order. when this is done it is only necessary to connect the warp threads to the canvas of the beam by means of heavier threads which hold the warp out in the loom, test the work, and proceed joyously with the weaving. _beating up the woof._--the weaver presses the right-hand pedal, and every alternate thread separates from the other, leaving a space between the two sets of warp threads for the shuttle to be thrown from right to left, carrying the woof threads through. the operator then draws this thread up at the side to make a good selvedge and brings home the beater, thus pressing the woof into the warp. a sheer fabric requires a light stroke of the beater, while firm cloth requires more force. releasing the right pedal, the operator presses the left, which causes the warp threads to cross, holding more firmly the woof threads just thrown. the shuttle now passes from left to right, carrying through another woof thread which, in turn, is beaten up as before. so the work goes merrily on with the throws of the shuttle alternating from right to left and from left to right, interspersed with the strokes of the beater. [illustration: hand-made towels. plate viii] problem: making a rug _the design._--this problem, like all others in house decoration, involves in its initial stages questions of design. before planning the rug it is necessary to know what use the rug is to have--whether it is to be for a hall, a living room, a dining-room, or a chamber, and whether it is to be used upon hard wood floors or with a carpet. this is a question of colours, and of materials; for the designer must avoid too sharp contrasts in colour, not only in the rug itself but in its relation to the other colours with which it should harmonize, and the materials used must not display glaring inconsistencies of texture. unless the beginner has special talent as a colourist it is not wise to attempt the introduction of too many colours in one piece of work. if the warp is dark it is usually better to use light or medium woof. if several shades are used in the body of the rug, better results are obtained by using for the border or end decoration one or more plain colours which match or readily blend with the principal colours of the body of the rug. [illustration: hand-made rugs. plate ix] _materials: denim._--there are many materials suitable for rug making. denim in moss or forest green makes a rug fit for a queen. this should be woven on a blue or green warp thread of carpet size. in preparing the woof it will be necessary to cut the denim on a true bias into strips from / to / of an inch wide. the latter width is better. in cutting, the best method is to fold back one corner of a square cut end along the selvedge, forming a fold across the cloth at an angle of degrees. crease this fold carefully and make the first cut along the fold. with a yardstick or a straight edge of some kind rule off lightly with a piece of chalk or soft pencil strips of the proper width for the succeeding cuts, taking great pains to maintain a true bias. when a sufficient amount has been cut, the pieces should be ravelled or fringed on each edge by drawing them quickly through a button hook. there is a certain knack in this, but it is soon acquired. the fringed strips should then be fastened together at the ends by means of overhand stitching, trimming off neatly all projecting corners. the moss-like effect when woven is improved if the woof, as soon as it is prepared, is not rolled into balls but left in suitable lengths for filling the shuttle. a special form of shuttle without a bobbin or spool is used for carrying the woof cloth for rug weaving. its simple construction is shown in the illustration. the woof is wound endwise and unwound in weaving by turning the shuttle. [illustration: shuttle for woof cloth] another good material for rug making is found in various kinds of woollen cloth. warm, durable, and handsome effects may be obtained by using a gray wool with catawba or some other warm shade of red as the end decoration, with set figures for the body of the rug. geometric designs, arrows, swastika, the pine tree, and many other forms are possible. very dainty colours also may be combined in rugs for chamber use. materials for these may be obtained from worn lawn dresses, discarded silkaleen and mull, which work up beautifully with one or two plain colours reserved for use in the borders. _combination of blue and white._--blue and white is always a happy combination; and exceedingly dainty creations may be woven, to be placed perhaps in the guest chamber, by using a woof of old blue with a white warp, combined with white borders and a white knotted fringe. a vine-like effect may be obtained in the border by twisting blue and white together in opposite ways and weaving in a plain thread of white or blue between the two. another happy combination of blue and white results from weaving on a blue warp a woof of white outing flannel, cut and fringed as described for the moss rug of denim, with a border of old blue and figures of the same colour. for a chamber or for a bath room in white such a rug as this will leave nothing to be desired. _a weaving design._--it has just been said that design in rug making is a question of colours and of materials. it is already apparent that it is more than that. it is largely a question of procedure in the process of weaving. that this is so may be shown in the following account of the making of a blue and white rug. the thought was to produce a rug with five stripes of blue running lengthwise, with white figures at regular intervals through the middle of the rug. to accomplish this result two threads of white warp were removed from the reed and harness every two inches for a space of ten inches on each side, thus making what may be called a weaving design; for the blue stripes, it will be easily seen, had to appear to the number of five on each side when the rug was woven. the white figures were formed by first throwing the blue cloth or woof through the warp by the usual throw of the shuttle and, before beating it up, threading into the warp white cloth in the desired pattern, after which the woof and pattern were beaten up together. for the pattern five threads or pieces of white cloth were used, two of which were inches in length and three inches, the two longer ones being placed between the shorter ones as illustrated. a space of inches was left between the white figures, the location of which was carefully determined by counting the threads, both of warp and of woof, so that in weaving the figures should appear at the right place. the result of this weaving design was a very beautiful rug. [illustration: white figure in blue rug] _another example of weaving design._--this feature of rug designing is capable of indefinite expansion. perhaps one more example may be given. the object was to produce a rug of medium dark centre with an -inch border all around of a darker colour. this effect was produced by first weaving inches of the dark end border, which was of mixed goods showing several dark colours contrasting happily. having reached the place where the medium centre was to begin, a woof thread of this medium colour and of the right length was joined each time to short pieces of woof of the border colour so that, as the weaving progressed along the length of the centre, not only the centre colour appeared in its proper place but inches of border on each side. when the proper length of the centre had been woven, the rug was finished by weaving another inches of the border colour. the result was a rug of individuality and charm. _great variety of material._--endless combinations will occur to any one who becomes interested in this captivating art. the field for colour design is almost without limit. no material is so old and useless as to be despised by the clever rug maker. old bed ticking with its blue and white stripes cut on the bias makes a very desirable combination when woven on a blue warp with a plain blue border. a charming mottled effect in one instance was produced by a yarn which was ravelled from an old raw silk portière of a mahogany shade and wound into balls with finely cut strips of tan cloth, the balls being rewound several times. this was used as the woof for the centre of the rug. the border was made of a weaving thread of the unravelled mahogany yarn, doubled several times to give thread of a size equal to that of the tan cloth. discarded clothing in which the prevailing colours are red, when made up into woof threads and woven on a white warp, gives a charming effect which may be strengthened or toned down by a border combination as desired. dyes may, of course, be used if the colours of the weaving threads made up from old cloths and discarded clothing are not suited to the design that is to be worked out. _weaving the rug._--when the design for the rug has been thoroughly worked out, determining the colours, materials to be used, and the method of procedure, the warp and the woof threads should be prepared and the warp attached to the loom, as already explained in the discussion of the general process of weaving. further details of procedure are not needed here. the thing to do is to weave a rug as designed. the next thing to do is to design and weave another rug, and then another and so on. as in most crafts so in weaving, experience is the great teacher--a teacher who demands faithful work, who finds lessons of value in every failure and abundant satisfaction in every success. some of these successes were found in the rugs illustrated opposite page . rug weaving is probably the simplest of all weaving and therefore a good problem with which to begin. after serving a satisfactory apprenticeship in this field the amateur will have acquired sufficient knowledge of design and sufficient skill in the art to pass to more difficult problems. this will take her out into a large field of opportunity. portières, window draperies, table scarfs, bedspreads, and covers for pillows and cushions in endless variety will suggest themselves to the ambitious worker. in all these, as has been seen in the case of rug making, design is all important. the management of the loom is much the same in all plain weaving. what differences there are will be found, for the most part, in the weaving designs. in the following problems are described some of the special features involved in the other forms of weaving. problem: portiÈres and couch covers _suggestions for the design._--if the loom is wide enough these may be woven in one piece; but usually it is necessary to weave them in sections or breadths. in this case, of course, they must be afterward neatly joined. the possibilities in colour design are naturally varied. they may be woven with a woof of plain colour contrasting with the colour of the warp, in stripes, or with plain centres with striped ends. harmony of colour effects is always to be sought. depth and richness may sometimes be obtained to a highly satisfactory degree by a generous use of black. materials may be yarns, bits of silk or velvet, or pieces of fine, soft woollen goods. the warp may be silk or linen or mercerized cotton. beautiful portières have been woven by leaving out two threads of warp at regular intervals, giving a loose and fluffy effect. silk and wool pieces may be used in the woof, alternating with one or more threads of wool yarn of any desired shade; and, if of the same colour as the warp used, they will impart a very decided tone to the whole product. in portières, the general appearance is much improved if the woof is not beaten up hard into the warp. the soft beating gives a resulting texture that is more pliable and more suitable for hanging in easy folds such as is demanded in portières. couch covers, however, which will have to resist more wear and tear, should be beaten up harder. in preparing the silk and wool pieces the cloth should be cut into very fine strips, joined by carefully lapping the ends, and, by cutting away a part of the cloth, making the joint uniform in size. if the material is cloth of ordinary thickness / an inch is quite wide enough for strips. the length of the pieces used may vary greatly, though they may be somewhat different in colour. they may vary all the way from a few inches to a length long enough to weave an inch in the portière or cover. this makes it very easy to secure a source of supply for the material in saving old garments and short pieces of cloth for the specific purpose of making up the woof threads for these products of the loom. almost any household will be able to save enough in a short time to furnish the material for a beautiful pair of portières or a couch cover which will be durable in quality, easy to clean, attractive in colour, and satisfactory from every point of view. problem: window draperies and curtains _the design._--curtains of one colour or of several are woven on the simple loom with two harnesses. they may be of the soft cream tint, the material for which is easily obtained and the effect of which, in softening the light passing through them, leaves little to be desired. but if a little colour be required, the weaving design may be easily changed to secure this result. one may, for example, weave at first inches of the plain cream. this will give woven material enough for a -inch hem at the bottom of the curtain and inches before the beginning of a coloured border. the border may consist of two threads of colour alternating with two threads of the cream, thus making a stripe of about inches in width. following this may come to inches of the plain cream, followed in turn by a narrow stripe of the same colour as the border, inches wide, in turn followed by another inches of the plain cream and another narrow stripe, and so on, alternately, until the required length of the curtain has been woven. if desired, a top border may be woven in, though it is well to make it somewhat narrower than the one at the bottom--say about inches--and it must be added so that it will show below the hem. in any case the top of the curtain should be woven plain, allowing for hemming, and also for shirring if a rod is to be inserted for hanging the curtain. vertical stripes are often desirable in curtains, especially if the room is so low studded as to invite the employment of every possible means for making it seem higher. such stripes may be made by using two colours for the warp--as, for example, blue and white or green and white--with one of these colours as woof. [illustration: an alcove with window draperies, pillow covers, window seat cover, chair seat and moss green rug. all hand woven] _importance of selecting good warp._--the successful working out of this problem depends very largely upon the proper selection of materials. while many things may be used for warp with a certain degree of success, there are fine points to be observed in weaving as in all the art-crafts, and the real beauty of the result depends upon giving due attention to these points. it is always well to remember that in all weaving the warp plays a most important part. mercerized cotton warp works out effectively with silk or linen woof or with a combination of both, and retains its beauty after being laundered many times. in the soft cream shade it has almost the appearance of silk, at a much less cost. but silk may often be obtained at a low price if the weaver lives in the neighbourhood of a silk mill. bargains in small lots of unsalable colours may be secured with which the weaver may do wonders; and if the colours are not good the silk may be dyed at small expense. our grandmothers saved their tea grounds for a week or more, boiled them, and made a dye which gave a beautiful gray warp. they were, in fact, very particular about their warping threads. not everything would suit them. they learned from experience that the wearing quality of goods is improved by having the warp stronger and harder twisted than the filling. it was common for them to spin a certain thread for this purpose. exquisite results follow the use of a fine linen warp in white or natural colour with linen or silk for filling. striking and beautiful also, in its way, is the very coarse linen warp. _variety in woof threads._--a very pleasing effect in sash curtains or in full length window draperies is produced by weaving heavy threads alternately with fine threads, using two shuttles or bobbins, one holding the heavy thread and the other the fine one. two or more threads may be alternated in this way as the fancy of the designer prompts; and this style of weaving may be confined to borders, leaving the body of the fabric plain, or the borders may be woven of the solid, heavy threads and the body of the curtains or draperies ribbed with the alternate coarse and fine threads. such curtains are very beautiful in cream white; but colour may be used if the colours are fast so that the curtains may be successfully laundered. pattern weaving before undertaking more difficult problems in weaving it will be necessary to explain in general two important processes. the first one is the process of pattern weaving; the second, dyeing. among the heirlooms treasured by many families are the beautiful blue and white coverlets or bedspreads and the hand-woven table-cloths and towels. no one with strong domestic tastes who has been fortunate enough to see these products of home industry can have failed to be charmed with the wonderfully wrought designs and with the quaint names by which they were once well known; for our grandmothers designated these designs by such names as spring flowers, governor's garden, the path of the roses, flowers of lebanon, ladies' delight, fairies ring, and doubtless by many more names which have been lost. this work in pattern design is wrought by the use not of two pedals and harnesses, right and left, as used in the first three problems, but by the use of several additional harnesses. _to be learned by experimenting._--if the beginner in weaving has mastered the use of the simple loom with two harnesses it is possible to extend her knowledge and skill to the successful operation of a pattern weaving loom. but the procedure is too technical and too varied to be described in detail as directions for a practical problem for amateurs. it is far better to experiment with a loom of this kind under the guidance of some person competent to point out the way step by step. nor will it be possible, in a brief description of this somewhat intricate subject, to suggest ideas for original weaving designs to ambitious beginners who wish to take up pattern weaving. copies of the traditional designs may be obtained as material for study and practice. after a little it will be possible to make variations and so lead to the delight of originating simple and perhaps more elaborate new patterns. [illustration: hand woven window draperies, couch cover, slumber robe and pillow covers. plate x] [illustration: a written pattern with a variety of figures woven from it] _how patterns are written._--complete working directions for pattern weaving will therefore not be attempted in this chapter; but it may be possible to point out a few leading facts and principles which will be of assistance to the experimenter who ventures to take up by herself this interesting application of the art of weaving. patterns for this work are plainly written out from right to left on cross section paper, as shown in the upper part of the accompanying illustration, each horizontal section of which corresponds to one of the harnesses of the loom and the pedal attached to it. if we have a four-harness loom, as would be required for working the pattern and weaving the figures illustrated, the right-hand pedal and the harness connected with it, which is the one farthest from the operator, are designated by the number , and correspond to that harness number in the pattern. following in order, the next three pedals and connected harnesses are numbered , , and to correspond with the same numbers in the pattern. turning now to the vertical sections of the pattern, we shall find that each one corresponds to a certain warp thread, so that when the pattern is "drawn in"--_i. e._, when the warp for weaving the pattern is attached to the loom--we shall find the thread of the warp which is to be drawn through the first loop or wire indicated by a mark on the section of the pattern corresponding to that warp thread and to the number of the harness through which it is drawn. thus, according to the pattern shown in the illustration, the first thread is to be drawn into the d harness, the d thread into the th harness, and d thread into the d harness, and so on alternately until we reach the th thread, which is drawn into the d harness; the th, th, th, th, and th threads are drawn alternately into the d and d harnesses, and the th, th, th, th, and th are drawn alternately into the st and d harnesses. this process is now continued, as will be clearly understood by reference to the pattern, up to and including the d thread, when one drawing in of the pattern will have been completed. a further study of the pattern shows that the marks on lines and form a continuously alternating series; and similarly that those on and , and , and and form also a continuously alternating series. but these numbers, however paired, correspond to the harnesses into which the warp threads, indicated by the numbers to , are drawn. it thus appears that after we have drawn in as many warp threads as the pattern calls for once around in the order indicated in the pattern, we have prepared the loom for weaving one of these patterns. we must therefore draw in the rest of the warp threads in the same order as those already drawn in, thus repeating the drawing in of the pattern as many times as required for the width of the piece to be woven. the illustration shows two "repeats" of the pattern. _operation of the harnesses._--having explained the method of drawing in the pattern, we may now study the movement of the harnesses necessary to guide the warp properly for the weaving of the pattern. it has been noted that, with the pattern under consideration, harnesses and hold a continuous line of alternating warp threads, leaving harnesses and to take up all the intervening warp threads. if then the operator should throw down pedals and together, and alternately and also together, the warp threads would be crossed exactly as in plain weaving. bringing out a pattern in weaving must, of course, require a variation of the pedal movement from that used in plain weaving. now, upon reference to the illustration it will also be noted that in writing the pattern, or in drawing it in, no two threads have ever come together on the same harness. if the st thread has been drawn into the d harness, and the d thread into the th harness, as shown in the pattern illustrated, the operator begins the weaving of the pattern by throwing down the d and th pedals together and throwing the shuttle which carries the pattern thread. this operation is what weavers call a "pick." each pick of the pattern thread is represented in the diagram (page ) by a broken black line running across the pattern. thus the diagram of the first design shown indicates that there are throws of the shuttle alternately over and back, or picks of the pattern thread, for each corresponding section of this design. but between every two picks of the pattern thread there must be a pick of the plain weave, requiring, as has already been explained, the pressing down of either the st and d pair of pedals together when the shuttle is thrown from the right side, or of the d and th if thrown from the left side. it is evident, then, that there must be two shuttles prepared for carrying the woof threads. one of these is to be used for the plain weave and the other for the pattern weave. the shuttle used for the plain weave is usually threaded with a fine thread of linen, though this, of course, is subject to variation according to the design of the weaver. the pattern weaving shuttle should carry a coarser thread, which may be of silk, linen, wool, or mercerized cotton. _variations in pattern._--from the fact that a carefully written pattern is necessary in preparing a four-harness loom for pattern weaving, one would naturally infer that the pattern must be closely followed in the weaving process. and so it must if the pattern be woven as written; but, after the drawing in, it is by no means necessary to follow the written pattern. as the weaving progresses it is easy to see many variations in pattern which may be woven upon one drawing in--patterns so varied as to seem to hold very little relation to each other. in fact, one of the delights of weaving with a pattern loom is to devise ways of modifying simple patterns, elaborating them into new weaving designs, producing unique and sometimes very interesting original figures. we have only to remember that patterns are made by the order and number of the overshots--_i. e._, the throws of the shuttle carrying the pattern threads--and that the overshots in the same horizontal and vertical lines are produced by the same pair. in the pattern illustrated the overshots are made by and , by and , by and , or by and , not counting and and and , which are the pairs for plain weaves. we should also remember that the last end in one overshot is usually the first one in the next. examples of two variations in design that may be woven from the original written pattern, to which we have already referred, are illustrated in the diagram and probably at least a dozen more variations are possible. problem: a bordered table scarf this problem will require the use of the four-harness loom. the first thing to do is to procure the written pattern for the border and draw it in. when the drawing in is completed and the weaving is begun, the first step in the process is to weave a few inches of the plain cloth. in doing this, however, we shall, of course, find that the pressing of the right-hand and left-hand pedals as in simple weaving will not accomplish the desired result; for it has already been explained that the pedals of a four-harness loom must be worked in certain pairs to produce a plain weave. it will be remembered that to do plain weaving with the warp drawn in as required by the pattern illustrated on page , it is necessary to press pedals and together alternately with and --_i. e._, both pedals of each pair must be pressed at the same time to produce the same effect as that produced by the alternate movements of the right and left pedals in simple weaving. when a sufficient length of plain cloth has been woven, the written pattern for the weaving of the border design must be faithfully consulted and the right pairs of pedals pressed down in proper order for the weaving of the pattern. the second or weaving shuttle carries the bobbin, which is filled with the colour required in the pattern. any changes of colour required by the design are easily produced by inserting a new bobbin filled with the desired colour. _the design._--a great variety of design is possible in table scarfs. it is common to weave in a narrow beading of whatever colour may have been chosen, following this by a few threads of white, and this in turn by a narrow band of the colour of the border with some slight suggestion of the pattern, then more of the plain white and finally the full pattern of the border. the centre of the table scarf is simply a matter of plain weaving in white or possibly in some solid colour, while the other end of the scarf must be woven with the same border and bands as were woven at first, but in the reverse order. _variations in design._--one pleasing style of decoration is found in repeating the border several times with inch-wide spaces between. another variety requires a heavy border at the ends, with narrow ones at short intervals throughout the length. shadow borders, so-called, are also common, and may alternate with borders of colour or may constitute the entire decoration. shadow borders are heavy borders woven in the cream or body colour of the scarf instead of being in a contrasting shade. in order to make them stand out well it is necessary to use a coarser thread than is required for the colour borders. a gray linen plain weave is often embellished in white with delicate effect. there is also a heavy linen thread which is good for scarf borders. it is obtainable in dainty colours, and the heavy thread seems to bring out the patterns in greater perfection. darning silks in fast colours are also employed, but these should be woven double in order to obtain the best effect. they are found in the market in short lengths and in such attractive colours as delft blue, reseda green, pink, and catawba. the last two colours, used with linen in the natural shade, make a happy combination. scarfs should be woven from to inches wide and about - / yards long, unless some special use requires that they should be of different length. not only do they make pleasing table covers, but they are useful as tray cloths, and from them charming sewing or embroidery aprons may be fashioned by folding one end over, tying it with ribbons, and arranging pockets to hold the work. one scarf will make two aprons. fancy bags are also woven on the same general lines as scarfs, but the width needs to be only or inches. these may be woven of the pattern throughout, or they may be striped with bands or borders. lined with silk and finished with ribbons or cords, they are very much admired for embroidery and other fancy work. dyeing in the discussion of the problem of hand weaving, frequent reference has been made to the use of coloured materials. while it is possible to obtain many good colours in the market, it is much more satisfactory to make these colours at home by the use of the dye pot. in former times, when hand weaving was general, there was no other way; and, in fact, dyeing and weaving may well be considered now, as they were then, sister arts. when the wool was washed, carded into rolls, spun into yarn, and again doubled and twisted, it was, generally speaking, still necessary to treat the yarn with some permanent dye before weaving it into cloth. one notable exception was found in the natural gray homespun, which was of yarn spun from the wool of both the black and the white sheep carded together. the modern worker with the hand loom will find almost the same necessity as our grandmothers did for a knowledge of the art of dyeing. seldom will she find at hand just the shade or colour required by the design of the piece to be woven. much of the material that is worked up for the woof of rugs, for example, will be found to be so faded or spotted that it would poorly repay one for the labour of weaving it up in that condition. and even the new material, which it is often necessary to procure for plain weaving, for pattern weaving, and for use in borders, will often need a bath in the dye pot in order to furnish the tone of colour needed. _some good points in dyeing._--good results in dyeing are obtained by using the prepared dyes of the markets, mixing together more than one colour often, after some experimenting, in order to produce the desired shade. instead of mixing the dye one may, if she chooses, dye first in one colour and top off with another. a fine permanent green is obtained by dyeing thread or cloth a good yellow and topping with a blue bath. green and blue dye used together give neither green nor blue but a blending of both colours, which is exceedingly pleasing. in all cases it is better to make the dye bath weak, leaving the article to be dyed in the bath a long time rather than to keep it a shorter time in a stronger dye. the advantage is not only greater permanency of colour but also greater certainty in the result; for one can watch the process of dyeing more easily and guard against the colours becoming too dark. the material which remains in the dye bath until it takes practically all the colour from it may generally be depended upon neither to fade nor crock. _some common dyes._--the dull, soft colours, made generations ago from barks and teas with alum as a mordant, had artistic qualities and were generally permanent. it is well worth while to experiment in this direction. straw colour may be made from the old-fashioned herb saffron; orange comes from madder and fustic; yellow is obtained from powdered dock root; rusty nails boiled in vinegar with a bit of copperas give a good black dye, useful also in freshening black yarns that have acquired a dull or faded colour. white maple bark boiled in water makes a fine medium brown which may be made fast by first treating the cloth or yarn to be dyed in it with a solution of alum. a permanent and fine nankeen colour may be made from a pail of lye with a piece of copperas half the size of an egg boiled in it. in fact, nearly everything which possesses colour may be considered a dye. vegetable substances are generally in themselves more permanent, but most dyes need to be fixed or "set" by the use of some mordant. all this will mean much experimenting, of course, unless one is fortunate enough to possess an old receipt book with its quaint allusions to mordants, kettles of brass, and vessels of pewter. the use of the prepared dyes, which may be easily obtained with explicit directions, is generally satisfactory and of course somewhat easier; and yet the interest which inspires one to cultivate the art of hand weaving leads to a desire to master all of the arts intimately associated with this ancient and fascinating home industry. x pottery to watch a potter thumping his wet clay--_rubaiyat of omar khayyam_ the boy who makes his mud pie, baking it in the sun, and the indian who, ages ago, coiled clay in a basket which he burned away, are but two widely separated links in a continuous chain; for men of all time have found a fascination in the wet clay that is so easily moulded and fashioned into all manner of things of beauty and of use. and, beside the joy of exercising the creative faculty, there has also been the spur of a common need to inspire men of different races, independently of each other, to develop the primitive household arts, like pottery and rug making, by the use of methods no less remarkable for their similarity than for their cleverness. the impressions that the primitive man received from his natural surroundings were easily expressed in the plastic mud, and it was probably not long before he discovered that fire made them permanent and practically indestructible. improvement was bound to come in due time. by washing the grosser impurities from the clay mud through a process in which the heavier particles settled, leaving the silt or finer clay to be poured off, some artist of a very early time found a material that became one of his most valuable helps in adding to the furnishings of his tribal household. first it was simply burned clay; but in due time enamel or glazed work found its use in tiles for building purposes, in grain jars, in wine jugs, in many kinds of table ware; for the uses of ancient terra cotta and porcelain were numerous. [illustration: girls at work on pottery. plate xi] the primitive arts, however, were not confined to objects of necessary use. we find, buried with the ruins of ancient cities, many evidences of the potter's craft, and among them articles for decorating the home, for personal adornment, and for religious use, like the rings and scarabs of egypt. and in modern decorative art, as applied in the household, the one final touch which gives that indescribable charm, which it is the aim of all art to give, is perhaps to be found in a few--a very few--choice bits of pottery. all of this use of clay, from the rude art of prehistoric times to the finest product of modern skill, is based on a plain scientific fact, _viz._, that a small quantity of water in the clay, not removable by any ordinary means of drying, can be driven out by intense heat so as to cause a permanent change in the character of the clay. this water is called the water of combination. if the clay is not heated more than enough to dry it, a later mixing with water restores it to its former plastic state; but clay once burned has lost its water of combination and never can return to its original condition. most beginners in clay modelling will expect, perhaps in the early stages of their work, to be made acquainted with the potter's wheel; for who has not heard of this interesting device? it is of interest chiefly because of its practical utility in the manufacture of pottery; and yet no one can forget the potter's song with which longfellow begins his beautiful poem keramos, making it a text for a sermon on the philosophy of life: "turn, turn, my wheel! turn round and round without a pause, without a sound; so spins the flying world away! this clay, well mixed with marl and sand, follows the motion of my hand; for some must follow, and some command, though all are made of clay!" _potter's wheel unnecessary._--the potter's wheel was used in comparatively early times and has been intimately associated with the art ever since. but it requires much physical strength and considerable skill to use it effectively; and its use has been by no means universal. we find the indians of our own time and people of other races, expert in building pottery by hand, using the method of coiling. it seems best, therefore, to advise beginners to adopt the simpler method and to forego the use of the potter's wheel. the comparative inexpensiveness of the hand method of building is another point in its favour. the tools required are few and simple. inexpensive and easy methods are favourable to the experimental stage; and it is well for the amateur to have every encouragement to experiment freely both with methods for building and with designs for his ware, keeping in mind always that the beautiful is generally the simple and strong, not the fantastic and complicated. _the method of coiling._--it will be understood, therefore, that in general the process to be followed consists in building up the bowl or jar or whatever the design may be by using coils of clay of the right consistency, welding and shaping them together, and scraping them down, if necessary, until they are ready to receive the first firing. after this they may receive a coating of glaze and be fired again. at first the beginner will find his chief interest simply in experimenting with the building up process. materials and tools the materials and tools needed are as follows: clay; oil-cloth, inches square; cotton cloth or flannelette, inches square; a few simple modelling tools; a soft pencil; drawing paper; card-board, ply; a plaster of paris "bat," or a piece of slate. _clays._--it will be necessary to add a word of explanation in order that these materials and tools may be well selected. there is a great variety in clays, ranging from a very coarse red clay used for flower pots to the finest white clay used for porcelain. the latter is called kaolin and is very pure. a good modelling clay may be obtained from dealers in school supplies or from potteries. in some localities, especially in the neighbourhood of brick-yards or other clay industries, a satisfactory clay may be easily found. but, however obtained, some experimenting will be necessary to test its suitability. the modelling clay is probably the least liable to yield disappointing results. the cotton cloth or flannelette is to be moistened and used to wrap up the clay in order to keep it from drying too rapidly during the intervals when it is set aside. this will not be necessary during the early part of the process, for then it is desirable for the clay to stiffen as rapidly as possible by natural means. [illustration: simple tools used in pottery] of the modelling tools needed some can be whittled from hard wood. they are not expensive, however, and the beginner will perhaps find it well to obtain most of them from a dealer in artists' materials. the accompanying illustration shows some of these, among them a very useful tool (f) with brass wire loops which are in turn wound with finer wire. f and c are especially useful for scraping clay too soft to be easily managed with smooth edges. the thumb-like tool a is perhaps the most generally useful of those shown here. in this connection it is well to emphasize the fact that _the greatest of all tools is the human thumb_. cultivate its use. most modelling and building can be managed with the thumb, assisted by the fingers. _the bat and how made._--a plaster of paris bat will be found exceedingly useful. a sheet of thin, unsized paper serves well, however, for a surface on which to build; but the dry plaster of the bat absorbs the moisture of the clay at the bottom and hastens the stiffening process. this bat can be easily made. take a small quantity of water (a half pint or more according to the size of the bat required), sift into this from the hand an equal amount of plaster of paris, and stir it in until a little dry plaster appears at the surface. after a little more vigorous stirring let it rest a few minutes and then pour it into tin pans which are or inches in diameter by inch deep. the pans should be previously coated on the inside with a thick soap solution, made by dissolving soap in hot water to the consistency of a thick cream. the bats will harden in or minutes and may be easily removed from the pan, ready for use. problem: a bowl for flowers this problem naturally divides itself into six important steps, as follows: the design or profile; building and shaping; decoration, if any; firing (bisque); glazing; and firing the glaze. [illustration: variety in dimensions] _the design or profile._--as in all problems of decoration the first step is found in design. for present purposes we may consider a bowl as having a diameter as great as or greater than the height. the bowl will be more interesting from the standpoint of variety if there is a difference between its height and its greatest diameter, and also between its diameters at the top and at the bottom. the accompanying drawing shows such differences. [illustration: suggestive profiles] another example of the value of variety is to be found in the curve of the profile. a line that is simple but constantly changing in its degree of curvature--as, for example, an elliptical curve--is more pleasing than an arc of a circle, which is sometimes called the curve of limitation. it should be noted that a curved form, in order to be forceful, should have some dominant curve in combination with others which are subordinate. the profiles illustrated in the following drawings have this dominant element and are in no case composed of arcs of circles. these varied, interesting, yet simple lines--live lines as they are sometimes called--consisting in each case of only two or three elements, are given here merely as suggestive material. a little experimenting will show unsuspected possibilities in strong, forceful curves, and the young student is advised to make many experiments in the effort to discover such possibilities. an example of profiles to be avoided is given in problem ii, on page . that these are vase forms and not bowl contours is immaterial. _a_ is commonplace because the two parts of the curve are too much alike. _b_ is unrestful in its three curves of nearly equal size. if the suggestive profiles illustrated in the foregoing drawing be turned upside down it will be noted that very few of them seem as pleasing as before. it will be found also that a different ratio of height to diameter will give very different effects with the same profile. a bowl having top and bottom alike may, so far as design is concerned, be classed with the pill box. we don't know which is the top until we have spilled the pills. if attractive pieces of pottery are found with the top and bottom of equal diameter and with curves in themselves objectionable, it will invariably be found that the attractiveness consists in some beauty of glaze, colour, or decoration which is prominent enough to conceal the defects of form. _natural forms._--it may be well to add a word here in regard to the imitation of natural forms in designing the general shape of any piece of pottery; and that word is a very brief one. avoid them. nature is a great teacher in all branches of art; but in pottery her suggestions are to be used as decorative elements rather than for fundamental shapes. a fish with a flower in its mouth does not seem appropriate; but a bowl for water-lilies, while it may not take the form of a fish, might reasonably have a fish as an element of its decoration. _testing profiles._--a good way to study the effect of the profile of both sides of the bowl is to fold the paper on which the profile is drawn vertically through the centre and transfer the line reversed by rubbing the back of the paper, thus giving the other half of the drawing in exact symmetry. when the general shape of the profile has been tested in this way one side should be redrawn carefully; then, with the paper folded along the centre line, so that the pencil line falls outside, the whole form may be cut out; and then it may be unfolded. the next step is to begin to build up the design in clay. _the building._--roll out a coil of clay a little thicker than the bottom of the bowl is to be; perhaps / or / of an inch will serve, since the bottom is to be hollowed slightly by scraping. the roll should be uniform in diameter and rolled as little as possible, in order that it may not become too dry. upon the piece of paper or the plaster bat start to coil the roll from the centre until the desired size is reached, then smear the rolls together, working toward the centre. turn the coil over and work the other side together, truing up the circle and making the bottom of uniform thickness. avoid the use of water in smoothing the coils together. it may seem to make the work easier, but it softens the clay and invites careless work. [illustration: manipulating the coil] with another coil begin to build up the sides, making a complete circle, and, having pinched off the ends where they meet, join them carefully. lay two or three coils in this fashion, pressing each coil firmly into place as it is laid, and smooth them together as in the base. the process is illustrated in the drawing. if the clay is very soft, the work may be set aside to harden a little, while a beginning is made upon other pieces. it is well to have two or three pieces in the process of construction at the same time. _testing the work._--a template or gauge will be needed to test the work as it progresses from the first rough stages to the finish. this is made of card-board by cutting out an exact copy of the profile, leaving at the bottom sufficient width to insure rigidity when the template is held upright on the table or bat. [illustration: a template] as the work goes on, if the design requires that the form should be "brought in" toward the top, the coil must be laid a little inside of the profile desired, as the smoothing tends to increase the diameter slightly. in all the building, allowance should be made for this enlargement. when the coil is high enough and of the shape desired, it should be allowed to stiffen until it is rigid enough to handle. with the various modelling tools the surface should then be scraped wherever it is necessary to remove the hardened clay in order to give a symmetrical shape to the desired profile. [illustration: scraping a square form] a drawing is shown to illustrate the process of scraping. the surface should be left smooth and even; and this may be accomplished without water or sponge. the flat sides of the scraping tool may be used to polish the clay as soon as it becomes leather hard--_i. e._, hard and stiff, but before it begins to whiten and dry. the lip or top of the bowl will require special attention. it will probably need to be thinned down and have all sharp edges removed. then the bowl should be turned upside down and the bottom hollowed out to a depth of / to / of an inch, leaving a "foot" or rim around the outside of the circle to give it steadiness. _the decoration._--after the bowl is complete as to its general form, the problem of its decoration, if there is to be any, must be solved. this may be studied during the intervals when it is necessary to set the bowl aside to harden. if the form and colour are good, the bowl may possess a charm that will not be improved by decoration. on the whole, less decoration, rather than more, should be the aim. the three vases illustrated at the top of a following page are examples of pottery without decoration. (see page .) [illustration: bowls. plate xii] generally speaking, bowls like the one we are building may be decorated by one of three methods: by sinking lines or channels in its surface by means of a sharpened, chisel-like stick (d, page ); by modelling or carving the surface; or by painting the surface with coloured "slip" or with coloured glaze. it should be explained that "slip" is a mixture of clay and water of the consistency of cream; it may be coloured or uncoloured. a combination of two or more of these methods is, of course, possible. examples of the first two methods are shown in the illustrations of bowls, vases, and tiles. a combination of the first and third methods was used in decorating the tiles of the middle row shown in plate xiv opposite page . [illustration: spacing in decoration] _classes of decoration._--the _form_ of the decoration is simply a matter of space division, as illustrated by two examples shown below. it is evident, too, that decoration, so far as form is concerned, divides itself naturally into three general classes: (a) the horizontal band; (b) the vertical division; (c) a combination of these two. the last will prove to be the most common of the three. it should be noted that an all-over pattern, which has been left out of consideration as tending to monotony, would commonly be a combination of both horizontal and vertical methods of division. it should be noted also that the presence of other than vertical and horizontal lines in pottery decoration does not affect the main classification. typical examples of these divisions are illustrated in both bowls and vases, as well as in the cuts a and b. it will be seen in each case that one scheme or the other predominates and that there are possibilities for great variation in treatment. analyzing the patterns shown in all these illustrations, we find that the band or horizontal scheme offers a succession of large and small spaces, giving variety and rhythm. in many of those patterns showing the combination type there is a concentration or "knotting" of the line at regular intervals, frequently at the intersection of both horizontal and vertical elements. this is well illustrated by the left-hand bowl of the middle row shown in this plate opposite page . when the method of painted decoration is employed the concentration point is composed of mass instead of line. all this serves to give emphasis and rhythm. for subject matter in decoration natural forms may be used as shown in the vase at the left of the top row illustrated in plate xiii, opposite page . or an abstract arrangement of lines may be employed, as shown in its nearest neighbour, which may or may not have had its origin in a very much conventionalized natural motif. the essential thing to remember is that the divisions of spaces must be varied and rhythmic and the decoration suited to the method of application. _how the design is applied to the clay._--after the design has been studied as much as possible on paper it should be planned out on the bowl with a soft pencil, allowing sufficient space for the incised line or channel to be made. the clay should be leather-hard--_i. e._, stiff but not dry. the spacing around the circumference should be made exact, deviating somewhat, if necessary, from the spacing of the paper drawing. a good way to manage this important step in the process is to measure the circumference at the point of greatest width with a narrow strip of paper and then to divide this circumference by folding the paper evenly into the number of units desired. by wrapping the paper around the bowl again the points of division may be transferred to the clay and then projected upward or downward vertically to the belt that it is desired to meet. it is necessary to make sure that the vertical lines are true "meridians" and do not swerve to the right or the left. in order to test the horizontal lines, measurements may be made from top or bottom. all of this work is best done free-hand; for, aside from the value of the eye training derived, hand-built pottery is seldom exact enough to permit of a more mechanical method of planning its decoration. the drawing on the clay having been completed, the next point is to choose the tool best fitted for the work and carefully make the cuts, deepening them from time to time as the work progresses. if the design is to be worked out in line, a chisel, like that illustrated in d (page ), may be whittled from a pine stick. it is held nearly upright and used as a scraper to cut out at first a shallow channel. reserve should be exercised in cutting, because, generally speaking, there is danger of making the design too insistent. some of the best designs are very subtle and quiet. care should be taken, however, to allow for a slight filling in of the hollow by the glaze when it is applied. _modelling a decoration._--if the decoration is to be modelled it would seem wise to do it, in whole or in part, as the work is built up; but in this case great care will be needed to keep a firm hold on the relief and unity of the decoration. it will be easy to over-model the work. _how under-glaze is applied._--for decoration with under glaze the colours given under the head of glazing (page ) are mixed in different proportions with dry powdered clay and water to form a colour paste. this is painted on the "green" or moist clay, forming a smooth and even surface. experience will teach the proportions of colour to be mixed with the clay. these proportions vary greatly with different colours. a very strong colour like cobalt will give a deep blue if mixed in the ratio of one part by weight of cobalt to ten parts of clay. colours like the oxides of iron and copper are of medium strength, and antimony is quite weak. before the work is left to dry it would be well to make sure that all corners and rough edges are smoothed off as they will show light and rough through the glaze. the use of sand-paper, however, is not advised, though it may occasionally be used in the emergency of an accidental roughness remaining after the piece is dry. the aim should be to have all clay work show something of the plastic nature of the material out of which it is made. _firing._--pottery must be "bone" dry before it is fired. a very satisfactory portable kiln for firing may be purchased for from $ to $ , according to the size. the smallest size, which is illustrated in the next drawing, will be ample for the needs of one or two persons. if, however, the amateur does not care to go to the expense of purchasing a kiln, it is generally possible to find a pottery factory in the vicinity that will undertake the firing and perhaps the glazing. [illustration: a portable kiln] _temperature required._--pottery is fired at a temperature varying, according to the clay and the glaze used, from approximately to degrees fahrenheit. modelling clay fires at degrees fahrenheit, or what is called "cone ." this term comes from the fact that the heat is gauged by pyrometric cones, which can be seen through a spy hole attached to the kiln. these cones are graded compositions of various materials and possess different degrees of resistance to heat. they are usually set up in clay in groups of three or more. when one of them melts it bends over, as illustrated in the accompanying drawing, which shows cone --the most fusible one--completely "down," and at a point indicating that it is time to shut off the heat from the kiln. this must be done gradually and the kiln must be allowed to cool completely before it is opened. this is especially necessary when firing the glazes described in the following section, which require the same temperature as modelling clay. further details about firing and caring for the kiln may, of course, be learned from descriptions accompanying the apparatus. pottery comes out of the first firing in the kiln a dull porous ware and in colour either cream, buff, or red, according to the amount of iron in the clay. in this state it is called "bisque" or "biscuit." [illustration: pyrometric cones] _glazing._--it is necessary to bring the pottery up to the condition of bisque before it can be glazed; or, to speak more accurately, before it can be over-glazed; for it has already been shown how the so-called under-glaze is put on before the first firing. the subject is somewhat technical, and it will not be possible in a single chapter to take up the details extensively. briefly speaking, the glazes most used for this class of work are the lead glazes--combinations of "white lead" or carbonate of lead as a flux with kaolin, flint, whiting, feldspar, and other ingredients. these are supplied in powdered form and are ground together in water by means of a mill or a large mortar and pestle; a mortar inches in diameter will serve. _grinding the glaze._--the grinding should continue about an hour. it should be said, however, that there is such a thing as grinding too fine. after the glaze has been properly ground a small quantity of gum tragacanth, dissolved in water, is to be added as a binder to prevent flaking and rubbing off in handling. it is also a good plan, though not always necessary, to strain the glaze, as soon as it is ground, through fine muslin. the tools and materials needed for this work may be itemized as follows: lead carbonate, whiting, canadian feldspar, florida kaolin, french flint, white oxide of zinc, and various other oxides and colours noted in the text; earthenware bowls, or inches in diameter, for holding the glaze; large spoons, preferably aluminum; agate mortar and pestle, inches in diameter. _example of matt glaze and bright glaze mixes._--two mixes are given below calculated to fuse at cone . one has a "matt" or dull velvety surface, and the other has a "bright" or shiny surface. the matt will be found more desirable for general work because it harmonizes better with flowers and foliage. the figures given below refer to units of weight. metric weights (grams) are most convenient to use, but any units will serve so long as the same one is used throughout. the matt glaze should be of the consistency of thick cream, the bright glaze somewhat thinner. matt base lead carbonate whiting canadian feldspar florida kaolin bright base lead carbonate whiting canadian feldspar florida kaolin white oxide of zinc french flint the bases itemized above are colourless and there must be added to them from to per cent. of colouring material that will stand heat. a list of materials with their colours when fired is given on page , together with a few typical combinations of colours in quantity suitable to be added to the glaze bases given above. the following lists are by no means complete, and it is expected that the young decorator will make use of these colour mixtures simply as an introduction to quite extensive experimenting: colour materials black oxide of cobalt blue black oxide of copper blue green green oxide of chromium yellow green white oxide of antimony lemon yellow red oxide of iron yellowish brown green oxide of nickel dirty gray (for neutralizing) white oxide of tin makes glaze opaque black oxide of manganese purplish brown yellow ochre yellow burnt umber brown colour combinations olive green iron oxide cobalt oxide . dark brown iron oxide nickel oxide manganese oxide light gray-blue tin oxide cobalt oxide . copper oxide . blue-green cobalt oxide copper oxide yellow ochre dark gray-blue nickel oxide yellow ochre cobalt oxide copper oxide _applying the glaze._--before applying the glaze to the piece of pottery or bisque, the latter should be soaked in clear water for about five minutes or until the air is expelled from the pores. when this has been accomplished it should be removed from the water and all moisture should be wiped from its surface. the piece is then ready to be dipped into the glaze, or to have the glaze poured over it, if the size and shape of the piece make it more convenient to apply the glaze in this way. it is usually best to glaze the inside first, shaking out all the superfluous glaze before applying the glaze to the outside. during this process the piece must be held firmly but by as few points of contact as possible. these points of contact will generally need to be touched up before it is ready for firing. it is sometimes necessary to glaze large pieces with a brush, putting on several coats in order to cover the surface with an even thickness. the matt glaze requires a greater thickness than the bright glaze in order to develop its characteristic velvety texture. the greater thickness may be easily secured, because it flows more slowly than the thinner bright glaze and is less likely to drip from the sides of the piece to which it is being applied; but, on the other hand, it is at a disadvantage in that it does not, in flowing slowly, correct inequalities of thickness so readily as the more mobile bright glaze does. a certain thickness, however, is essential; and if, after firing, it is found that the glaze was put on too thin, a second coat may be applied and the article again fired. _firing the glaze._--before the glazed piece is fired the glaze should be dried and what runs down and collects about the bottom or foot should be scraped off. it should then be set in the kiln on a kind of pointed tripod of hard burned clay, called the "stilt," which prevents the glaze from sticking to the floor or shelves of the kiln. all glazed ware should be placed in the kiln with at least / an inch of space between the pieces to prevent them from sticking together during the fusing state of the glaze, when it is apt to bubble or "boil." the firing of glaze is a process very similar to that employed in the production of bisque, already described. greater care, however, must be taken in controlling the increase in temperature so that it shall be even and steady--free from all sudden flashes of heat. the cooling also should be very gradual and, as in bisque firing, the kiln should be allowed to get cool before it is opened. with this second firing the pottery is finished unless it should happen that a second coat of glaze is found to be necessary. if only a few spots need attention, this second coat is best applied with a brush. problem: a vase for long stemmed flowers the tools required for making this vase are the same as those used for the bowl, and the process of building is much the same. the chief difference is that it is more difficult to preserve the profile in building because the added height and the greater weight tend to bulge the lower part. to meet this difficulty it will be necessary to set the work aside quite often in order to let the lower part harden sufficiently to support the upper part. _the profile._--in preparing the profile the same rules hold as were applied in working up the problem of the bowl. it will be well to remember, however, that the curves of a vase must be treated with greater reserve as to their lateral projection than was necessary in the case of the bowl--_i. e._, the curve of a vase should be enclosed within a rectangle narrower in comparison with its height than is the case with the curve of a bowl. the reason for this, of course, is found in the greater height of a vase in comparison with its diameter. the following figure shows three typical vase forms. if these curves be compared with those shown on page , illustrating bowl contours, it will be observed how the height of the vase is emphasised in the greater restraint and subtlety of its curves. in the next illustration we have two "horrible" examples to which attention has already been called in the suggestions for the design of bowls. the dotted lines in the illustration show how these curves may be improved if, in either a or b, one element of the compound curve be made dominant at the expense of the other. if at the same time the diameter be made smaller in comparison with its height the attractiveness of the contours will be still more improved. indeed, it will be a transformation from a profile that is positively bad to one that is very good. [illustration: typical vase forms] [illustration: profile to be avoided] _decoration._--the problem of decoration is not very different from that of the bowl. here again, however, the added height seems to call for greater accent by means of vertical or panel divisions. unless this be understood there is some danger that the larger vertical spaces will seem to offer simply more room for horizontal bands, resulting in a barber pole effect. _handles._--if handles or buttresses are desired, care should be taken that they are designed as an integral part of the vase--_i. e._, that they continue or reinforce its lines. two suggestions for the treatment of the problem of handles are given in the accompanying drawing. it will be noted how sympathetically these handles conform to the lines of the vases to which they are attached. handles that give the impression of being made for another vase should be avoided. [illustration: suggestions for handles] problem: the fern dish the process of building the fern dish is not essentially different from that employed in making the bowl described in the first problem. if the fern dish is to be round, the coiling method may be used; but if the dish is to be square or rectangular it is not necessary to use this method. in place of it the process of "piecing on" may be employed--_i. e._, one piece of soft clay may be added to another and the different pieces welded together as the work proceeds. [illustration: development of the fern dish] _the lining._--the fern dish requires a separate inner dish or lining with a hole in the bottom of it like that in the ordinary flower pot. this feature forms the unique part of the problem. generally speaking, the presence of this lining seems to call for a little closer approach to the vertical in the sides of the outer bowl; and yet some latitude is allowable, as is shown in the right hand dish illustrated in plate xiii following, which is somewhat similar in profile to that illustrated in the accompanying drawing. this drawing shows the development of the problem as applied to a round fern dish. much freedom, however, may be used in the plan as either the round or the rectangular fern dish seems to give satisfaction. the half section in the drawing shows a very narrow space between the inner and outer bowls at the top edges. this adds greatly to the good appearance of the completed fern dish. the sides of the inner dish are made vertical, since it is necessary for it to be easily removed. _decoration._--the problem of decoration differs very little from that discussed under the problem of the bowl. either the fern itself or its woodland neighbours may easily furnish the motif. sometimes there is occasion for designing similar dishes not for ferns but for other plants. thus the smaller square dish, illustrated in plate xiii opposite, was designed and made for the familiar "bluets," and the subject matter for its design was found in that flower. _glazing._--the rules already given for glazing apply in this case, but it will be necessary to glaze the outside fern dish only. it is well, however, to glaze a narrow strip along the upper edge of the inner dish; but the rest of it should be left unglazed. it hardly needs to be added that in firing it is necessary to keep the inner and outer dishes separate. [illustration: vases and fern dishes. plate xiii] problem: the candlestick _the design._--this problem introduces several points in design that need to be especially emphasized. the candlestick should be of such size that it will easily support the average candle without putting the user to great inconvenience in fitting it by paring it off or melting it down. it is necessary to provide a lip to catch the stray drops of wax that will run down the sides of the candle; and it will be a convenience to have this supplemented by a slight dishing of the base if the candlestick is to be carried about. if a handle is to be added it should seem to be a natural outgrowth of the candlestick itself, as was explained in the discussion of handles for vases; and it should, at the same time, offer a place for a firm and comfortable grasp. the accompanying drawing shows how handles may be designed really to form a part of the candlestick and at the same time, by means of a sharp bend or elbow at the top, to provide a natural place for the thumb to assist in grasping the handle. whether the candlestick is to be high or low depends entirely upon the use intended for it or upon the preference of the user. generally speaking, a low candlestick is better for carrying about and a high one more desirable for standing in a cabinet or on shelf or table. it is well for some definite idea of utility to manifest itself in the form chosen. merely planning a tube and a handle upon a base, without carefully relating these three different elements according to the requirements of use, can hardly be called designing a candlestick. [illustration: suggestive designs for candlesticks] the building of the candlestick is started, like the bowl in the first problem, by coiling from the centre, and the rim may be added in the same way. care should be taken, however, to attach the central tube firmly. this may be coiled or simply modelled from a single lump of clay. if there is to be a handle it is well to build it at the time the central tube is built, as it is then easier to make a firm attachment. problem: tiles the varied and extensive uses of tiles make it difficult to limit the scope of this problem. tiles are used for paving, wall facings, ceilings, coverings for stoves, linings and facings for fireplaces, rests for flower pots and teapots, and for various other purposes. tiles figure very prominently in the history of art. they are objects of interest and study in many public buildings and museums throughout the civilized world. but this problem will confine itself to two of the many varieties of tiles, _viz._, tiles designed for bowls or teapots and tiles used for the facing of fireplaces. [illustration: a tile frame] _the tile frame._--in building tiles a frame is used measuring about inches square by / of an inch thick. the strips forming the frame may be inch wide, lightly nailed together at the corners so that, if necessary, the frame can be easily taken apart while the clay is moist. this frame is placed on a plaster bat or piece of paper and the clay forced firmly into its corners and sides, working toward the centre, until the frame is completely filled. it is then turned over in order to make sure that the under side of the clay is thoroughly welded together. care should be taken to use sufficient clay to bring both surfaces well up to the surface of the frame, scraping off the surplus clay with a straight edge. while the clay is moist, one side is chosen for the back, and this is hollowed out to prevent warping. the hollowing may take the form shown in the right-hand tile at the top of plate xiv, or it may be in the shape of channels / of an inch or more in width, separated by ridges / of an inch wide running across the back of the tile. whichever method is used, the depth should be about / of an inch and not over / of an inch. even when the utmost precaution is taken, the tile is very liable to warp. it should therefore be dried slowly and with the greatest possible evenness of exposure on both sides. the greatest help of all is found in the use of the so-called "grog." this is made by grinding to a powder clay that has been fired once and shrunk, but not glazed. it is used by mixing it with the clay before it is moulded, in the proportion of one part grog to three of the clay. it may be added here that grog will be found of great assistance not only in making tiles but in making other ware. it will not be necessary, however, to burn clay for the express purpose of making grog. the occasional failures which develop at the first firing of every batch of pottery will furnish an adequate supply. [illustration: tiles. plate xiv] _decoration._--when the tile is dried and shrunk a little it may be easily taken from the frame, but it should be allowed to get quite stiff before decoration is applied. while the hardening process is going on the decoration may be studied. the three general methods of decoration considered under the flower bowl--_viz._, the sunken line, the modelled surface, and the painting with under-glaze or over-glaze--are all available for use with the tile. if it is to be a tea tile the modelled surface must be treated with considerable caution, otherwise there may result an uneven surface for the teapot to rest upon. _firing._--in giving the tile its first firing it is safer to stand it on one edge in the kiln, but not on the floor of the kiln, as the intense heat of the floor would be liable to shrink that side more than the others. it may be supported on two stilts or it may be placed on one of the shelves. for the glaze firing the tile should be placed flat on the stilt. _tea tiles._--the tiles illustrated at the top and bottom of plate xiv were designed and made to serve as rests for a teapot, a bowl, or a vase. it will be noticed that the centre is left free with one exception, which is given as an interesting variation from the general rule. the free space is an advantage in giving relief to the design and in furnishing an even surface for the teapot or bowl to rest upon. in the decoration of rectangular tile forms the general principles as to variety of measure or shape in space divisions hold true. emphasis should be concentrated at the corners in order to strengthen the design. _fireplace tiles._--some of the tiles illustrated in plate xiv would be entirely appropriate for facing a border around the opening of a fireplace. this is especially true of the middle design shown at the top of the plate, on account of the lines which project through the corner design nearly to the edges of the tile. this makes it especially adapted to repetition in a facing or border. [illustration: pottery, designed and made by schoolgirls. plate xv] _decoration of tiles._--it is in the field of painted decoration, however, that the most attractive possibilities in fireplace tile designs are found. the framed tile illustrated in plate xv opposite--an example of over-glaze painting--is intended for use as a colour accent for the wall. this tile is painted in matt glaze between raised outlines. three similar tiles are illustrated in the middle row in plate xiv. the right-hand one, like the framed tile of plate xv, is a matt over-glaze, but the outline instead of being raised was slightly depressed. the other two are examples of under-glaze painting. they were painted on moist clay, as described in the problem of the bowl, and afterwards covered with a bright glaze. in this case the glaze was itself coloured, thus adding richness to the colour scheme. the repetition in a tile facing of landscapes, designed to be complete or nearly so, would be tiresome. it is better so to design the entire facing that it will be made up of a series of very simple landscape motifs, each fairly complete in itself, but all so related to each other as to form, when joined, a larger, somewhat conventionalized, landscape. a treatment of this kind lends itself to many other decorative schemes. the fireplace offers a great opportunity for design, not only in itself, but as related to the decorative scheme of the room in which it is placed. it should not be forgotten that it is, in a sense, the focal centre of the room. this fact, together with its comparatively small size, makes it possible to give it a strong and rich note of colour, accenting the prevailing colour scheme of the room. tiles, properly designed and applied, offer a rich and varied field for charming effects in colour and texture. xi decorative work in leather, copper, and other materials to become an artist in dealing with tools and materials is not a matter of choice or privilege; it is a moral necessity; for a man's heart must be in his skill and a man's soul in his craftsmanship--_hamilton wright mabie_ leather work leather work, like weaving and pottery, is of very ancient origin. the new testament text concerning "new wine in old bottles" referred to bottles of leather, or wine skins. we read of leather as having been used in still earlier times for shields, saddles, harnesses, parts of chariots, and as an accessory to clothing. in the middle ages the "gentle craft of leather" was not confined to the shoemakers' useful productions but included much ornamental work. there were wall coverings of leather with designs carved, or modelled, or stamped with hot tools; seats were upholstered and books were covered with tooled leather. some of this work was richly adorned with painted and gilt figures like the celebrated spanish leather. _why leather is suited to decoration._--leather seems, therefore, to have won the right to a high place among the materials suited to decoration. its beautiful texture, the rich brown tones of its natural colour, the ease with which it takes dyes, and the readiness with which under proper treatment, it receives and retains the marks of the modelling tool, qualify it to minister to the artistic sense no less than its durability enables it to serve the more common uses. _limited decoration desirable._--the tooling of leather is based upon the fact that, when wet, the fibre yields readily to compression and receives impressions that are retained after the leather is dry. but the beauty of design depends upon the colour and texture of the surface quite as much as upon the figured impressions upon it. it is therefore a good point in design not to cover the surface so completely that the peculiar beauty of the material itself be lost. the decorations should be bold and rich, but the tooling should be confined to a small part of the surface. calf skin and cowhide are well suited to tooling. they are supplied in two general forms, _viz._, the smooth, generally as russia calf, and the rough or split cowhides, known as ooze. leather may be stained a variety of colours by aniline dyes; but since the natural colour of leather is brown, brownish tones are more satisfactory than the blues, greens, violets, grays, etc., because they seem more sincere. [illustration: leather-working tools] _tools._--the simple tools required for tooling leather may be purchased at small cost, or they may be made from cheap nut picks by filing these to shape, polishing them, and buffing them. the illustrations show two different tools, each double pointed. a and b are different views of the first tool; c is the second tool. the narrow pointed end of the first tool is for outlining and working into corners. the broad, flat end is for smoothing down and for general use; the broad tool should be used whenever possible. the round point on the left end of c is used for outlining and transfering the design to leather. the right hand end of c is known as the background tool. it is cupped out like a nail set, as indicated by the lengthwise section just above and by the end view at the extreme right; in fact, a nail set may be used for the same purpose. the background tool, however, is to be used sparingly. if used to excess, especially on large surfaces, the result is likely to have a mechanical and "shoppy" appearance. problems to design and tool a belt the sizes given in the illustration on page are typical, but it is expected that in this and other problems, dimensions will be varied to suit conditions. when the size has been determined the leather should be cut a little longer and wider than the final dimensions are to be, to allow for attaching the belt pin or buckle. the strip of leather should be thoroughly soaked in _cold water_ and then rolled in dry cloth until the leather is dry enough for tooling. it is essential that there should be absolute uniformity of moisture. if on applying the tool, water follows pressure, the leather is still too wet. if it should get too dry to retain the mark of the tool it may be sponged on the back. there is danger of water stains, however, if the entire back is not wet. [illustration: two belt designs] _the design._--the illustration shows two treatments. an interlaced pattern is shown in a which concentrates the interest at the ends and in the middle of the back. the pattern shown is tooled solid and the background is left untooled. if the pattern be tooled in outline it is well to shade these outlines out into the background in order to give relief to the interlaced bands. modelled natural forms are shown in b. in this the background is tooled down, but is heaviest at the ends or in the spaces against the raised forms. this gives the background a richer appearance than it has when tooled absolutely flat. both patterns here shown are straight with parallel sides. other shapes are possible--for example, those wider in the middle and tapering toward the ends. when a satisfactory design has been worked out and drawn it is transferred to thin bond paper. the greatest care should be taken not to have any pencil marks on the back of this paper, for they leave a dirty gray stain on the leather which is difficult to remove. it may be added here that whenever it is desired to mark the leather for any purpose a tool should be used, not a pencil. _the process._--as soon as the leather has dried just enough to retain the marks, the pattern should be placed upon it, pencilled side up, allowance being made for trimming to the desired width. the paper may be held in position by thumb tacks, which must not, however, pass through the leather inside the part that is to be cut off. the pattern may now be traced through the paper, over the lines of the drawing, with the round pointed tool. care will have to be exercised to make sure that the pattern is completely transferred to the leather. when this is accomplished the pattern should be removed and the lines, which will be found somewhat dimly traced on the leather, should be immediately deepened by going over them with the same tool. [illustration: method of using the broad tool] the next step is to tool down the design; and in doing this the work should be turned under the tool rather than the tool itself on the work, in order that the pressure of the tool may be applied at the edge of the pattern farthest from the hand. this not only insures a correct and convenient position of the tool, but allows a perfect view of the work. in this part of the process the broad tool should be used, moved sidewise, as shown by the direction of the arrow in the accompanying cut. in working up into corners the narrow tool may be used if necessary. the movement may be described as "ironing the leather down." the surface should not be roughed up or cut up into "shoulders." it is a process requiring time. one should not try to get the full depth with the first pressure of the tool. one should coax the surface and add pressure with each succeeding stroke, taking care that the tool does not scrape. it should glide; and yet, on the other hand, beginners will perhaps need to be cautioned not to wear out the surface by feeble scratching and patting. a firm, even gliding pressure does the work. as the leather dries it will be seen that the tooling has given it a dark, glossy surface. when the process is completed the belt may be trimmed down with a firm, sure cut of the knife, using a straight edge wherever straight lines are desired. to design and tool a mat [illustration: supported and unsupported circles] _the design and the process._--the purpose for which a mat is used requires as one condition of design that there should be a plain surface in the middle. if the general form be square the design at the corners should be strengthened. if circular, the design should be so arranged that it will lend support to the perfect curves of the circle rather than weaken them. in the three outlines given below, c shows a form supporting the circle; d and e show forms tending to weaken the circle. conditions determining size are more variable in this problem than in others, because of the great variety of uses which a mat may serve. in a design like that shown in a of the accompanying illustration, the portions left untooled--_i. e._, the leaves and fruit--may be raised still more by pressing out the leather from the back by means of a tool. to do this the leather should be placed face down in the palm of the hand or on modelling wax, which has been covered with a piece of chamois or sheepskin. then by gently forcing the leather down with a round, blunt tool such as the blunt end of a nut pick the desired relief in the figure may be obtained. after this is done it will probably be necessary to turn the mat over and correct the modelling. in order to preserve the higher relief it is well to back it up with cotton batting, soaked in paste, and finally to cover the entire back with a lining of silk or leather. [illustration: two mat designs] to design and tool a pen wiper a pen wiper consists of a cover, which in this case must be made of leather suitable for tooling, and several leaves of soft material like sheepskin or chamois, which should match the cover in colour. the process of tooling the pen wiper does not differ essentially from that already employed in the foregoing problems. it should, of course, be carried through to completion before the book is made up. these parts are to be tied together with knots of sheepskin thongs of the same colour. [illustration: steps in tying a knot] the series of cuts given below show the progressive steps in forming the knot, which should finally take the shape of figure . after it has been formed the thongs are passed through holes punched in the cover and leaves of the pen wiper, and secured by a second knot formed on the back, resembling figure with the ends cut as close as will leave them securely tied. [illustration: two designs for pen wipers] another illustration gives two suggestions for the design: a, a rectangular pen wiper tied with two knots at the end; b, a circular pen wiper tied with one knot in the middle. in these designs, and indeed in all others, decoration should recognize (not antagonize!) the outer form of the article to which it is applied. this point is made in the illustration. to make a slip cover for a note-book filler [illustration: design for slip cover] _planning the cover._--the object in this problem is to make a permanent protection for fillers. it is well known that the fillers themselves may be purchased for a trifling sum and that they are provided with a backing of stiff paper which is designed to be slipped into a pocket in the back of a leather cover and thus form a neat pocket note-book. it is evident that the dimensions of the filler determine the size of the cover; but, in planning the cover, care should be exercised to allow sufficient play for width, length, and thickness after all the cutting and sewing are done. this means that the stock for the cover and lining should be cut a little larger than called for in the final size. the design illustrated shows both the outside (a) and the inside (b) of the cover. as it is planned the cover is to be lined with sheepskin of harmonizing colour; but this may be left out if desired, though it, of course, gives a much better finish to put it in. _assembling the parts._--the first step after cutting out the leather for the cover is to prepare the leather and tool it, if it is to have any decoration. a piece of leather should be cut for the pocket, and the edge (c) shaped. the edges of the lining and the pocket should next be lightly pasted and pressed on the cover. a line is then to be ruled with a leather tool (not with pencil) on the outside to serve as a guide for stitching. a machine stitch may be employed or it may be done by hand. if by the latter method it will be necessary to pierce the leather at equal distances along the tooled line. hand stitches may safely be a little longer than the machine stitches. [illustration: stitching with two needles] _stitching._--a good way to secure equally spaced stitches by hand sewing is to make use of bow springs or spacing dividers set to the required distance. a more rapid way to accomplish the same thing is possible by making use of a tracing wheel, if one is available of suitable size and of the right spacing between the teeth. the hand stitching may be done either with one needle or with two. if with one it is best to sew a running stitch once around the seam and then return, covering the alternate spaces left on the first round. it is better, however, to use two needles, one on each end of one thread, selected long enough to finish the sewing without piecing it, and to proceed as illustrated in a and b, _i. e._, to draw one needle with its thread through to the middle of the thread, as shown in a, and then the other through the next hole, and so on alternately from opposite directions, producing a stitch like that illustrated in b. it will, of course, be understood that, in the illustration, the length of the stitch is exaggerated in order to show the process plainly. _trimming and finishing._--when the sewing is finished the thread is fastened by doubling over one or two of the stitches and drawing the ends inside between the cover and lining. then a line should be tooled on the cover about / of an inch outside of the stitching, and on this line the cover, lining and pocket are trimmed together. the raw edges may be treated with water colour to give them a finish. finally the cover is moistened a little and folded back with firm pressure in order to establish an even and permanent bend in the leather. to design and make a desk pad _the design._--the problem of design in this case is, first of all, to determine the dimensions of the pad, which depend, of course, upon the use to be made of it. then a dimensioned sketch should be drawn in outline, including the spacing for the corners as illustrated in the drawing (a). the only detail that will need elaboration is the corner. the shape and decoration of one of the corners should be carefully laid out on thin paper, from which in due time it may be transferred to the leather and tooled as in other problems. [illustration: detail of the leather corner] [illustration: outline of desk pad] _material and the process._--for making the pad it will be necessary to secure a piece of binders' board--_i. e._, heavy pulp or straw board--of the required size. the medium weight is the best, and it may generally be obtained at the bookbinder's. if this cannot be obtained, two sheets of -ply card-board may be used instead. the size given in the drawing will carry a half sheet of commercial blotting paper. the edges of the paper board should be bound with passe-partout binding of a colour to harmonize with the leather that is to be used; the strips of binding should be long enough to extend under the leather corners but they need not reach up to the corners of the board. after the binding has been put on, the top of the board should be covered with paper also harmonizing in colour with the leather, and the paper should be cut of such size as to lap over the edge of the binding and yet leave a suitable width of the binding. the so-called "cover papers" will be found satisfactory. _making the corners._--the next step in the process is to lay out and cut the leather corners according to the original design. the form in which the leather is to be cut and the dimensions are shown in the illustration b. the little flap at _x_ should be noted. it is designed to tuck under and close the corner. the edges of leather at _x_ should be "skived" or thinned down so as to add to the neat appearance of the work. further improvement will result from skiving down the edges s r s and t v t of the large flaps, which are to be folded over underneath and pasted down to the back of the board. the ordinary photographers' paste is satisfactory for this work. when the leather corners are placed in position for pasting, two or three thicknesses of blotting paper should be used at each corner, in order to secure the necessary space for the reception of the blotters when the board is in use. after the corners are pasted on, the back of the board should be covered with paper in the same way as the front, care being taken to leave a portion of the binding and leather exposed. finally a number of blotters of full size should be inserted in position under the corners to keep them in shape and the whole placed under light pressure until dry. to design and make a card-case _the design._--in the illustration (a), showing a card-case unfolded, the dimensions give the finished size. the same card-case is illustrated in b somewhat reduced in scale and with the flaps turned in. the design on a is a rectangle broken at the corners. in this case, as it may be with all similar forms, the design is treated as a sort of binding, extending across the middle fold. c shows an alternative design which is treated as a panel and may be placed on one or on both sides of the card-case. the question of which is the top and bottom in such a design as that in c can be determined only by the owner's habit of holding a case. sometimes a monogram is placed in one of the inner flaps, as illustrated in a, or on one of the outer surfaces. [illustration: design for a card-case] _the process._--in cutting the leather for a card-case it is necessary to provide a piece a little larger than the finished dimensions in order to allow for trimming. the design should be transferred, the line of stitching determined, and the tooling done, according to the description already given for the other problems. _the lining._--a card-case may be lined either with silk or with sheepskin, in a colour to harmonize with the outside. if lined with silk it must be trimmed down to size accurately after tooling, great care being exercised to have the sides parallel and the corners true and square. then the silk is to be turned in at the edges and lightly pasted along the edges to a width of / of an inch, care being taken, however, not to paste those portions of the edges that will be visible when the flaps of the cover are turned in, _i. e._, the middle of the fold b. this precaution should be taken because the paste may strike through and spot the lining. the flaps should then be moistened a little and folded down with firm pressure; but before stitching they should be fastened down with a little paste to form pockets. this takes the place of basting and is followed by stitching as described in the problem of the note-book. if lined with sheepskin, the ooze side showing, the cover need not be trimmed down until after the stitching; then both may be trimmed at once. to make a leather purse _the design._--the details of design and construction are shown in the accompanying illustrations. in a the outer flap is shown tooled. it will be noticed that the cap of the snap fastener is taken as the central point in design. the tooling is done as directed in the other examples of this class of work. [illustration: design for a purse] the purse is lined throughout with leather. it has bellows ends, as shown in the perspective at c and in the end view at b. the pattern of the bellows end shown in d is intended to fold in the middle, bringing both ends of the leather together and thus giving an end of double thickness. with thin leather, such as is used in the present instance, this pattern is practicable. if thicker leather be used the bellows must be made of single thickness. in this case the pattern would simply be like that shown in the lower half of d. _the process._--after the lining is pasted to the cover a snap fastener should be attached. proper care, of course, should be taken to see that the fastener comes in the right place so that the purse will fold properly. the cover and lining should then be trimmed and the leather surface ruled for stitching. it is well to fold the inner flap of the purse while it is moist from pasting. finally a little paste is applied along the edges of the bellows ends and they are placed in position. stitching is started at the point e shown in the perspective. hand stitching is the most practicable. the direction is down one side, up the other, and around the outside flap to the other bellows end, stopping at the point f. when the stitching is completed the inside flap should be folded down. to make a limp leather book cover _the design._--the first step is to choose the book to be bound. for the sake of simplicity, as perhaps the first piece of bookbinding undertaken, it should be a folio or "section." and it should be _worth binding in leather_. the subject, the paper, and the typography should be worthy of the distinction. [illustration: typical arrangements suitable for tooled leather covers of books. details of tooling, relief, etc., worked out as in other problems.] _the process._--if the book selected is already bound or "cased" it is necessary first to remove the binding or casing. then at least three fly leaves should be added, made up to match the other leaves of the folio. a piece of bookbinders' linen or buckram is now cut to the size of the open folio, placed upon it like a cover, and, with the fly leaves and the folio itself, stitched through the back with silk of a colour to harmonize with the leather. the next step is to prepare the leather cover. to do this, first place the leather in position on the closed folio and, allowing / of an inch at the top and bottom and / of an inch at the fore edge, mark and cut out the stock for the cover. the decoration, if there is to be any, may now be tooled on. if the design is heavy enough in relief to need a backing, it may be at once filled with cotton batting, pasted in as directed in the problem of the mat, and covered with thin paper. stock for the end papers is now selected. they may be of cover paper, or of silk, and they should harmonize in colour with the leather. they are formed of two thicknesses of the material chosen, by folding it over to fit into the part between the linen and the first fly leaf. if of paper they are to be cut to the length of the folio leaves, but the width is to be left with an allowance for adjustment after the linen is pasted in. if the end leaves are to be of silk, an allowance of / of an inch must be left for turning in at the top, the bottom and the fore edge. we are now ready to paste the linen to the leather. strong paste, with perhaps a little thin glue added, is needed for this part of the process. now paste the outside end leaves to the linen on the inside of the cover; and, if silk has been used for these leaves, paste the other two to the outer fly leaves. finally, the book should be placed under very gentle pressure and kept in this condition until dry. care should be exercised to adjust this pressure to the character of the tooling, if there is any, so as not to crush it. copper work there is a limited field for metal work in home decoration; but there are some things of metal that combine beauty and utility to a remarkable degree and, in their making, introduce us to most interesting operations. beginning with the gate, which may be of wrought iron, or with the door knocker, which may be of antique brass, we may find in every home problems of design involving work in metals. ornamental hinges, key escutcheons, fastenings of various kinds, andirons, and other accessories of the hearth, lamp holders, card trays, crumb trays, bon bon dishes, and many other useful things that may be made in attractive forms readily suggest themselves. how some of these may be made is suggested in the following simple problems: to make a letter rack this is an easy problem. only four constructive operations are required, _viz._, cutting out the stock, sawing the design, bending, and finishing. the illustration shows the form and the dimensions and suggests a simple design. the material required is -gauge soft copper. [illustration: design for a letter rack] the first step in the process is to cut out a strip of copper inches long and inches wide. if necessary the edges may be trimmed even and then the round corners should be cut. the design is traced on strong, thin paper and securely pasted on the copper in the proper position by using cold liquid glue. a hole is drilled through each unit of the design by means of a hand drill, a jewellers' saw inserted, and the design cut. time and patience will be required for this operation. saws are easily broken, and new ones must be attached to the saw frame and again applied to the work. after sawing the design it is necessary to give the edges a smooth finish. this is done with a file. the surface which is to form the inside of the rack is then thoroughly cleaned and polished with water and pumice. the copper is now ready to be bent to the required shape. to do this prepare a block of hard wood inches long and inches wide, grip it in a bench vise, and clamp the strip of copper squarely across the block in such a position that the sides may be bent over the edges of the block. when this has been done it only remains to clean the outside surface and finish it on the felt buffing wheel. if a fine polish is desired, the buffing should be preceded by careful grinding with a scotch water stone and water. to make a letter opener this requires the same kind of material as the letter rack and the same operations, with the addition of riveting. after the stock is cut out, trimmed and trued up at the edges, an outline of the design is pasted on, as in the previous problem, and the design cut out. the top is then bent over and riveted with a copper tack, having shaped the head of the tack in the vise before inserting it. while the tack is being riveted the finished head should be protected by placing it on a lead block. finally the edge should be filed to the shape shown in the cross section, and the whole cleaned and polished. [illustration: design for a letter opener] to make a hat pin for this problem -gauge copper will be needed. the operations required are cutting out, sawing, and soft soldering. after the necessary stock has been cut to the required shape and the edges filed, the design is outlined, pasted on, sawed, and finished as before. it is desirable to grind with the scotch stone and water to a good polish. the head will then be ready to be attached to the pin. [illustration: the hat pin] carefully scrape with a knife the portions of the surface where the pin is to be attached (shown in the drawing), select a steel pin of desired length, scrape the surface of the little disk attached to one end of it, apply to this disk a little soldering paste by means of a small stick, and then, with a gas (or alcohol) blowpipe, melt on a bit of soft solder, which should cover the whole disk. now place the copper, outside face down, on an asbestos pad, applying the soldering paste to the central portion, place the disk with its bit of solder on this portion of the copper, and fuse as before. when the copper has cooled, clean off the oxide, which will have formed, by dipping in diluted sulphuric acid, and polish on the buffing wheel. to make a belt pin [illustration: the belt pin] eighteen-gauge copper is required for this problem. the operations are like those for the hat pin except that hard soldering is necessary. the slight bending of the copper, required in this case, is done by means of a horn mallet and a sand pad. for hard soldering, the surface must be scraped as before and covered with a little borax ground in water and applied with a small brush. the belt plate should then be placed on the asbestos pad, with its convex face down, and blocked up so that the end where the soldering is to be done is horizontal. the catch should then be placed in position with a small piece of silver solder at the base. the solder should be melted as before by means of a mouth blowpipe and gas or alcohol flame. the hinge is soldered on in the same way, and finally the pin is cleaned and polished for use. to make a set of book ends this problem is much like the first one described under metal work. sixteen-gauge copper is required. it may be bent by placing it between two hard wood blocks in a vise and hammering it with a rawhide mallet. [illustration: design for book ends] to make a teapot stand [illustration: design for a teapot stand] twenty-gauge copper is required for this problem. the operations are similar to those already described; but the cutting and bending are much more difficult. after determining the design it will be necessary to make a drawing showing fully developed surfaces, as illustrated in the detail of the corner. the four corners must be marked and cut exactly as shown in the drawing. a piece of hard wood is then cut to the size of the top, inches square in this case, to be used as a form on which to bend down the sides and turn the flanges. if the corners are correctly cut the parts will fall naturally into place, to be bored and riveted, as the drawing plainly shows. in order to protect the tablecloth, the under side of the rivet holes should be countersunk so that the ends of the rivets may be finished smooth and flush with the under surface. as an additional protection, a felt mat may be glued on the bottom. [illustration: detail of a corner] to make a watch fob this problem introduces engraving and enamelling, two interesting but somewhat difficult operations. the process to be carried out is as follows: using -gauge copper, saw the outline, and apply the design for the part to be enamelled to the copper by sketching it with a pencil or transferring it by means of carbon paper. then strengthen the pencil or carbon lines by scratching lightly with a scratch awl. imbed this fob in pitch, either in a pitch bowl or in a small quantity of pitch placed on a piece of board clamped to the bench or table. using an engraving tool, remove the copper from the spot to be enamelled to the depth of / of an inch. it is well to have the bottom of the spot reasonably level but not necessarily smooth and the sides slightly undercut. before applying the flux, clean, by pouring a small quantity of concentrated nitric acid over the cut and immediately rinsing it off under the water tap. flux should be kept in a closed jar under water after grinding, and taken out as needed on the tip of a small strip of copper previously cleaned with acid. enough flux should be applied to cover the bottom of the spot to be enamelled; but the depth of the spot must not be filled up. [illustration: design for a watch fob] now place the fob on a piece of wire gauze on an iron tripod, and apply the flame of the blowpipe to the under side. heat very slowly until all the water is driven off, then force the heat until the flux is fused. allow it to cool slowly, then remove any flux that may have adhered to the surface of the fob by grinding with scotch stone. clean with acid as before, fill the spot with enamel in the same manner as the flux was applied, and fuse again. after fusing, the surface should be stoned again to remove inequalities and again fused, cleaned with water and buffed on the wheel. if it is desired to apply enamel to sterling silver the flux may be omitted and the enamel applied directly, but the silver should be cleaned with sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid, and great care should be used in heating as the fusing point of silver is but little above that of enamel. the depth of the engraving on the silver need not be as great as on the copper. to make a card tray eighteen-gauge copper should be used for this problem, and two new operations, _viz._, raising and chasing, are introduced. after cutting out a circular piece of copper to the diameter indicated, allowing one half an inch extra for raising, it is annealed by heating it to red heat under the blowpipe flame and cooling by dipping in a sulphuric acid pickle bath. a circle indicating the inner edge of the rim is lightly scratched, and a hard wood block is cut on the end grain to the shape indicated in the sketch, and placed in a vise. now holding the copper on the block, it is raised to shape with the round end of the roughing hammer. it is well to anneal frequently. [illustration: design for a card tray] after shaping, the design may be applied by means of transfer paper and the lines lightly scratched on the surface. then imbed the tray in pitch and outline the design by following the lines with a narrow chasing tool. reverse the tray on the pitch and, with a chasing tool of suitable shape, raise the body of the design to the height desired. reverse on the pitch again and with a flat tool true the outlines and smooth the background. remove from the pitch, trim the edge of the tray if it is forced out of line, clean with pumice stone and buff. [illustration: method of shaping with the hammer] all the foregoing articles may be agreeably coloured by painting them with, or immersing them in, a weak solution (boiling) of liver of sulphur. if soft solder has not been used, another pleasing finish may be secured by applying a thin coat of lubricating oil and heating gently until the oil is volatilized. an antique green or verdigris finish may be obtained by painting with a mixture of acetic acid and copper carbonate. several coats may be necessary; and it is desirable to lacquer the surface to ensure permanency. work in other materials a candle shade the materials and tools for this problem are six ply card-board in dull shades of gray, brown or green, and with mat surface; japanese paper of average thickness; passe-partout binding a little darker than the card-board and of harmonizing colour; paste; a penknife with a thin blade; and a water colour outfit. of the drawings included in the group on the opposite page one shows a development of the surface of the candle shade which is the subject of this problem. referring to the elevation it will be seen that if the edges ae and dh be continued until they meet at o, oe and oh are really equal to the radii of the outer arc of the development shown in the upper part of the group, and oa and od, to the radii of the inner arc. this upper developed surface really forms the pattern of the candle shade. [illustration: details of candle shade] the decoration consists of openings cut through the card-board segments. these are covered with japanese paper, thus allowing light to pass through, but adding the effect of colour. a margin of / of an inch is allowed along the openings, the remaining spaces being divided by partitions of card-board, as shown in the different typical designs at the right of the illustration. it will be noticed that the group of openings forming the decoration of one side conforms in the main to the shape of that side. it will also be noticed that there is a variety of size and shape in the openings, but that they all show a certain unity and harmony of space division. the openings are cut with a penknife, care being taken to make as clean a cut as possible. japanese paper, of pale green, orange, or some suitable light colour, is pasted under the openings. the process of pasting is one that requires some care. it is well to paste only a portion of the pasteboard at a time taking care not to use more paste than necessary and not to let any get over the edges of the openings. the paper should be pressed on while the paste is still moist, and the paper itself should, of course, not be pasted at all. it should be placed with colour side next to the openings. when the paste is dry the card-board should be lightly scored on the lines ae, bf, etc., and bent on these lines, bringing the sectors together into the form of the shade and fastening them at the top and bottom temporarily with a bit of passe-partout binding. if the binding is of the ordinary width ( / of an inch), it should be cut lengthwise into two strips of equal width, to be used for mounting the edges. no attempt should be made to run the binding along more than one edge. the separated strips should then be cut the exact length for each top and bottom edge and applied one at a time. then the side edges are bound, with the apex of the angle at the middle of the binding. when the binding is firmly fastened it is carefully trimmed off at the top and bottom. electric light pendants [illustration: a seven-light fixture] two designs for such pendants are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. they were derived from suggestions in the _craftsman_, and were successfully worked out in remodelling a house. the seven-light fixture consists of a circular pendant-board about inches in diameter, made from -inch plain oak stock, cut into -degree segments and, with splined joints, glued up to form a circular piece which was turned up on a large lathe. an open space inches in diameter was left in the larger circle, which was covered by a cup-shaped cap turned from plain oak stock and attached to the larger circle by screws. the considerable opening covered by this cap contained the cut out and the wiring necessary for connecting with each of the seven lights. seven medium-sized hooks of composition metal were procured which had large, coarse threaded screws. a / -inch hole was drilled lengthwise through the shanks of these hooks. holes were bored near the centre of the arc of each segment in the board circle to receive these hooks. when the fixture was assembled the wires for each light were carried from the cut out across a channel made for that purpose on the upper surface of the board, passed down through the hole in the shank of the hook, woven into the links of the chain pendant and connected with the corresponding bulb socket after passing through another hook, like those described above, which linked the socket to the chain. as a finish around the hooks shallow cups of beaten copper were fashioned over a wooden form, turned for the purpose, and oxidized to a tone somewhat darker than the brown of the oak board. copper cups in a conventional petal design were made to place over each of the bulbs. the chains were also oxidized to conform with the other metal work. the entire combination was satisfactory. [illustration: a five-light fixture] another design for the dining-room of the same house and much easier to construct is also illustrated. it will be observed that the square form instead of the circle is carried out consistently in the woodwork and metal caps. these caps and the chains are in natural brass of a dull finish. the shades are of ground glass, decorated with a flower design in heavy black lines. the central light has a larger shade than the others, wholly enclosed. in this one is placed a red incandescent bulb for use whenever such decorative effect is desired. decorative forgings in the story of the designing and building of the model house reference was made to contributions from the forge shop. among these were the andirons, door knocker, lantern bracket, and other articles shown in the accompanying illustrations. it should be understood that all wrought iron work that has any reality in it requires an equipment especially adapted to its production. there must be a good forge and fire, an anvil, and proper tools, all in the hands of a workman of some experience and skill. successful forge work can hardly be considered among the handicrafts easily adapted to the needs of the amateur working without instruction and with poor equipment. but with good tools, proper equipment, and a little experience any clever boy will be able to design and fashion many useful articles for the home which have real artistic merit. [illustration: decorative forgings. plate xvi] for the fireplace, in addition to andirons, there may be made the shovel, poker, and tongs, and possibly the old-fashioned crane and pot hooks. other fixtures that may be made are ceiling hooks, lantern brackets for the wall or for lantern posts, standards for the newel post, the hall lantern or the porch lantern, the latch and the knocker for the door, and, if the architectural design permits, hinges, plates, and bolts for the door. this list by no means exhausts the uses of wrought iron in house decoration. it may be extended to include draw pulls, key escutcheons, furniture handles and hinges of great variety, nails with ornamental heads for use with heavy construction, and many small articles such as trivets for steam kettles, toasting forks, candle holders, and many other useful articles which have also decorative value. xii concluding suggestions country homes to know what you prefer, instead of humbly saying amen to what the world tells you you ought to prefer, is to have kept your soul alive.--_robert louis stevenson_ keen observers of american customs, who have studied the development of our taste in house designing and furnishing, tell us that the best expression of our art in architecture and home decoration is to be found in our country homes. they do not overlook, of course, a beautiful public building in this city or that, perhaps ten altogether, or an occasional private residence on millionaire avenue, which are monuments to the genius of the men who created them and of which any country may be proud. what they mean is that as a people we seek and secure the right combination of utility and beauty in our homes more frequently in the country than in the city. at first thought such a criticism may seem to be an exaggeration. is it reasonable, we ask, that people of good sense, such as most americans are, really succeed better in planning, building, and decorating the houses which they are to occupy but a few weeks in the summer than they do in developing their city homes? we are told that it is true and that there are good reasons for it. _simplicity of country life._--it is the life in the country and at the seashore that is the simple life, the natural life, the life that sets us free from the accumulated burden of mere "things." here we come to forget for a time the many and find pleasure in the few. here we are to feel the joy of living. nature is all about us, and she gives of her bounty freely. our wants are few because we are so well satisfied with the free gifts. what wants we have keep step with our needs here as they do nowhere else. we care less for what others have; we are more individual, more rational. here we generally demand what we really need and we more frequently obtain it. and this is true whether it be something that appeals to the æsthetic side of our natures or whether it be that which ministers to our material needs. in seeking the beautiful for the simple home in the country we do not so often forget the useful; for here, away from the world of museums and studios and collections, we learn that art is possible without paintings and statuary. in the exterior form and colouring of the shingled cottage, set like a gem on the hillside or by the sea, in the harmonious arrangement of its interiors, with every article of furniture chosen only for use and comfort and placed where needed, and with decorations, cheerful but restrained and subordinate, suggestive of more glorious colours and more interesting things in the world without--in such surroundings we have beauty and utility combined. here we have the time and the opportunity to realize the truth that all art is one and that it may find in the problems of decoration in the country home, if not its highest mission, its most open field for giving to appreciative people the pleasure of seeing and enjoying the beautiful. _opportunities for constructive art._--if it be true that there is a more universal recognition of the true principles of art in the better class of our country homes than in our city homes, it is proof, if proof be needed, that the elements of art expression are found in the simple, natural materials of every-day life. it may be that in the development of art amid simple surroundings "necessity is the mother of invention," and that, more or less naturally, simplicity is thrust upon us. the general habit of our time is to extend the vacation period in the country or at the seashore to the point of making a home there for every summer season. but only a few can carry wealth and elegance with them. a great majority must be satisfied with simple and inexpensive homes. at first we accept them as the only thing possible, and then we discover that in their very simplicity they offer the best of opportunities for true æsthetic expression. and this opportunity is largely for the younger members of the family--for the boys and girls whose vacation period is more extended, whose interest in the summer home is perhaps the more vital and whose imagination is the more susceptible to the art suggestions of nature. we have seen that it is possible for boys and girls to build and furnish a house under the exacting requirements of city life. how much easier it must be to build a cottage for the summer season, decorating and furnishing it in harmony with the simple needs of a vacation home. if such a suggestion meet with acceptance, those who undertake the work will find much practical help in the problems outlined in the foregoing chapters. it is not expected, of course, that the directions there given will always be exactly followed. in the furniture problems, for example, soft woods like pine and spruce may be substituted for the harder woods specified. very attractive as well as very useful simple furniture has been made in this way at a merely nominal expense. staining and finishing may easily bring it into harmony with colour schemes; but the bright, fresh colour of new pine and spruce is in itself by no means unattractive. the smooth, exposed beams of the ceilings and walls, if of well chosen stock, may be stained a beautiful gray green or a soft brown. a good colour suggestion may be found in the weathered gray of the hewn timbers of very old buildings. the effect of a ceiled-up wall or of a dado may be easily obtained by stretching burlap or denim over the studding or over a backing of inexpensive sheathing. these materials are very durable and inexpensive, and they may be found in a great variety of beautiful shades. they make excellent portières. a lighter, thinner material like scrim is better for window draperies. all these fabrics afford good surfaces for decoration by stencilling. stained or painted soft wood floors, covered with grass cloth rugs or the more dainty hand woven rugs like those described in the chapter on weaving, with simple, useful furniture, a picture or two, and a few choice pieces of pottery, complete the equipment for a charming living room. if it all be the product of home industry, the cash outlay for the material need not be over forty dollars, though an outlay of ten times that amount for better materials would not in the least interfere with such a room being decorated and furnished by the unaided labours of the amateur artists and craftsmen of the family. [illustration: a fireplace in field rock] the chief expense would naturally be for the living room, dining-room, and kitchen. the dining-room, however, may well be simply a corner or alcove of a large living room. such an arrangement greatly increases the value of a single fireplace, which will be required to give the summer home the sense of perfect comfort. this may be of rough field rock and should be large enough to take one-cut fireplace wood. the chamber furnishings may be very simple indeed. furniture dealers make a point of supplying beds, bureaus, chairs, and cabinets of simple design, unfinished, so that the purchaser may stain them to harmonize with any desired colour scheme. but such furniture, or good substitutes for it, can be made very inexpensively. for example, the stock for a good bed will not cost over seventy-five cents. cases provided with shelves and curtains in place of drawers, made at a cash outlay possibly of one dollar, will serve for bureaus. the cost of materials for building an eight-room cottage in every way satisfactory need not exceed five hundred dollars; and such a cottage could be beautifully furnished by clever boys and girls at an expense for materials of one hundred and fifty or perhaps two hundred dollars. [illustration: an inexpensive bed] in the exterior finishing of summer cottages nature generally needs very little assistance. no colours harmonize so well with the gray rocks, sere fields and marshes, and the evergreen trees by the seashore, as the weathered grays of the shingled cottage. the window frames, door frames and facings, painted to preserve them, may be of the same colour or in dull green or brown, plainly marking the outlines of the house but without unpleasant contrasts. a stained roof in slate gray or creosote brown is also in keeping. the underpinning and outside chimneys in the field rock of the locality are eminently fitting. the house among the hills will stand more colour because the colours of nature are richer, especially in the autumn season. but wherever the house may be, it should repeat in its larger surfaces the prevailing colour tones of its natural setting. it should seem to fit into its surroundings as if it belonged there and would always remain there, a part of the simple, natural beauty all around it. [illustration: a country house] the country life press, garden city, n. y. [transcriber's notes: spelling is the same mix of us/uk as others in series (eg color/colour) corrected obvious typos: tell -> tells arrrangement -> arrangement croheted -> crocheted stenciling -> stencilling on account -> on account of will be be -> will be retain -> and retains expecially -> especially portières/portieres found with and w/o accent in equal parts (left as in text in each case) hyphenation made consistent: wood-work -> woodwork outdoor -> out-door ] how to prepare and serve a meal and interior decoration by lillian b. lansdown contents how to prepare and serve a meal chapter i. before the meal is served ii. enter the waitress iii. breakfast iv. luncheons v. the informal (home) dinner vi. the formal dinner vii. afternoon teas viii. suppers ix. outside the eighteenth amendment x. carving hints xi. planning a menu xii. menus for a thanksgiving, a christmas and a lenten dinner interior decoration i. lines and curves ii. form, color and proportion iii. individual rooms of the house iv. living-room, drawing-room and library v. bed room, nursery and play room vi. some hints anent period furniture chapter i before the meal is served before the meal which is to be served comes from the kitchen by way of the butler's pantry to the dining room, there are many things to be considered. the preparation of the meal (not the process of its cooking, but its _planning_ as a composite whole) and all the various details which precede the actual sitting down at the table of those who expect to enjoy it, must be seen to. the preparation of the meal, its _menu_, will be dealt with later, in connection with the meal itself. for the present we will concentrate on its preparatory aspects. in the butler's pantry the butler's pantry is the connecting link between kitchen and dining room. it is at the same time an arsenal and a reserve line, equipped with requisites to meet all emergencies. the perfect butler's pantry should contain everything, from vegetable brushes for cleaning celery to a galvanized refuse can. in between come matches, bread boards, soap, ammonia and washing soda, a dish drainer, every kind of towel, cheesecloth and holder, strainers (for tea, coffee and punch), ice water, punch and soup pitchers of enamel ware, the tools and seasonings for salad making, cut-glass brushes, and knives of different sizes. in the butler's pantry the soiled linen should be kept, if possible in a hamper, if not, in a bag. there should also be a towel rack, an electric or hot-water heater for keeping food hot and--we are speaking of the ideal pantry, of course--a small icebox where table butter, cream and salad dressing may be kept, and plates chilled for serving cold dishes. adding a linen closet with shelves, a chest of drawers (for tablecloths, napkins, doilies, centerpieces, etc.) and the necessary shelves for china and glass (hang your cups and save space!), and we may leave the butler's pantry and enter the dining room. before anything edible comes to the table we will not waste time on directions regarding the laying of the tablecloth. only remember that it must form a true line through the center of the table (your "silence cloth" had best be of table padding, a doubled cotton flannel or asbestos) and not hang below the table less than nine inches. the usual arrangement of the centerpiece in the center of the table (the table itself being immediately under the light, unless the waitress is thereby prevented from moving between the table and sideboard) with its dish of fruit or ferns or flowers (never so high as to cut off view or conversation) can be varied to suit individual taste. but the covers (the plates, glasses, napkin and silver of each individual) must always be in line, opposite each other on the opposite sides of the table. the plate doilies indicate the covers when a bare table is laid. the service plate which each person receives stays where put unless it is replaced by a hot plate. napkins, silver, china and glass napkins (fold flat and square) lie at the left of the forks. the hem of the napkin, turned up, should parallel the forks and the table edge. when dinner is served without a maid, everything yields to avoiding leaving the table. in that case put on the dessert silver (which otherwise should not be done) with the other dinner silver. place all silver in its order of use, and remember that three forks are enough. if more are needed let them appear with the courses which demand them. the quietest and therefore most desirable way of putting the dessert silver on the table, is to serve it from a napkin, from the right. knives should have their cutting edge toward the plate, at its right, and lie half an inch from the table edge. spoons, bowls facing upward, lie at the right of the knife; forks at the left of the plate. when shell food is served (clams, oysters or mussels) the fork is placed at the right of the plate. the upper right-hand side of the bread and butter plate is the place for the butter spreader. in general do not arrange your cover too loosely, and see to it that the glass, china and silver for each cover sets close without the pieces touching. glasses are placed just above the knives, a little to the right. neither cups nor glasses should ever be filled to the brim. the bread and butter plate (bread and butter are, as a rule, _not_ served with _formal_ dinners) somewhat to the left, beyond the service plate. between each two covers, or just in front of each, place your pepper and salt sets. the salt spoon lies across the open saltcellar. when the table is set for some impromptu meal at which a knife will not be used, the fork takes the place of the knife at the right-hand side, and the teaspoon is laid beside the fork. desirable improvements no one wants to see the inner economy of the butler's pantry, nor should the perhaps fragrant but cloying odors of the kitchen be wafted into the dining room whenever the swingdoor of the pantry opens or closes. the screen obviates both disadvantages. another improvement has been the introduction of the serving table in place of the sideboard. it now conveniently holds all the extras needed for the meal. chapter ii enter the waitress the waitress has already been busy, as we have seen, laying the cloth and covers for the meal. now, however, she must live up more closely to the implied meaning of her name. either the hostess or the daughter of the family who is acting as waitress, or the waitress herself announces the meal. for informal service, with a member of the family acting as a waitress, the former may quietly leave the table to attend to the bringing on or carrying off of a course, or to supplying water, butter, etc. but the same care and attention to everyone's needs is expected of her as of a regular waitress. water, butter, rolls, bread, etc., should never have to be asked for. within reach of hand the waitress should always have a soft napkin to remove any liquid spilled during the meal, at once covering the spot with a fresh doily. she must see to it that there are hot plates for hot dishes, and chilled plates for cold ones. the maid at the table the waitress should serve and remove everything, except beverages and extra silver from the guest's _left_. fork and spoon should always be easily at hand for the person served, and dishes should _never_ be offered and removed by _reaching across a cover_. remove glasses, cups and saucers from the _right_, and serve all beverages from the right. plates should be placed and removed, one by one. two plates of food (especially salads or soup) may be brought into the dining room at the same time, but _one should be left on the serving table_. the host is served last, the hostess first, then the guest of honor (at the hostess' right), then the guest at the right of the host, and so on till all have been served. waitresses should _not_ grasp the edge of the plate or put the thumb over the rim in placing or handling. the left hand should always be used for removing plates. take away with each course whatever is needed for a later one, large dishes of food, soiled china, glass and silver. then crumb the table with a small plate and clean, folded napkin. when serving dishes of food do so with a dinner napkin folded square on the palm of the hand. the serving dish should be held firmly and not too high. if necessary steady with right hand on edge of dish. close contact with the person served always should be avoided. the serving tray comes into its own for removing or passing cream and sugar, pepper and salt, etc. candies, salted nuts, water and wineglasses stay on the table until the meal is over. in clearing the table remove glass and silver first, brush up crumbs which may have fallen on the floor, and carefully shake, fold and put away the table linen. chapter iii breakfast breakfast is the first meal of the american day. it should be daintily and deftly served. fruit, cereal and some main dish (bacon, fish, eggs) together with toast, hot rolls or muffins, coffee, tea or cocoa, are its main essentials. the bare, doilied table is popular for breakfast use. breakfast fruit fresh pears, plums, peaches, apricots, nectarines, mandarins and apples are all served in the same manner--on a plate about six inches across, with a silver fruit knife for quartering and peeling. if a waitress serves, fruit knife and plate are placed first, and then the dish containing the fruit is passed. berries--raspberries, blackberries, blueberries, strawberries, as also baked apples, stewed fruits (peaches, prunes and apricots) and all cooked fruits, are offered in little fruit dishes on service plates, together with powdered (or fine granulated) sugar and cream. strawberries are sometimes left unhulled, when of "exhibition" size. they then should be served in apple bowls or plates, with powdered sugar on the side. in serving grapes, the waitress, after supplying fruit plates, passes a compote containing the grapes and offers fruit shears, so that each guest may cut what he or she desire. cherries are served in the same manner, with the addition of a finger bowl. when grapefruit is served, it is usually as a half, the core removed and sugar added, on a fruit plate or in a grapefruit bowl, together with an orange spoon. oranges may be served from a compote, whole, and may be eaten cut crosswise in halves, with the orange spoon; or peeled and eaten in sections. if oranges are served peeled and sliced on a fruit plate they may be eaten with a fork. sugar should always be passed when they are eaten in this way. orange juice is the extracted juice served in small glasses two-thirds full. cantaloupe (filled with cracked ice) and honeydew melon (it is smart to accompany the latter with a slice of lemon) are served in halves or quarters, on fruit plates (or special melon dishes) and eaten with a fruit spoon. sugar, salt and pepper should be offered with these by the waitress. watermelon is usually cut in wedges or circles. it should always be served very cold, on a large fruit plate, and with fruit knife and fork. if half-melons are served, with the rind, the host cuts egg-shaped pieces from the fruit, and places it on individual plates for passing by the waitress. bananas may be served "in the skin" at breakfast, or peeled and sliced, with sugar and cream, or sprinkled with sugar and lemon juice. shredded pineapple, sprinkled with sugar, or sliced pineapple (slices an inch thick) may be served from a large dish by the waitress. fruit at breakfast does not _necessarily_ demand a waitress. in may be served at each cover before the guests and family seat themselves. it does call for a finger bowl, however. only when berries or sliced fruits are served can the finger bowl be omitted. cereals cereals are a matter of personal taste. cooked cereals, such as oatmeal, rolled oats, hominy, corn-meal mush and cracked wheat should come on the table hot, and be served in bowls with sugar (brown sugar, if preferred) and cream. again, the host may serve the cereal from a large porringer, the waitress bringing him the individual bowls, and taking them to the guests when filled. dry cereals are served in the same way. puffed grains or flakes gain crispness and flavor when reheated, _not browned_, before serving. toast the best breakfast toast is that made at the table over an electric toaster. be sure, if you have french toast, hot cakes or waffles served, that they come from the kitchen _hot_. a perforated silver cover should cover the plate containing them to prevent their cooling. _never use a soup plate or bowl for the purpose!_ the steam cannot escape and the toast grows soggy. do not forget syrup when waffles, hot cakes or french toast are served. some prefer cinnamon and sugar to syrup with hot cakes, and they should also be on hand. bacon bacon is the ideal breakfast meat. the rasher of bacon should be served piping hot on a hot silver platter, in crisp, curling slices. incidentally, it should be just as crisp when it appears with a favorite companion, as "bacon and eggs." eggs cooked in the shell (medium or soft-boiled) eggs should be served in an egg cup or egg glass, on a plate, and _under cup or glass_. each egg thus served should be accompanied by a silver egg cutter and (unless there is plenty of silver at the cover) a silver spoon. a vegetable dish or a small plate will do for the hard-boiled egg. poached eggs appear in individual shirred egg dishes, to the left of each cover, on small plates with service spoon. scrambled eggs are served in individual portions, as above; or distributed by the host from a large platter, and passed by the waitress. omelet should be served on a large platter with hot individual service plates before the host. the waitress may pass the individual portions or--it is customary with scrambled eggs--they may be passed from host to guest around the table. coffee coffee is the favorite and logical breakfast drink, though some prefer tea, cocoa and milk. the breakfast coffee service should be placed before the hostess. in its most attractive form it comprises a large silver tray, which holds coffee (or percolator), the hot-water pot, creamer, sugar bowl with tongs, and cups and saucers. (there may also be a bowl for the water used to heat the cups.) when tea is the breakfast beverage the samovar takes the place of the percolator. the large silver service platter may be dispensed with, if desired, in favor of a tile to hold the coffee urn, the other components of the service being grouped about it. there is a charming touch of intimacy about coffee made at the table with an electric percolator, poured by the hostess and passed at the table (or by a waitress). when the hostess pours she should at the same time ask the guest's preferences (those of members of the family are supposed to be known) as regards cream and sugar. cream and sugar always enter the cup _first_! the true coffee-drinker at once notices a difference in flavor if the coffee first be poured, and the cream and sugar added. for the children if the children eat breakfast with the family, a regular child's service, with attractive little knives and spoons should be provided, and his whole service, preferably, should be arranged on a tray near the table's edge. every child likes to have his own porridge bowl, his mug and little milk pitcher, and having his own table tools teaches him to be neat and self-reliant. chapter iv luncheons the informal luncheon the informal luncheon or lunch--originally the light meal eaten between breakfast and dinner, but now often taking the place of dinner, the fashionable hour being one (or half after if cards are to follow)--is of two kinds. the "buffet" luncheon, at which the guests eat standing; and the luncheon served at small tables, at which the guests are seated. (in general all that is here said with regard to the "buffet" luncheon, applies to the "buffet" supper or evening "spread." the only actual difference is that lighted candles may be used at an evening luncheon, and that the daytime luncheon may offer courses more variegated and solid in character than would be suitable for evening eating.) plates, silver and napkins are conveniently arranged on a laid table in the case of the "buffet" lunch. one or two hot and one or two cold dishes (according to the number of guests who are to be fed), and one or two iced desserts with one cream or jelly in mold should be sufficient. the knife is tabooed at the "buffet" lunch, hence all the food must be such as can be eaten with fork or spoon. as a rule, friends of the hostess serve (host and hostess may help), though, if convenient, waitresses may see to the wants of the guests. to keep the table from looking crowded, maids may replenish the dishes from pantry or serving table as may be necessary. plates of sandwiches or filled rolls (not too far from the table edge) olives and relishes should also be arranged on the table, though cakes, candies and salted nuts may be passed by the maids. the rolls go with the hot course, the sandwiches with the salad. when a "buffet" lunch is served at a big reception, with any number of guests coming and going, all the buffet refreshments should appear on the table at the same time. the following dishes cover the essentials of a "buffet" luncheon. beverages: punch, coffee, chocolate (poured from urn, or filled cups brought from pantry on tray); hot entrees of various sorts (served from chafing dish or platter) preceded by hot bouillon; cold entrees, salads, lobster, potatoes, chicken, shrimp, with heavy dressings; hot rolls, wafer-cut sandwiches (lettuce, tomato, deviled ham, etc.); small cakes, frozen creams and ices. the informal luncheon at small tables calls for service by a number of maids, hence the "buffet" plan is preferable. the formal luncheon a "luncheon set" (a luncheon cloth or center-piece with doilies of the same color and design) or a bare table may be used for the formal luncheon, with special luncheon napkins, in a three-cornered fold. butter is not usually served, the individual dishes (filled) are placed at the top of the plate without doily, and if a "cup" of some sort is to be served, an apollinaris glass is placed a little below the water glass. bread and rolls had best be passed, though they may be placed in or on a napkin, instead of a bread dish. favors, if used, should appear at the top of the plate, or grouped about the center-piece, with connecting ribbons to the plates. this is an attractive form of arrangement. dishes of candies and bonbons (with bonbon spoon beside them) are placed on the table at will, wherever they make the best appearance, but large dishes with spoon must be taken from the serving table and passed. the formal luncheon menu the cocktail is the preliminary entering wedge of the formal luncheon. some hostesses serve a light cocktail with very thin sandwiches or wafers in their drawing room before luncheon proper is served. at the latter the fruit cocktail (served on small plate, with doily, glass and spoon) or a lobster or scallop cocktail (oyster fork) is followed by the first course. here there is a wide choice--cream of pea soup with or without croutons, lobster bisque, mock turtle, consomme (parmesan or chicken), white soup with wine--whatever best fits in with the general scheme of the luncheon may be served. the handles of the bouillon cup, when it is placed before the guest, should parallel the edge of the table. the passing of bread sticks, olives and radishes should precede the removal of the bouillon cup, and the placing before the guest of the warmed plates for the fish. here we have the same embarrassment of riches. deviled crabs, fried sardines, fish cutlets with dutch sauce, fried shad roe, oyster and mushroom patties, halibut in any style, together with rolls (passed in napkins) and dressed cucumbers will answer for the fish course. before the meat course the claret cup should be poured, the waitress ready with napkin in her left hand to catch any drops which may spill from the pitcher. we will merely indicate five choices for the _piece de resistance_ of the formal luncheon, . fillets of beef, with raisin sauce, parisian potatoes (ball-shaped) and french peas. . broiled wild duck, curried vegetables, and currant jelly sauce. . fried chicken with tomato mayonnaise, steamed new potatoes and boiled green corn. . squab breasts larded around hot ripe olives, with brown sauce, and potato croquettes with peas. . roast saddle of venison, with saute potato balls and broiled tomatoes with horseradish hollandaise sauce. none of these combinations should disappoint a formal luncheon guest. when this course is over, the salad should be substituted for the dinner plate which has been removed. the salad is by no means the least attractive among the courses. you may have pepper and fruit salad, with nut-bread sandwiches or an asparagus salad with lemon rings. you may incline to spring salad with horseradish sandwiches or to dressed lettuce with cheese-bread wafers. or, again, you may prefer chicory salad with cheese croquettes. you have but to choose. with the passing of the salad and its sandwiches, salt and pepper sets are removed, the table is crumbed and the ice-cream plates are laid out, together with ice-cream forks and spoons. will you have maroon ice cream with sponge drops or a tutti-frutti ice? canton mousse with cream cones, or orange cream sherbet with chocolate petits fours? chocolate parfait with lady fingers or frozen neapolitan charlotte with marshmallow wafers? you must exercise your individual choice among these and a hundred others. the passing of the finger-bowl service (plate, bowl and doily) precedes the appearance of the demi-tasse, and the passing of candies and bonbons. (at less formal luncheons, the hostess pours the coffee at the table. when this is done the service usually is placed before her when the dessert course ends.) the more formal luncheon dictates that coffee be served in the drawing room. here the waitress passes the after-dinner coffee which the hostess pours. if it seems preferrable to serve coffee at the table, the waitress, after she has placed the finger-bowl service, puts the coffee at the guest's left hand, and passes him cream and sugar. when he has removed his finger bowl the guest uses the plate for his bonbons. chapter v the informal (home) dinner the setting of the table for the home dinner follows the general rules already given. as it is a quite informal affair, however, the side dish (never seen at a formal dinner) is permissible. dessert, too, may be served in a small dish set in a plate. a carving cloth (for _paterfamilias_ usually carves at the home dinner) protects the tablecloth from spatters and bits of crisp fat which the most skillful carver cannot always avoid sending over the dish. if a maid serves, she should always have an extra plate, one more than the number of individuals to be served. she will need it. a salad served with meat, at an informal dinner, is placed on the right side, _from the right_, the exception to the rule of serving from the left. vegetables, once served, are taken back to the kitchen, to keep them warm. if a second serving is desired, the mistress rings. suit yourself about having the serving silver placed on the table _before_ the dish to be served is carried in. the latest wrinkle--and it is a time and step-saving one--dictates that the silver be brought in on a platter. the soup, to be served hot (it should always be served in soup plates at dinner and never in bouillon cups) must be brought in after the family have taken their places. a family dinner may be served quite comfortably even without a maid. the table set and the service laid, the younger members of the family should attend to her duties. one may bring in the soup, hot, in individually heated plates. another may fill the water glasses, pass butter or sauces and remove dishes between courses. the most convenient way of serving vegetables, under these circumstances, is for some member of the family next the carver to attend to it, as soon as meat has been laid on the plate. it saves extra passing. see to it that too many things--butter, salt, pepper, cream, sauces, etc.--are not traveling about the table at once. all the formal features of the more formal meals may be dropped or modified to suit individual needs or circumstances in the informal home dinner. twelve menus for good family dinners . corn mock bisque. roast chicken with bread stuffing, giblet gravy. boiled rice. saute egg plant. stuffed green peppers. prune pudding. black coffee. . onion soup. fried smelts, sauce tartare. broiled porterhouse beefsteak. maitre d'hotel butter ( / cup butter, / teaspoonful salt, / teaspoonful pepper, tablespoonful lemon juice, ditto parsley, fine chopped; work butter in bowl with wooden spoon till creamy, then add other ingredients slowly). potato strips. creamed turnips. steamed chocolate pudding, sterling sauce. . carrot soup. braised beef. boiled potatoes with butter and parsley. fried parsnips. onion souffle. spiced apples a la lyman ( large apples, / cup sugar, teaspoonful cinnamon, / teaspoonful salt, / cup water: arrange cored and pared apples in baking dish, mix sugar, salt and cinnamon and fill cavities. add water, bake till apples are soft, basting repeatedly with syrup in dish. remove, cool, pile meringue on top of each apple. back to oven and bake for eight minutes. chill and serve with sugar and cream). black coffee. . huntington soup and celery. braised leg of mutton. mashed sweet potatoes. beets, sauce piquant. stuffed tomato salad, boiled dressing. cream jelly. . onion soup. beefsteak a la henrietta saute potato balls, mashed turnips. cheese salad. coffee sponge. . corn and chicken soup. braised fowl, chestnut stuffing. duchess potatoes, fried tomatoes (parmesan). honeycomb pudding, creamy sauce. coffee. . brown soup with macaroni rings. creamed mushrooms. roast leg of veal. mashed potatoes. brussels sprouts with celery. asparagus salad. fruit tapioca. coffee. . clam bouillon. boiled leg of mutton, caper sauce, mashed potatoes, fried cucumbers. peach cabinet pudding. crackers and cheese. black coffee. . broiled fish, cold slaw in cabbage shell. stuffed hearts with vegetables. potatoes goldenrod, almond pudding, whipped cream. assorted fruit. coffee. these are samples of what is possible in the way of tasty combinations for the informal family dinner. chapter vi the formal dinner from the informal dinner in which the family waits on itself, to the formal dinner, at which two waitresses attend to the comfort of the diners, is but a step. yet it is a serious one for the hostess who gives the latter form of dinner. the cook often requires extra help (dishwashing, etc.); and where a chambermaid is available, she has to be drafted as a second waitress or an extra waitress engaged. there must be a helper on duty in the pantry, for there must be no hitch in any detail of the formal dinner service. so the extra pantry-hand must serve soup and pour coffee, see that there is crushed ice always ready, stack up soiled dishes, open wine bottles (yes, this is still done!) and be prepared to do anything else which will help make the dinner a success. the what's what of a formal dinner the fine damask tablecloth is a feature--though the table is set practically as though for a formal luncheon--and large-size dinner napkins are the rule. the parsnips of circumstance are not buttered at the formal dinner, though the bread and butter plate sometimes shows its face as a serving convenience for bread, celery, olives and radishes. wineglasses still appear in formal dinners given _in private_. this provides for quite an array of glassware. at the point of the knives, in the following order stand the water goblet and the iced tea glass or appolinaris glass. the wineglasses (usually no more than three wines are served) are grouped to the right of the water goblet. their order is that of use. (there are separate glasses for high and low cocktail, sherry, sauterne, claret, champagne, cordials and whiskey.) each guest has his own nut dish, placed directly before him. candles are lit and water glasses half-filled a few minutes in advance of the dinner announcement, and the hostess already having arranged place cards before this is done. the courses the "initial" course may be placed on the table before dinner is announced or may be served after. if, however, you serve cocktails in the drawing room with the accompanying caviar or lettuce sandwiches, or if you serve a canape, do not repeat the latter as the opening of the dinner. for instance, you should not serve a lobster canape in the drawing room and a finnan haddie canape at the dinner table. fruit cocktails of every kind, and canapes are in order for this commencement of the meal. a good fruit cocktail recipe mix shredded pineapple, halved strawberries, (fresh, not preserved), with grapefruit pulp, the pulp in a two to one proportion to the pineapple, chill and cover with wine dressing. to be served in champagne glass, with top garnish of a large strawberry for each glass. the soup course may be preceded by one of fruit, where the cocktail or canape has been served in the drawing room. supposing it to be strawberries, the berries will already be waiting in a small plate when the guests take their seats upon entering the dining room. they should be unhulled, large, selected berries, and may be eaten either by hand (dipped in the sugar mound into which they are thrust on the plate) or with the strawberry fork. the serving of a finger bowl with this course is a matter of taste. when this course has been removed, the soup is served, and the head waitress pours the sherry, while cakes and olives are passed by a second waitress. if fish comes next--we will presume the fish to be shad a la delmonico, halibut a la meniere or turbans of flounder--it is passed in the platter, followed by rolls and cucumber ribbons, dressed cucumbers or sliced cucumbers, as the case may be. then the fish course is taken from the table and we come to the entree. if one entree is the limit it precedes the roast. where you have two entrees the heavy (meat) entree comes first, then the lighter (vegetable) one. let us say we have only delmonico tomatoes or mushroom croquettes. we would carry on next with our roast fowl or flesh. but if we have oyster and mushroom patties _and_ roast ham with cider sauce as entrees, the roast ham, being the heavier, should be served first. our roast--the champagne was poured from the _right_ side with the _right_ hand _after_ the removal of the fish plates--is now due. the entree plates in turn have been taken away and the warm dinner plates substituted for them. ah, the roast! what shall it be? there is so much from which to choose. it cannot be too epicurean for a formal dinner. fillet of beef larded with truffles, with a brown mushroom sauce; crown of lamb (crowned with green peas and surrounded by fried potato balls); roast turkey with truffle gravy; venison saddle, chateaubriand of beef, sirloin steak, there is no lack of choice. when both roast and game are served, a frozen punch is supposed to draw the line of demarcation between them, and the salad enters _with_ the game instead of being counted as an individual course. while one waitress passes the roast, another follows with the potatoes. other vegetables and rolls then come in order and, if the nut dishes of any of the guests are empty, they are refilled. when more than a single meat course is served at a formal dinner, the sorbets and frozen punches should be dropped. in such a case they are only permissible at an especially large official dinner, a banquet or a large hotel spread. after dinner plates have been taken away the salad (already arranged on the plate, the fork on the right hand side) is served from the right, and sandwiches are passed. the variety of possible salads has already been alluded to in the consideration of the formal luncheon, hence nothing need be added here on that head. with the emptied salad plate are removed peppers and salts (on tray) and the table crumbed, the ice cream plate (as at the formal luncheon) is placed. the ice cream mold is passed with _the mold already cut, but retaining its shape_, to facilitate the guest's helping himself. together with the ice cream, the accompanying small cakes are passed. the appearance of the finger bowl service follows the removal of the dessert plates. the finger bowl should be approximately one-fourth full of luke-warm water (never cold) and garnished. the dessert plate is removed with the left hand, the plate, finger bowl, and doily served with the left. the passing of the bonbons concludes the actual service at the table. coffee, as already mentioned, is poured by the hostess in the drawing room and, after the waitress has collected and removed the coffee service (and cups and saucers) she may, in the event that cordials are served, return with the cordial service, which the hostess pours and the waitress serves as in the case of the coffee. if the ladies _only_ retire to the drawing room, one waitress serves them there with coffee, while another remains in the dining room. here she passes cigars and cigarettes on a tray, together with a lighted candle or matches, and then serves coffee and cordials or brandy and soda. it is good form for the waitress to serve carbonated water in apollinaris glasses in the drawing room about an hour after the conclusion of the dinner. three formal dinner menus . grapefruit. chicken consomme with oysters. bread sticks (served like roll in napkin). deviled crabs. chicken mousse with sauterne jelly. saddle of mutton. white potato croquettes. carrots and turnips a la poulette. currant mint sorbet. mushrooms au casserole. roast grouse, bread sauce. watercress salad. willard souffle. strawberry ice cream. salted almonds. bonbons. crackers and cheese. black coffee. . oyster cocktail. saltines. mushroom and sage soup. dinner braids. lobster chops. cucumber boats. sauce tartare. swedish timbales with calf's brains. larded fillet of beef with truffles. brown mushroom sauce, potato rings. flageolets. buttered carrots. asparagus jelly with pistachio bisque. ice cream. cream sponge balls. salted almonds. bonbons. water thins. neufchatel cheese. black coffee. (from "a book of good dinners for my friend": fannie merrit farmer.) . cocktails. caviar sandwiches. selected strawberries. mock bouillon. olives. sherry. rolled cassava cakes. turbans of flounder. dressed cucumbers. rolls. delmonico tomatoes. roasted incubator chickens. chantilly asparagus potatoes. buttered asparagus tips. champagne. grapefruit and alligator pear salad, paprika crackers. montrose pudding. small cakes. coffee. cordials. (from "table service," lucy g. allen). chapter vii afternoon teas afternoon teas are of two kinds, formal and informal, and the informal outdoor tea in the open, on the lawn or in the garden, is a variant of the latter variety. here the tea wagon comes into play, and tea is often tea in name only, since at summer outdoor teas not only iced tea, but iced coffee, iced chocolate or punch are often served. the informal tea do not set a table for the informal tea. the tea service is merely brought to the sun parlor, drawing room or living room in which the tea is to be served, and placed on the table. there the hostess makes and pours the tea, unless she prefers to have it brought in on a tea tray already made for pouring. the tea service comprises: a teakettle for boiling water with filled alcohol lamp and matches; a tea caddy with teaspoon and (if only a few cups are to be made) a tea ball. a tea creamer, cut sugar, a saucer of sliced lemon, and cups and saucers with spoon on cup saucer, as well as tea napkins complete the service. the water brought in in the teakettle should be hot. if this precaution is observed, the tea will boil very soon after the lamp is lighted. the sandwiches served at an informal afternoon tea should be very simple: lettuce, olive or nut butter, or plain bread and butter, nor should the small cakes also passed be elaborate or rich. the formal tea the formal tea--a tea becomes formal as soon as cards are sent out for it--is a very different affair. as many as four ladies may pour, two during the first, and two during the second hour. friends of the hostess--they serve all refreshments, though waitresses assist, removing soiled cups and plates and bringing in fresh ones--preside at either table end, and the table is decorated (flowers and candles). at one end of the luncheon cloth (or the table may be laid with doilies) stands the service tray, with teapot, hot-water pot, creamer, sugar bowl with tongs and cut sugar, and sliced lemons in dish with lemon fork. the tray also contains cup and saucers (each saucer with spoon, handle paralleling cup). the coffee, bouillon or chocolate service is established in the same manner at the other end of the table. if coffee is served, the service tray is equipped with urn, cream and sugar; if chocolate, whipped cream in bowl with ladle; if bouillon, the urn alone. each lady who pours must have a large napkin convenient to guard her gown. arranged along the table should be plates of sandwiches and cakes, bonbon dishes and dishes with salted nuts. but the table must not be crowded. this important rule is responsible for the existence of the frappe table. the frappe table holds the afternoon tea punch. since the dining room is apt to be well filled as it is, the frappe table had best be established in some other room. on its luncheon cloth is set the punch or frappe bowl with ladle, and individual ices, frozen creams (not too rich or elaborate) or punch are served in frappe or punch bowls by a friend of the hostess. the small plates on which the frappe glasses are served should be piled on the table with doilies (_linen always_) between the plates. when served, the glass is filled with the sherbet or cream, and a sherbet spoon laid at the right-hand side of plate (a tray of sherbet spoons belongs to the frappe table equipment, as well as a filled cake basket, dishes of candy, piles of small plates and small linen napkins). unless you are entertaining guests to the number of a hundred or more, _never use paper doilies at a formal afternoon tea_! a pretty custom dictates that young girl friends of the hostess serve the guests. they provide the latter with plate and napkin, ask their choice of beverage, and serve it, together with sandwiches and cakes. or the plates and napkins may be handed the guests as they enter by a waitress stationed at the door, before they are served by the young girls. _a salad should never be offered at a formal afternoon tea_! to do so is to commit a social solecism. chapter viii suppers supper, "the evening meal," the last of the day, in modern usage often is actually a dinner, the most elaborate meal; the place of the former dinner being taken by the luncheon. a supper is often a particularly elaborate dinner or banquet, as, for instance, the "class supper." the late supper the late supper, often given after a theatre party, or a card party, is always an informal affair. its favorite form is what might be called the "chafing dish supper," where should they wish, the guests may help themselves. two chafing dishes or one may grace the table (laid with luncheon cloth or luncheon set, flowers and candles) according to the number of guests. the chafing dish is set before the hostess on a metal tray resting on an asbestos mat. a teakettle of boiling water, an electric toaster (the asbestos mat of the chafing dish laid over the flame may also be used for keeping toast or croutons made in the kitchen warm while on the table), and plates already heated go with the chafing dish. also, near at hand, should be matches, an extra napkin, a "sampling" fork and spoon, and a bowl of some sort for burned matches and the "sampling silver." all that is to be cooked, dry or liquid, should already have been measured and be ready for use. all bowls, small dishes and pitchers containing ingredients for any one dish should be grouped on a single tray, at the left of the person attending to the chafing dish. chafing-dish rarebits may be of every kind, and every rarebit should have some main dominating flavor, as green or red pepper, onion, tomato, etc. cheese souffles or sweet souffles are also successful chafing-dish products, as well as cooked fish heated in a piquant sauce. for chafing-dish purposes there are available: _meats_: beef, venison, lamb, cooked tongue, bacon and ham, chicken, chicken livers and sweetbreads. _sea food_: lobster, terrapin, crab meat, frogs' legs, oysters, shrimps, scallops, sardines, salmon and finnan haddie. eggs, cheese, tomatoes, mushrooms and peas should also be included with this list. sliced and toasted bread or crackers heated usually form the basis of the chafing-dish preparation. rarebits suppose toast or crackers, but creamed dishes demand toast. the chafing dish also pays homage to the sweet tooth in the shape of fudges (ginger, nut raisin, peanut butter, marshmallow, etc.); and hot coffee, wine cup, mineral water, beer, ale and cider are the customary chafing-dish supper drinkables. chapter ix outside the eighteenth amendment from the alcoholic beverages of the chafing-dish supper to those of the dinner is a natural transition. at the formal dinner wines often accompany the courses and, as already mentioned, liqueurs and cordials supply the final liquid note after the coffee. the theory of alcoholic beverages at the formal dinner is a simple one. certain fixed and definite rules obtain and are generally observed. three wines may be served, though the best social form prefers one or two. sherry or madeira sherry or madeira may accompany the soup course. they should be poured _after_ the soup has been placed, and served from a decanter. in general wine should always be poured slowly, and glasses should be filled only two-thirds. the etiquette is for the waitress to pour a little wine into the host's glass, then filling the glasses beginning at the host's right. sherry should always be served cold, at a temperature of ° fahrenheit; the madeira may be served at a temperature of ° f., or that of the room. sauterne or rhine wine sauterne or rhine wine go with the fish course. they are poured, like the claret, at the end of the preceding course, before the next course comes on. they (like sparkling burgundy and champagne) are served from the bottle, and the bottle should be held in a folded napkin or bottle holder. the mean average temperature of sauterne should be ° f. some prefer it decidedly cold (chilled in the icebox), others only slightly cold. rhine wine should always be cold: ° f. claret claret is the wine for the entree and, as a rule, is served from a claret pitcher. being a light wine, it may be served _with_ the champagne and _instead_ of it to those who do not prefer the mumm. claret should be poured at the end of the course _immediately_ before the one with which it is served. the room temperature or one of ° f. is the proper one for claret. champagne, burgundy or port these wines are served with the meat courses. in order that champagne or sparkling burgundy may come on the table at the proper temperature (champagne ° and burgundy ° f.) it must be ice-packed for several hours before serving. care must be taken, however, that it does not frappe when, if required at short notice, it is salt-and-ice packed half an hour before serving. sweet champagne, on the other hand, is improved in flavor if slightly frappeed. it should always be served very cold. like sauterne, champagne and burgundy are served from the bottle. in serving them the wire should be cut, and the cork carefully _worked_ out of the bottle by pressing it up with the thumbs. it is wise to work out the cork _under the edge of the table_, since it is sometimes projected with much power. the temperature for port is ° f. cordials and liqueurs cordial glasses holding a small quantity are used for serving these sweet, aromatic beverages. cordials are served plain, with crushed ice or with cream. in serving creme de menthe the straw is unusual in private home service, though customary in some hotels. creme de menthe glasses should be filled two-thirds full with fine crushed ice, then a little of the cordial poured over it. chartreuse (green or yellow), benedictine, grenadine, apricot brandy, curacoa, and dantzig eau de vie arc usually served without additions or ice. benedictine or creme de cacoa, however, may be served with a dash of plain or whipped cream. the exceedingly sweet creme yvette should be served with cracked ice, like creme de menthe. noyau, kirschwasser, maraschino and grenadine may be served as cordials, or reserved for the flavoring of puddings, ices and sauces. chapter x carving hints whether it be the waitress or the master of the house who carves, a firm hand, an appraising eye and a sharp carving knife are needed. some of the chief carving points for roasts are worth knowing. _beefsteak (porterhouse)_: carve in two pieces, cutting tenderloin and sirloin from the middle bone. cut in uniformly thick slices, serving a piece for a portion, rare, medium or well done, as may be preferred. _rib or sirloin roast_: hold firmly, skin side up. carve in thin, parallel slices, from crisp edge to bone, then slip knife under slices and cut from bones. _rump steak_: cut in thin, parallel slices with grain of meat. serve like rib or sirloin with dish gravy for each portion. _fillet of beefs_: cut across diagonally, beginning at thick end. slices should be no more than half an inch thick. _leg of lamb_: with rounding side up, plunge carving fork in center of roast, and cut in thin, parallel slices _across grain_ to bone. boned leg of lamb is more easily carved. _saddle of mutton_: make cuts parallel to backbone, half to three-quarters inch apart; then crosscuts at right angles to former, two to two and a half inches long. slip knife beneath bone to free meat. _loin of veal or lamb_: cut backbone of each rib before cooking. cut roast between ribs, serving one for a portion. carve _crown of lamb_ in the same way. _roast turkey or roast chicken, capon or guinea hen_: with bird on back, insert carving fork across highest point of breastbone. holding it here firmly, cut through skin between second joint and body, close to the latter. pull back leg and second joint in one piece with knife; disjoint, then cut off wing. breast meat must be carved in thin, parallel slices. use knife to part second joints from drumsticks and carve them in slices. always complete carving one side of a bird before carving the other. light meat and dark meat, together with stuffing, should be included in each portion, unless a preference is indicated. _broilers_: should be cut in halves, and the halves halved, severing at joints. according to size of broiler a quarter or a half is served as an individual portion. _domestic duck_: bird on back (drumsticks to right of carver, as with all fowl) the carving fork is thrust through breast. the joints lie much farther back than those of chickens or turkeys. after removing leg and wing, make cuts in breast meat parallel to breastbone, three-quarters of an inch apart, and remove by sliding knife under meat. small pieces of rich meat, dark, may be cut from the sides of the duck. _game duck_: first cut breast meat from one side, then from other. half a breast is the individual portion. legs and wings are too tough, as a rule, for satisfactory table use. chapter xi planning a menu food value and contrast--the avoidance of duplicating flavors--are main points in menu planning. an elaborate menu must alternate its light and heavy courses. soup thin soups for formal dinners, cream or thick soups for informal ones is the rule. with consomme, bread or cheese sticks; with thick soups crackers or croutons; with oyster stew, oyster crackers are the proper thing. soup garnishings (clear soup) include: shredded sprouts, boiled macaroni cut in rings, noodles, lemon slices, italian pastes and grated parmesan cheese, and sliced cooked chestnuts and royal custard. radishes, celery and olives are served _after_ the soup. hors d'oevres cocktails or canapes beginning a dinner call for plain sandwiches or wafers. when oysters or clams (or any seafood cocktails) are served, graham or brown bread sandwiches are grateful. with oysters served raw on shell, a horseradish sandwich is proper. tabasco, grated horseradish, catsup, cayenne, or cocktail sauce are in order for oysters or clams, and a half lemon should _always_ be laid on the oyster plate. fish fish flavoring's include lemon juice (lemon sliced with or without the rind, or served in quarters or halves) or tarragon vinegar. sauce tartare is always appropriate for fried fish. broiled halibut or pompano gain by a sauce hollandaise. with baked or broiled shad cucumber cream sauce is in order. broiled fish in general should be mated with rich, heavy sauces, and may be accompanied by boiled potato balls, and maitre d'hotel butter. when halibut or flounder are steamed or baked in fillets, they call for a piquantly flavored sauce: caper, brown tomato, shrimp or lobster. drawn butter sauce, caper or hollandaise sauce, are best with boiled hot salmon; green mayonnaise, vinaigrette or sauce tartare with cold boiled salmon. vegetables do not properly accompany fish in a dinner of many courses. yet broiled fish may be served with corn and shell beans; white fish of various sorts with tomatoes, stuffed or fried; and salmon with peas. entrees every entree should have the sauce which properly befits it. patties, however, are not served with the rolls which accompany other entrees, their pastry taking its place. a puree of peas may be offered with meat croquettes. salads for simply dressed salads cheese balls or croquettes are appropriate. fruit salads require thin, unsugared crackers--they may be served hot, sprinkled with mild paprika over butter. anything of the sort served with a salad is merely served to _bring out_ its flavor, not to destroy it! desserts when the dinner is a heavy or elaborate one the heavy pudding with a rich sauce is distinctly out of keeping. frappeed or cold desserts are the proper thing, served together with small wafers or cakes. at less formal dinners the sweet dessert may be omitted, and cheese and hard crackers, a fruit salad, or toasted wafers and coffee may be substituted. the roasts under this head we will list for the reader's convenience a grouping of roasts, together with the sauces and vegetables with which they may be combined for menu purposes in a natural and satisfactory manner. _beefsteak and roast beef:_ as sauces, mushroom sauce is appropriate for both; then for beefsteak we have sauce bearnaise, and maitre d'hotel butter; for the roast beef, horseradish sauce, banana sauce and as an accompanying dish, yorkshire pudding. accompanying vegetables for both include: potatoes, white and sweet, lima and string beans, macaroni, corn, peas, spinach and onions, eggplant and squash, brussels sprouts, cauliflower and tomatoes. _boiled beef_: horseradish sauce is the preferred one, and dumplings may accompany it. potatoes (white), parsnips, turnips, carrots are the first concomitants. _corned beef_: plain boiled potatoes and cabbage are the first concomitants. spinach or dandelion greens, parsnips, beets, turnips and carrots are also indicated. _roast lamb_: may be accompanied by banana croquettes or bananas baked, by currant jelly, mint sauce, mint jelly or mint sherbet. in addition to most of the vegetables already listed, asparagus, and jerusalem artichokes are in order, and cauliflower may be served with cream sauce or _au gratin_. _lamb chops broiled_: potatoes in any form desired, cauliflower or brussels sprouts, and practically any green vegetables, _but piquantly served_, are in order. _boiled lamb and mutton_: caper sauce and accompanying dumplings are in order for both. potatoes (white) carrots, turnips and parsnips are the vegetables. _saddle of mutton_: takes all vegetables served with lamb. it should be served with currant jelly or mint sauce and, aside from asparagus, spinach, french peas and string beans, may be accompanied by fried rice balls or rice croquettes. _fowl in general and chicken_: these take cranberry jelly and sauce, also chestnut, mushroom, oysters, celery and curry sauce, and fresh celery. glazed sweet potatoes, corn fritters, croquettes (rice, chestnut, hominy), all fresh summer vegetables, including string and lima beans, mushrooms, onions and squash are in order with fowl. _roast turkey_: here, while we may have cranberry sauce or jelly, we _must_ have crisp, fresh celery. there is a choice of stuffings--sausage, chestnut, oyster, sage and nut. potatoes (white and sweet), brussels sprouts and cauliflower, squash, turnips and onions are the vegetables. _roast goose_: the vegetables are the same as for roast turkey, and brown giblet gravy, apple sauce and celery are accompaniments. the stuffings mentioned for turkey are also in order here. _duck (domestic)_: the vegetables served for all fowl, plus fried hominy if desired, are indicated. either boiled or souffled onions are a tradition with duck. _duck (game)_: salads are preferred to vegetables as an accompaniment for wild duck. the salad greens--any salad green may be used--should be dressed in a simple manner. if preferred, olive and orange jellies and sauces, and currant and plum jellies, orange and cress or orange and walnut on lettuce may be served. _roast grouse or guinea hen_: with bread sauce may be served potatoes (as croquettes or french fried), celery croquettes, string beans, asparagus, and french peas, also currant jelly and currant jelly sauce. _quail, roasted or broiled_: green salads in which orange dominates should accompany this game bird. ideal ways of serving are: . in a nest of chestnut puree. . on buttered toast. . on toast spread with puree of cooked calf's liver moistened with sherry. _squab, roasted or broiled_: serve with currant jelly and--if offered as a main course at a luncheon--with light vegetables, mushrooms, peas, beans, asparagus on toast, spinach in puff paste or fried potato balls. _boiled ham_: for boiled ham champagne or cider sauce is best. potatoes in practically any form desired, creamed, chantilly, escalloped, etc., with spinach, beet greens, cauliflower, brussels sprouts are vegetable choices. _pork_: implies the presence of the apple, as apple sauce, cider apple sauce, fried apples or apple croquettes, though sauce soubise or sauce piquant may also be used with it. potatoes, if desired, and practically any vegetable are in order. _roast veal_: a brown gravy or sauce soubise are proper for veal. rice, spaghetti, macaroni, are accompanying dishes; and practically all the usual garden vegetables are in order. _roast venison_: a wild plum sauce is especially appropriate, plus currant jelly. potatoes should be saratoga or french fried. french string beans and french peas, brussels sprouts (with chestnuts) and mushrooms (in brown madeira sauce) will add to the occasion. chapter xii menus for a thanksgiving--a christmas and a lenten dinner [footnote: from "a book of good dinners for my friend." fanny merritt farmer.] thanksgiving dinner clam soup, browned crackers. halibut rolls, sauce tartare, dressed cucumbers. roast turkey with chestnut stuffing, giblet gravy, maitre d'hotel potatoes. mashed winter squash, onions in cream, cranberry punch. pear salad, french dressing, thanksgiving pudding, hard sauce, vanilla ice cream, hot chocolate sauce, sponge cake, assorted nuts, fruit, black coffee. christmas dinner clam and tomato consomme. browned soup rings. olives and salted pecans. fillets of sole, mushroom sauce. roast goose, giblet gravy, frozen apples. riced potatoes, glazed silver skins. pimento timbales. chiffonade salad. english plum pudding, sherry sauce. coffee ice cream, almond cakes. bonbons. crackers and cheese. black coffee. lenten dinner smoked salmon and anchovy canapes. tomato bisque soup. buttered croquettes, croutons. tartlets of egg with curry. boiled cod, venetian sauce. hot potato salad. cauliflower au gratin. cheese souffle. chocolate bavarian cream. black coffee. [illustration: diagram of a buffet table] how to prepare a meal [illustration: diagram of table laid for home dinner without service of maid] [illustration: luncheon cover in detail] [illustration: formal dinner cover in detail] interior decoration chapter i lines and curves straight lines in a room call for straight lines in furniture, rugs and hangings. they make a room dignified and serious in appearance. italian renaissance chairs and other pieces of that period, and our modern craftsman and mission chairs (often hard and stiff examples of the straight-line type of furniture, just as bokhara, kazan and afghan rugs are of the straight-line rug) are furniture of this kind. the severe line is also produced by velvet draperies topped by straight-lined lambrequins. a straight line is to be preferred to a weak curve. and it is usually possible to redeem too straight and rigid an appearance in furniture by relieving long, straight lines (as in tables) by carved ornamentation and the application of curved lines on a secondary plane, i. e., in parts of the legs. in general, when not too rigid, straight lines in interior decoration stand for repose, sobriety and dignity. curved lines curved lines in decoration and furniture are of various kinds. the rococo styles (louis xv and the regency) are overluxurious and often weak; the curves in arabic or celtic ornamentation vague and obscure. the undulating curves of persian rugs suggest movement. curves, in general, which turn _up_, make an effect of animation and happiness. wall papers and draperies used to emphasize such furniture curves lend an air of happy animation to the rooms in which they are used. contrast to stiff, straight lines is afforded by the use of the curved line in decoration, which offers soft, rich and lovely effects. in general, curved lines make for grace, flexibility and softness. broken lines broken lines give us a feeling of life and movement. but they should not be used for the permanent decorative lines of a room--the lines of the walls, openings, hangings, draperies, carpets, or large, immovable pieces of furniture which have a fixed place. in pillows which break the long back line of a couch, in cornice moldings, lambrequin bottoms, chair backs, screens, etc., they lend life. but as a rule they should be sparingly used. vertical lines vertical lines express aspiration and disquietude; diagonal lines, action. in wall paper designs and rug patterns the diagonal line is not always excellent. diagonal lines are sometimes effective in rugs; but the feeling of energetic movement they produce in wall papers or drop patterns is objectionable. it annoys the eye and is usually inartistic. chapter ii form, color and proportion never overemphasize one of the dimensions of _height, width_ and _depth_ at the expense of one of the others. they must be harmonized. oblong the proportions of any room are best when they make a normal impression on the eye. the oblong is the best decorative art _form_, as a rule. it can be used in nearly all ornaments, in walls, doors and windows, ceilings and floors, in rugs and furniture, because it is obvious. the square the square form is solid and firm, but tends to be monotonous. square windows, fireplaces and wall spaces, as well as square rooms in general and pictures, are usually uninteresting, and this applies to cubes as well. the big cubical chair, for instance, is something to be avoided. the triangle the triangular form (in mantel clocks, lampshades, highboys, bookcase foundations, and sometimes where it appears in wall paper or turcoman rug designs) expresses movement in repose admirably, and has real decorative values. curved forms curved forms, the circle, the oval and the ellipse, are all agreeable. there is in them "a hint of the mysterious dualism of life." color colors makes decorative shapes easy to see. (for the character of the colors and the principles of their effective combination the reader will find much useful information in the "color harmony and design in dress" included in this series.) art, nature and books will all help the interior decorator in the matter of color adjustment. trim in most houses compels the adjustment of the color harmony to suit it. in general white paneling calls for the use of one warm and one cool color, while dark brown or black paneling needs two or more warm colors. proportion all parts of a furnished room must help express one ideal of balance. the realization of this ideal is proportion. a horizontal room calls for horizontal furniture and lines, a vertical room for vertical ones. every important decorative feature of a room must be selected in accordance with its proportion in general. the size of a room increases the form scale (or scale of the forms) represented by furniture, pictures, rugs, etc. in every room the important individual pieces, such as library table, piano, bed, dresser, must parallel one or another wall. do not violate proportion and artistic effect by overcrowding. chapter iii individual rooms of the house the dining room and "work rooms" the dining room, with which we were so directly concerned in the preceding portion of this book, offers a natural point of departure for considering the individual rooms of the house with regard to decoration. first, as to a dominant dining room color: the dining room should be a room of good cheer, a bright, happy room. but it should not be too bright. if it is on the sunny side of the house, let one of the colors dominate--white, cream white, blues, greens, grays or violet--if on the shady side, gain warmth by the use of yellows (save lemon), orange, warm tans, russets, pinks, yellowish greens and reds. (this applies to all rooms.) do not use restless-patterned wall papers. leather (used with paneling or above wainscot), modern tapestries, fabrics of all kinds are suitable for covering dining-room walls. if low, the ceiling should never be dark, since this makes the room appear still lower. (a breakfast room done in lacquer is very effective, however, if not too low.) a single large rug, harmonizing with the wall color scheme is admirable in any room. in the dining room, however, a figured carpet is often preferred for practical reasons: it stands wear and tear around the table better. well-chosen paper (see chapter ii) often improves a badly proportioned room by optical illusion. the ideal lightings for dining rooms are side lights. dining-room drop lights or domes are very trying to the eyes of those who dine, and are unbecoming. side lights (adding candles for grace and charm) are far pleasanter to the eyes and look better. in the dining room the table is the dominating furniture note. a round table, an oblong table or a square table may be the more desirable according to the shape of the room. but a round dining table may be harmonized with an oblong dining room by means of an oblong rug, with rounded medallion, by a round flower bowl, a round tray or even the wheels of the tea table. in the dining room, as elsewhere, repetition in color establishes the color tone of the room. in the dining room, as elsewhere, every individual room presents an individual case, to be worked out decoratively in accordance with the principles already given. one more color hint regarding the dining room, drawn from a modern authority: "when we think of the ideal dinner--the soft lights, the hospitable warmth, the sparkle of crystal, the gleam of silver, the quick talk and gay laughter of the guests--we think of _red,_ for that color is indissolubly bound in thought with the idea of richness, hospitality and excitement." yet red, as we will see later, is a color to be used with great caution. working rooms versus living rooms before passing to the other rooms of the house, we will pause to consider a more purely utilitarian group. _the kitchen_.--these rooms which are strictly utilitarian, more or less escape decorative control. the kitchen, aside from the elements of proportion in arrangement of its furnishings, is not properly a room for decoration. a cheerful color, plenty of light--a practical essential--and practical arrangement of its furniture and equipment are of more importance than the decorative element. neatness, color harmony and a restful eye effect should be obtained. this applies as well to the butler's pantry. pantry and kitchen should always be shut off from the dining room, so that the latter's decorative values are not affected by them. _the bathroom_.--tiled or hardwood flooring, painted or glazed washable walls, sanitary plumbing, glass shelves, washable cotton rugs and bath mats, all the modern conveniences in keeping with the purposes of the room, thrust the decorative element into the background. the curtains must be simple and quite easily washed. _the home sewing room_.--the home sewing room, too, may be viewed decoratively as well as practically. a sunny room with western exposure, kalsomined in pale warm gray, the floor covered with cream-colored matting, windows fitted with white holland shades--a combination restful to the eye--and furnished with hard-wood framed, cane-bottomed chairs. chapter iv living room, drawing room and library we now return to the rooms where decoration is the rule. while always remembering that connecting rooms must harmonize with one another in color, individual colors may always be appropriately chosen for certain rooms, because they express the dominant mood and character of the room in question. thus, for the living room or drawing room, the yellows, oranges and golden browns, which combine the cheer of yellow and the warmth of red, are excellent. if a restful instead of a cheerful quality is desired for the living room or drawing room, green may be made the dominant hue. yellow is a joyous tint, also a good breakfast-room hue. it will harmonize in the living room with plain fumed oak, willow furniture and cretonne hangings as well as with painted and paneled ivory walls, old chinese rugs, damask hangings and satinwood and lacquered furniture. but furniture, bric-a-brac and walls always _must_ be good in line and color. for proper floor balance use a large rug in a large living room, and several small ones in a small one. furniture, too, should be chosen in view of the emphasis each individual piece has; and its relations to the room in general. the effect of stiffness is not overcome by placing heavy pieces of furniture askew in a room. yet this is often done. scale and proportion should always dictate the choice of furniture, lamps and pictures. each has its place in the general decorative scheme. red is a hard color for the eyes. many a red living room has been the cause of chronic headache. not that red need be entirely tabooed. a living room for example, paneled in oak, with a soft red-toned oriental rug, red draperies, a touch of red in a stained glass window panel, and red cushioned window seat will have far more warmth and charm than a room whose walls are completely covered with red. _the hall and library_.--red, however, makes a hall seem hospitable and full of welcome. it is also a good library color. in halls where walls are papered or paneled with stripes or draperies rich red may appear in the ground of an oriental rug on the floor, and be matched in the hue of the portieres or stair runner. with damask or tapestry, or large-figured duplex papered hall walls, a soft-toned red rug, with hangings and stair runner matching it, is best. the walls should show a neutral tint, and red will dominate with pleasing effect. in the library, in winter, with a glow from the open fire playing over a red rug, "revealing shadowy outline of bookcases, and dim velvet draperies, as a deep-shaded lamp throws a beam of light over the arm of a big reading chair," red seems indeed an ideal color for the room. chapter v bed room, nursery and play room for the bedroom, though other colors such as green and violet, in particular (save red, which is a poor bedroom hue) are not barred, blue is an ideal color, expressive of repose and tranquil ease. in the bedroom, however, as in all other rooms, the light and location must always be considered in establishing the color note. curtains either make or mar a room, especially a bedroom. bedroom curtains, whether of expensive or cheap material, must emphasize the restful charm of the room. if a bedroom (or other room) is plain in color, the curtains may be either plain or figured. but it is dangerous when wall designs of bedrooms is apt to convey a feeling of restlessness. the bedroom may be provided with one large or several smaller rugs as a floor covering, according to size. plain rugs are more restful in effect, and with plain walls and chintz often present a charming effect. nursery and play room these children's rooms should always give out a gay and cheerful atmosphere. to obtain this wall papers with colorful friezes with characters from fairy tale, mother goose or noah's ark, may be used above a simple wainscot. painted walls with stenciled designs are also attractive. small chairs and tables with good lines, a bookcase, a toy cupboard, a sand table, and window boxes where the children may plant seeds, are all possible decorative units of such a room. the general color scheme must be soft and cheerful, plain linoleum is the best floor covering, the few pictures should hang low, and the window curtains should be of white muslin, with side hangings (down to sill) with some special nursery design in cretonne. chapter vi some hints anent period furniture period furniture is a means to a decorative end. it is a _part_ of the decoration of a room, and must be adapted to its lines and proportions. halls for instance, call for tall chairs and cabinets and long and narrow wall tables. pictures and bric-a-brac are out of place in the hall. in the living room, where spaciousness and repose are wanted, substantial, comfortable chairs, long, low sofas, cabinets and tables, and no fussy furniture adjuncts are demanded. similarly in the dining room, the furniture lines should make the room a more comfortable and restful one in which to eat; and bedroom furniture must in all decorative ways carry out the idea of rest and sleeping. if period furniture is used, the drawing room usually gives the dominant note, which should be carried out (in more or less modified form) throughout the other rooms. do not make too abrupt contrasts in using period furniture. late louis xvi and early empire have much in common. but it is a shock to find louis xv and late empire in the same room. sheraton and rococo, early jacobean oak and late eighteenth century english mahogany do not mix. if your rooms are colonial use colonial or georgian styles of furniture. for ball rooms, small reception rooms, and the boudoirs of blooming young beauty--not those of dignified old age--louis xv is to be commended. formal dining rooms stand louis xv and louis xvi styles very well. on the other hand the simple beauty of line of adam, sheraton, heppelwhite and chippendale are better suited to simpler rooms--though they may be quite as subtly and perfectly finished. in general, the choice of all furniture--chairs, tables, beds, mirrors--should be influenced by the size of the house and rooms, individual circumstances and individual taste, where the last does not conflict with established laws of decoration. conclusion interior decoration is a very extensive and complicated subject. what we have here attempted to do has been to give an idea of the general principles underlying it, together with as many direct and practical hints and suggestions as has been possible within the limits allotted. it is hoped that they may lead the reader to take a more personal interest in a fascinating subject of study. if this be the case, a large number of specialized works which treat every least phase of "interior decoration" in exhaustive detail, are available. furnishing the home of good taste a brief sketch of the period styles in interior decoration with suggestions as to their employment in the homes of today by lucy abbot throop new york robert m. mcbride & co. * * * * * the crowell publishing co. , , mcbride, nast & co. , robert m. mcbride & co. new and revised edition published, september, * * * * * [illustration: _trowbridge & livingston, architects._ a principle which can be applied to both large and small houses is shown in the beauty of the panel spacing and the adequate support of the cornice by the pilasters.] _contents_ preface i egypt and greece the renaissance in italy the development of decoration in france louis xiv the regency and louis xv louis xvi the empire english furniture from gothic days to the period of queen anne queen anne chippendale and the eighteenth century in england robert adam hepplewhite sheraton a general talk georgian furniture furnishing with french furniture country houses the nursery and play-room curtains floors and floor coverings the treatment of walls artificial lighting painted furniture synopsis of period styles as an aid in buying furniture _the illustrations_ a modern dining-room _frontispiece_ facing page italian renaissance fireplace and overmantel, modern doorways and pilaster details, italian renaissance two louis xiii chairs a gothic chair of the fifteenth century a louis xiv chair louis xiv inlaid desk-table louis xiv chair with underbracing a modern french drawing-room a drawing-room, old french furniture and tapestry early louis xiv chair louis xv _bergère_ louis xvi bench louis xvi from fontainebleau american empire bed an apostles bed of the tudor period adaptation of the style of william and mary to dressing table reproduction of charles ii chair living-room with reproductions of different periods original jacobean sofa reproductions of charles ii chairs reproductions of queen anne period reproduction of james ii chair reproduction of william and mary chair gothic and ribbonback types of chippendale chairs chippendale mantel mirror showing french influence chippendale fretwork tea-table chippendale china cupboard typical chairs of the eighteenth century chippendale and hepplewhite sofas adam mirror, block-front chest of drawers, and hepplewhite chair two adam mantels a group of old mirrors dining-room furnished with hepplewhite furniture old hepplewhite sideboard reproduction of hepplewhite settee sheraton chest of drawers sheraton desk and sewing-table dining-room in simple country house dining-room furnished with fine old furniture dorothy quincy's bed-room two valuable old desks pembroke inlaid table sheraton sideboard four post bed doorway detail, compiègne reproduction of a bed owned by marie antoinette reproduction of louis xvi bed a georgian hallway rare block-front chest of drawers a modern living-room curtain treatment for a summer home hallway showing rugs hallway showing rugs colonial bed-room dining-room with paneled walls four post bed owned by lafayette modern dining-room four post bed reproductions of adam painted furniture three-chair sheraton settee reproduction of a sheraton wing-chair slat-backed chair group of chairs and pie-crust table groups of chairs reproduction of jacobean buffet group of mirrors reproduction of william and mary settee adaptation of georgian ideas to william and mary dressing table two adam chairs jacobean day-bed reproductions of chippendale table and hepplewhite desk reproduction of sheraton chest of drawers reproduction of william and mary chest of drawers a modern sun-room sheraton sofa hepplewhite chair and nest of tables chippendale wing-chair modern paneled living-room empire bed hancock desk, and fine old highboy _preface_ to try to write a history of furniture in a fairly short space is almost as hard as the square peg and round hole problem. no matter how one tries, it will not fit. one has to leave out so much of importance, so much of historic and artistic interest, so much of the life of the people that helps to make the subject vivid, and has to take so much for granted, that the task seems almost impossible. in spite of this i shall try to give in the following pages a general but necessarily short review of the field, hoping that it may help those wishing to furnish their homes in some special period style. the average person cannot study all the subject thoroughly, but it certainly adds interest to the problems of one's own home to know something of how the great periods of decoration grew one from another, how the influence of art in one country made itself felt in the next, molding and changing taste and educating the people to a higher sense of beauty. it is the lack of general knowledge which makes it possible for furniture built on amazingly bad lines to be sold masquerading under the name of some great period. the customer soon becomes bewildered, and, unless he has a decided taste of his own, is apt to get something which will prove a white elephant on his hands. one must have some standard of comparison, and the best and simplest way is to study the great work of the past. to study its rise and climax rather than the decline; to know the laws of its perfection so that one can recognize the exaggeration which leads to degeneracy. this ebb and flow is most interesting: the feeling the way at the beginning, ever growing surer and surer until the high level of perfection is reached; and then the desire to "gild the lily" leading to over-ornamentation, and so to decline. however, the germ of good taste and the sense of truth and beauty is never dead, and asserts itself slowly in a transition period, and then once more one of the great periods of decoration is born. there are several ways to study the subject, one of the pleasantest naturally being travel, as the great museums, palaces, and private collections of europe offer the widest field. in this country, also, the museums and many private collections are rich in treasures, and there are many proud possessors of beautiful isolated pieces of furniture. if one cannot see originals the libraries will come to the rescue with many books showing research and a thorough knowledge and appreciation of the beauty and importance of the subject in all its branches. i have tried to give an outline, (which i hope the reader will care to enlarge for himself), not from a collector's standpoint, but from the standpoint of the modern home-maker, to help him furnish his house consistently,--to try to spread the good word that period furnishing does not necessitate great wealth, and that it is as easy and far more interesting to furnish a house after good models, as to have it banal and commonplace. the first part of this little book is devoted to a short review of the great periods, and the second part is an effort to help adapt them to modern needs, with a few chapters added of general interest to the home-maker. a short bibliography is also added, both to express my thanks and indebtedness to many learned and delightful writers on this subject of house furnishing in all its branches, and also as a help to others who may wish to go more deeply into its different divisions than is possible within the covers of a book. i wish to thank the editors of _house and garden_ and _the woman's home companion_ for kindly allowing me to reprint articles and portions of articles which have appeared in their magazines. i wish also to thank the owners of the different houses illustrated, and messrs. trowbridge and livingston, architects, for their kindness in allowing me to use photographs. thanks are also due messrs. bergen & orsenigo, nahon & company, tiffany studios, joseph wild & co. and the john somma co. for the use of photographs to illustrate the reproduction of period furniture and rugs of different types. _egypt and greece_ the early history of art in all countries is naturally connected more closely with architecture than with decoration, for architecture had to be developed before the demand for decoration could come. but the two have much in common. noble architecture calls for noble decoration. decoration is one of the natural instincts of man, and from the earliest records of his existence we find him striving to give expression to it, we see it in the scratched pieces of bone and stone of the cave dwellers, in the designs of savage tribes, and in druidical and celtic remains, and in the great ruins of yucatan. the meaning of these monuments may be lost to us, but we understand the spirit of trying to express the sense of beauty in the highest way possible, for it is the spirit which is still moving the world, and is the foundation of all worthy achievement. egypt and assyria stand out against the almost impenetrable curtain of pre-historic days in all the majesty of their so-called civilization. huge, massive, aloof from the world, their temples and tombs and ruins remain. research has given us the key to their religion, so we understand much of the meaning of their wall-paintings and the buildings themselves. the belief of the egyptian that life was a short passage and his house a mere stopping-place on the way to the tomb, which was to be his permanent dwelling-place, explains the great care and labor spent on the pyramids, chapels, and rock sepulchers. they embalmed the dead for all eternity and put statues and images in the tombs to keep the mummy company. colossal figures of their gods and goddesses guarded the tombs and temples, and still remain looking out over the desert with their strange, inscrutable egyptian eyes. the people had technical skill which has never been surpassed, but the great size of the pyramids and temples and sphinxes gives one the feeling of despotism rather than civilization; of mass and permanency and the wonder of man's achievement rather than beauty, but they personify the mystery and power of ancient egypt. the columns of the temples were massive, those of karnak being seventy feet high, with capitals of lotus flowers and buds strictly conventionalized. the walls were covered with hieroglyphics and paintings. perspective was never used, and figures were painted side view except for the eye and shoulder. in the tombs have been found many household belongings, beautiful gold and silver work, beside the offerings put there to appease the gods. chairs have been found, which, humorous as it may sound, are certainly the ancestors of empire chairs made thousands of years later. this is explained by the influence of napoleon's egyptian campaign, but there is something in common between the two times so far apart, of ambition and pride, of grandeur and colossal enterprise. greece may well be called the mother of beauty, for with the greeks came the dawn of a higher civilization, a striving for harmony of line and proportion, an ideal clear, high and persistent. when the dorians from the northern part of greece built their simple, beautiful temples to their gods and goddesses they gave the impetus to the movement which brought forth the highest art the world has known. traces of egyptian influence are to be found in the earliest temples, but the greeks soon rose to their own great heights. the doric column was thick, about six diameters in height, fluted, growing smaller toward the top, with a simple capital, and supported the entablature. the horizontal lines of the architrave and cornice were more marked than the vertical lines of the columns. the portico with its row of columns supported the pediment. the parthenon is the most perfect example of the doric order, and shattered as it is by time and man it is still one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. it was built in the time of pericles, from about to b.c., and the work was superintended by phidias, who did much of the work himself and left the mark of his genius on the whole. the ionic order of architecture was a development of the doric, but was lighter and more graceful. the columns were more slender and had a greater number of flutes and the capitals formed of scrolls or volutes were more ornamental. the corinthian order was more elaborate than the ionic as the capitals were foliated (the acanthus being used), the columns higher, and the entablature more richly decorated. this order was copied by the romans more than the other two as it suited their more florid taste. all the orders have the horizontal feeling in common (as gothic architecture has the vertical), and the simple plan with its perfect harmony of proportion leaves no sense of lack of variety. the perfection attained in architecture was also attained in sculpture, and we see the same aspiration toward the ideal, the same wonderful achievement. this purity of taste of the greeks has formed a standard to which the world has returned again and again and whose influence will continue to be felt as long as the world lasts. the minor arts were carried to the same state of perfection as their greater sisters, for the artists and artisans had the same noble ideal of beauty and the same unerring taste. we have carved gems and coins, and wonderful gold ornaments, painted and silver vases, and terra-cotta figurines, to show what a high point the household arts reached. no work of the great grecian painters remains; apelles, zeuxis, are only names to us, but from the wall paintings at pompeii where late greek influence was strongly felt we can imagine how charming the decorations must have been. egypt and greece were the torch bearers of civilization. _the renaissance in italy_ the gothic period has been treated in later chapters on france and england, as it is its development in these countries which most affects us, but the renaissance in italy stands alone. so great was its strength that it could supply both inspiration and leaders to other countries, and still remain preëminent. it was in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries that this great classical revival in italy came, this re-birth of a true sense of beauty which is called the renaissance. it was an age of wonders, of great artistic creations, and was one of the great epochs of the world, one of the turning points of human existence. it covered so large a field and was so many-sided that only careful study can give a full realization of the giants of intellect and power who made its greatness, and who left behind them work that shows the very quintessence of genius. italy, stirring slightly in the fourteenth century, woke and rose to her greatest heights in the fifteenth and sixteenth. the whole people responded to the new joy of life, the love of learning, the expression of beauty in all its forms. all notes were struck,--gay, graceful, beautiful, grave, cruel, dignified, reverential, magnificent, but all with an exuberance of life and power that gave to italian art its great place in human culture. the great names of the period speak for themselves,--michelangelo, raphael, botticelli, titian, leonardo da vinci, andrea del sarto, machiavelli, benvenuto cellini, and a host of others. the inspiration of the renaissance came largely from the later greek schools of art and literature, alexandria and rhodes and the colonies in sicily and italy, rather than ancient greece. it was also the influence which came to ancient rome at its most luxurious period. the importance of the taking of alexandria and constantinople in must not be underestimated, as it drove scholars from the great libraries of the east carrying their manuscripts to the nobles and priests and merchant princes of italy who thus became enthusiastic patrons of learning and art. this later type of greek art lacked the austerity of the ancient type, and to the models full of joy and beauty and suffering, the italians of the renaissance added the touch of their own temperament and made them theirs in the glowing, rich and astounding way which has never been equaled and probably never will be. perfection of line and beauty was not sufficient, the soul with its capacity for joy and suffering, "the soul with all its maladies" as pater says, had become a factor. the impression made upon michelangelo by seeing the laocoön disinterred is vividly described by longfellow-- [illustration: an exquisite and true renaissance feeling is shown in the pilasters.] [illustration: the italian renaissance is still inspiring the world. in the two doorways the use of pilasters and frieze, and the pedimented and round over-door motifs are typical of the period.] "long, long years ago, standing one morning near the baths of titus, i saw the statue of laocöon rise from its grave of centuries like a ghost writhing in pain; and as it tore away the knotted serpents from its limbs, i heard, or seemed to hear, the cry of agony from its white parted lips. and still i marvel at the three rhodian artists, by whose hands this miracle was wrought. yet he beholds far nobler works who looks upon the ruins of temples in the forum here in rome. if god should give me power in my old age to build for him a temple half as grand as those were in their glory, i should count my age more excellent than youth itself, and all that i have hitherto accomplished as only vanity." "it was an age productive in personalities, many-sided, centralized, complete. artists and philosophers and those whom the action of the world had elevated and made keen, breathed a common air and caught light and heat from each other's thoughts. it is this unity of spirit which gives unity to all the various products of the renaissance, and it is to this intimate alliance with mind, this participation in the best thoughts which that age produced, that the art of italy in the fifteenth century owes much of its grave dignity and influence."[a] [a] walter pater: "studies in the renaissance." it is to this unity of the arts we owe the fact that the art of beautifying the home took its proper place. during the middle ages the church had absorbed the greater part of the best man had to give, and home life was rather a hit or miss affair, the house was a fortress, the family possessions so few that they could be packed into chests and easily moved. during the renaissance the home ideal grew, and, although the church still claimed the best, home life began to have comforts and beauties never dreamed of before. the walls glowed with color, tapestries and velvets added their beauties, and the noble proportions of the marble halls made a rich background for the elaborately carved furniture. the doors of italian palaces were usually inlaid with woods of light shade, and the soft, golden tone given by the process was in beautiful, but not too strong, contrast with the marble architrave of the doorway, which in the fifteenth century was carved in low relief combined with disks of colored marble, sliced, by the way, from roman temple pillars. later as the classic taste became stronger the carving gave place to a plain architrave and the over-door took the form of a pediment. mantels were of marble, large, beautifully carved, with the fireplace sunk into the thickness of the wall. the overmantel usually had a carved panel, but later, during the sixteenth century, this was sometimes replaced by a picture. the windows of the renaissance were a part of the decoration of the room, and curtains were not used in our modern manner, but served only to keep out the draughts. in those days the better the house the simpler the curtains. there were many kinds of ceilings used, marble, carved wood, stucco, and painting. they were elaborate and beautiful, and always gave the impression of being perfectly supported on the well-proportioned cornice and walls. the floors were usually of marble. many of the houses kept to the plan of mediæval exteriors, great expanses of plain walls with few openings on the outsides, but as they were built around open courts, the interiors with their colonnades and open spaces showed the change the renaissance had brought. the riccardi palace in florence and the palazzo della cancelleria in rome, are examples of this early type. the second phase was represented by the great bramante, whose theory of restraining decoration and emphasizing the structure of the building has had such important influence. one of his successors was andrea palladio, whose work made such a deep impression on inigo jones. the library of st. mark's at venice is a beautiful example of this part. the third phase was entirely dominated by michelangelo. the furniture, to be in keeping with buildings of this kind, was large and richly carved. chairs, seats, chests, cabinets, tables, and beds, were the chief pieces used, but they were not plentiful at all in our sense of the word. the chairs and benches had cushions to soften the hard wooden seats. the stuffs of the time were most beautiful genoese velvet, cloth of gold, tapestries, and wonderful embroideries, all lending their color to the gorgeous picture. the carved marriage chest, or cassone, is one of the pieces of renaissance furniture which has most often descended to our own day, for such chests formed a very important part of the furnishing in every household, and being large and heavy, were not so easily broken as chairs and tables. beds were huge, and were architectural in form, a base and roof supported on four columns. the classical orders were used, touched with the spirit of the time, and the fluted columns rose from acanthus leaves set in an urn supported on lion's feet. the tester and cornice gave scope for carving and the panels of the tester usually had the lovely scrolls so characteristic of the period. the headboard was often carved with a coat-of-arms and the curtains hung from inside the cornice. grotesques were largely used in ornament. the name is derived from grottoes, as the roman tombs being excavated at the time were called, and were in imitation of the paintings found on their walls, and while they were fantastic, the word then had no unkindly humorous meaning as now. scrolls, dolphins, birds, beasts, the human figure, flowers, everything was called into use for carving and painting by genius of the artisans of the renaissance. they loved their work and felt the beauty and meaning of every line they made, and so it came about that when, in the course of years, they traveled to neighboring countries, they spread the influence of this great period, and it is most interesting to see how on the italian foundation each country built her own distinctive style. like all great movements the renaissance had its beginning, its splendid climax, and its decline. _the development of decoration in france._ when caesar came to gaul he did more than see and conquer; he absorbed so thoroughly that we have almost no knowledge of how the gauls lived, so far as household effects were concerned. the character which descended from this gallo-roman race to the later french nation was optimistic and beauty-loving, with a strength which has carried it through many dark days. it might be said to be responsible for the french sense of proportion and their freedom of judgment which has enabled them to hold their important place in the history of art and decoration. they have always assimilated ideas freely but have worked them over until they bore the stamp of their own individuality, often gaining greatly in the process. one of the first authentic pieces of furniture is a _bahut_ or chest dating from sometime in the twelfth century and belonging to the church of obazine. it shows how furniture followed the lines of architecture, and also shows that there was no carving used on it. large spaces were probably covered with painted canvas, glued on. later, when panels became smaller and the furniture designs were modified, moldings, etc., began to be used. these _bahuts_ or _huches_, from which the term _huchiers_ came (meaning the corporation of carpenters), were nothing more than chests standing on four feet. from all sources of information on the subject it has been decided that they were probably the chief pieces of furniture the people had. they served as a seat by day and, with cushions spread upon them, as a bed by night. they were also used as tables with large pieces of silver _dressé_ or arranged upon them in the daytime. from this comes our word "dresser" for the kitchen shelves. in those days of brigands and wars and sudden death, the household belongings were as few as possible so that the trouble of speedy transportation would be small, and everything was packed into the chests. as the idea of comfort grew a little stronger, the number of chests grew, and when a traveling party arrived at a stopping-place, out came the tapestries and hangings and cushions and silver dishes, which were arranged to make the rooms seem as cheerful as possible. the germ of the home ideal was there, at least, but it was hard work for the arras and the "ciel" to keep out the cold and cover the bare walls. when life became a little more secure and people learned something of the beauty of proportion, the rooms showed more harmony in regard to the relation of open spaces and walls, and became a decoration in themselves, with the tapestries and hangings enhancing their beauty of line. it was not until some time in the fifteenth century that the habit of traveling with all one's belongings ceased. the year was looked forward to with abject terror, for it was firmly believed by all that the world was then coming to an end. it cast a gloom over all the people and paralyzed all ambition. when, however, the fatal year was safely passed, there was a great religious thanksgiving and everyone joined in the praise of a merciful god. the semi-circular arch of the romanesque style gave way to the pointed arch of the gothic, and wonderful cathedrals slowly lifted their beautiful spires to the sky. the ideal was to build for the glory of god and not only for the eyes of man, so that exquisite carving was lavished upon all parts of the work. this deeply reverent feeling lasted through the best period of gothic architecture, and while household furniture was at a standstill church furniture became more and more beautiful, for in the midst of the religious fervor nothing seemed too much to do for the church. slowly it died out, and a secular attitude crept into decoration. one finds grotesque carvings appearing on the choir stalls and other parts of churches and cathedrals and the standard of excellence was lowered. the chest, table, wooden arm-chair, bed, and bench, were as far as the imagination had gone in domestic furniture, and although we read of wonderful tapestries and leather hangings and clothes embroidered in gold and jewels, there was no comfort in our sense of the word, and those brave knights and fair ladies had need to be strong to stand the hardships of life. glitter and show was the ideal and it was many more years before the standard of comfort and refinement gained a firm foothold. gothic architecture and decoration declined from the perfection of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries to the over-decorated, flamboyant gothic of the fifteenth century, and it was in the latter period that the transition began between the gothic and the renaissance epochs. the renaissance was at its height in italy in the fifteenth century, and its influence began to make itself felt a little in france at that time. when the french under louis xii seized milan, the magnificence of the court of ludovico sforza, the great duke of milan, made such an impression on them that they could not rest content with the old order, and took home many beautiful things. italian artisans were also imported, and as france was ready for the change, their lessons were learned and the french renaissance came slowly into existence. this transition is well shown by the chateau de gaillon, built by cardinal d'amboise. gothic and renaissance decoration were placed side by side in panels and furniture, and we also find some pure gothic decoration as late as the early part of the sixteenth century, but they were in parts of france where tradition changed slowly. styles overlap in every transition period, so it is often difficult to place the exact date on a piece of furniture; but the old dies out at last and gives way to the new. with the accession of frances i in the renaissance came into its own in france. he was a great patron of art and letters, and under his fostering care the people knew new luxuries, new beauties, and new comforts. he invited andrea del sarto and leonardo da vinci to come to france. the word renaissance means simply revival and it is not correctly used when we mean a distinct style led or inspired by one person. it was a great epoch, with individuality as its leading spirit, led by the inspiration of the italian artists brought from italy and molded by the genius of france. this renewal of classic feeling came at the psychological moment, for the true spirit of the great gothic period had died. the renaissance movements in italy, france, england and germany all drew their inspiration from the same source, but in each case the national characteristics entered into the treatment. the italians and germans both used the grotesque a great deal, but the germans used it in a coarser and heavier way than the italians, who used it esthetically. the french used more especially conventional and beautiful floral forms, and the inborn french sense of the fitness of things gave the treatment a wonderful charm and beauty. if one studies the french chateaux one will feel the true beauty and spirit of the times--blois with its history of many centuries, and then some of the purely renaissance chateaux, like chambord. although great numbers of italian artists came to france, one must not think they did all the beautiful work of the time. the french learned quickly and adapted what they learned to their own needs, so that the delicate and graceful decorations brought from italy became more and more individualized until in the reign of henry ii the renaissance reached its high-water mark. the furniture of the time did not show much change or become more varied or comfortable. it was large and solid and the chairs had the satisfactory effect of good proportion, while the general squareness of outline added to the feeling of solidity. oak was used, and later walnut. the chair legs were straight, and often elaborately turned, and usually had strainers or under framing. cushions were simply tied on at first, but the knowledge of upholstering was gaining ground, and by the time of louis xiii was well understood. cabinets had an architectural effect in their design. the style of the decorative motive changed, but it is chiefly in architecture and the decorative treatment of it that one sees the true spirit of the renaissance. two men who had great influence on the style of furniture of the time were androuet du cerceau and hugues sambin. they published books of plates that were eagerly copied in all parts of france. sambin's influence can be traced in the later style of louis xiv. [illustration: louis xiii chair now in the cluny museum showing the flemish influence.] [illustration: a typical louis xiii chair, many of which were covered with velvet or tapestry.] [illustration: _by courtesy of the metropolitan museum of art_ this gothic chair of the th century shows the beautiful linen-fold design in the carving on the lower panels, and also the keyhole which made the chest safe when traveling.] the marriage of henry ii and catherine de medici naturally continued the strong italian influence. the portion of the renaissance called after henry ii lasted about seventy-five years, and corresponds with the elizabethan period in england. during the regency of marie de medici, flemish influence became very strong, as she invited rubens to paris to decorate the luxembourg. there were also many italians called to do the work, and as rubens had studied in italy, italian influence was not lacking. degeneracy began during the reign of henry iv, as ornament became meaningless and consistency of decoration was lost in a maze of superfluous design. it was in the reign of louis xiii that furniture for the first time became really comfortable, and if one examines the engravings of abraham bosse one will see that the rooms have an air of homelikeness as well as richness. the characteristic chair of the period was short in the back and square in shape--it was usually covered with leather or tapestry, fastened to the chair with large brass nails, and the back and seat often had a fringe. a set of chairs usually consisted of arm-chairs, plain chairs, folding stools and a _lit-de-repos_. many of the arm-chairs were entirely covered with velvet or tapestry, or, if the woodwork showed, it was stained to harmonize with the covering on the seat and back. the twisted columns used in chairs, bedposts, etc., were borrowed from italy and were very popular. another shape often used for chair legs was the x that shows flemish influence. the _lit-de-repos_, or _chaise-longue_, was a seat about six feet long, sometimes with arms and sometimes not, and with a mattress and bolster. the beds were very elaborate and very important in the scheme of decoration, as the ladies of the time held receptions in their bedrooms and the king and nobles gave audiences to their subjects while in bed. these latter were therefore necessarily furnished with splendor. the woodwork was usually covered with the same material as the curtains, or stained to harmonize. the canopy never reached to the ceiling but was, from floor to top, about ft. in. high, and the bed was - / ft. square. the curtains were arranged on rods and pulleys, and when closed this "_lit en housse_" looked like a huge square box. the counterpane, or "_coverture de parade_," was of the curtain material. the four corners of the canopy were decorated with bunches of plumes or panache, or with a carved wooden ornament called pomme, or with a "_bouquet_" of silk. the beds were covered with rich stuffs, like tapestry, silk, satin, velvet, cloth-of-gold and silver, etc., all of which were embroidered or trimmed with gold or silver lace. one of the features of a louis xiii room was the tapestry and hangings. a certain look of dignity was given to the rooms by the general square and heavy outlines of the furniture and the huge chimney-pieces. the taste for cabinets kept up and the cabinets and presses were large, sometimes divided into two parts, sometimes with doors, sometimes with open frame underneath. the tables were richly carved and gilded, often ornamented with bronze and copper. the cartouche was used a great deal in decoration, with a curved surface. this rounded form appears in the posts used in various kinds of furniture. when rectangles were used they were always broader than high. the garlands of fruit were heavy, the cornucopias were slender, with an astonishing amount of fruit pouring from them, and the work was done in rather low relief. carved and gilded mirrors were introduced by the italians as were also sconces and glass chandeliers. it was a time of great magnificence, and shadowed forth the coming glory of louis xiv. it seems a style well suited to large dining-rooms and libraries in modern houses of importance. _louis xiv_ it is often a really difficult matter to decide the exact boundary lines between one period and another, for the new style shows its beginnings before the old one is passed, and the old style still appears during the early years of the new one. it is an overlapping process and the years of transition are ones of great interest. as one period follows another it usually shows a reaction from the previous one; a somber period is followed by a gay one; the excess of ornament in one is followed by restraint in the next. it is the same law that makes us want cake when we have had too much bread and butter. the world has changed so much since the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that it seems almost impossible that we should ever again have great periods of decoration like those of louis xiv, louis xv and louis xvi. then the monarch was supreme. "_l'état c'est moi_," said louis xiv, and it was true. he established the great gobelin works on a basis that made france the authority of the world and firmly imposed his taste and his will on the country. now that this absolute power of one man is a thing of the past, we have the influence of many men forming and molding something that may turn into a beautiful epoch of decoration, one that will have in it some of the feeling that brought the french renaissance to its height, though not like it, for we have the same respect for individuality working within the laws of beauty that they had. the style that takes its name from louis xiv was one of great magnificence and beauty with dignity and a certain solidity in its splendor. it was really the foundation of the styles that followed, and a great many people look upon the periods of louis xiv, the regency, louis xv and louis xvi as one great period with variations, or ups and downs--the complete swing and return of the pendulum. louis xiv was a man with a will of iron and made it absolute law during his long reign of seventy-two years. his ideal was splendor, and he encouraged great men in the intellectual and artistic world to do their work, and shed their glory on the time. condé, turenne, colbert, molière, corneille, la fontaine, racine, fénélon, boulle, le brun, are a few among the long and wonderful list. he was indeed louis the magnificent, the sun king. one of the great elements toward achieving the stupendous results of this reign was the establishment of the "manufacture des meubles de la couronne," or, as it is usually called, "manufacture des gobelins." artists of all kinds were gathered together and given apartments in the louvre and the wonderfully gifted and versatile le brun was put at the head. tapestry, goldsmiths' work, furniture, jewelry, etc., were made, and with the royal protection and interest france rose to the position of world-wide supremacy in the arts. le brun had the same taste and love of magnificence as louis, and had also extraordinary executive ability and an almost unlimited capacity for work, combined with the power of gathering about him the most eminent artists of the time. andré charles boulle was one, and his beautiful cabinets, commodes, tables, clocks, etc., are now almost priceless. he carried the inlay of metals, tortoise-shell, ivory and beautiful woods to its highest expression, and the mingling of colors with the exquisite workmanship gave most wonderful effects. sheets of white metal or brass were glued together and the pattern was then cut out. when taken apart the brass scrolls could be fitted exactly into the shell background, and the shell scrolls into the brass background, thus making two decorations. the shell background was the more highly prized. the designs usually had a renaissance feeling. the metal was softened in outline by engraving, and then ormolu mounts were added. ormolu or gilt bronze mounts, formed one of the great decorations of furniture. the most exquisite workmanship was lavished on them, and after they had been cast they were cut and carved and polished until they became worthy ornaments for beautiful inlaid tables and cabinets. the taste for elaborately carved and gilded frames to chairs, tables, mirrors, etc., developed rapidly. mirrors were made by the gobelins works and were much less expensive than the venetian ones of the previous reign. walls were painted and covered with gold with a lavish hand. tapestries were truly magnificent with gold and silver threads adding richness to their beauty of color, and were used purely as a decoration as well as in the old utilitarian way of keeping out the cold. the gobelins works made at this time some of the most beautiful tapestries the world has known. the massive chimney-pieces were superseded by the "_petite-cheminée_" and had great mirrors over them or elaborate over-mantels. the whole air of furnishing and decoration changed to one of greater lightness and brilliancy. the ideal was that everything, no matter how small, must be beautiful, and we find the most exquisite workmanship lavished on window-locks and door-knobs. [illustration: one of a set of three rare louis xiv chairs, beautifully carved and gilded, and said to have belonged to the great louis himself.] in the early style of louis xiv, we find many trophies of war and mythological subjects used in the decorative schemes. the second style of this period was a softening and refining of the earlier one, becoming more and more delicate until it merged into the time of the regency. it was during the reign of louis xiv that the craze for chinese decoration first appeared. _la chinoiserie_ it was called, and it has daintiness and a curious fascination about it, but many inappropriate things were done in its name. the furniture of the time was firmly placed upon the ground, the arm-chairs had strong straining-rails, square or curved backs, scroll arms carved and partly upholstered and stuffed seats and backs. the legs of chairs were usually tapering in form and ornamented with gilding, or marquetry, or richly carved, and later the feet ended in a carved leaf design. some of the straining-rails were in the shape of the letter x, with an ornament at the intersection, and often there was a wooden molding below the seat in place of fringe. many carved and gilded chairs had gold fringe and braid and were covered with velvet, tapestry or damask. [illustration: _by courtesy of the metropolitan museum of art_ inlaid desk with beautifully chiselled ormolu mounts.] [illustration: rare louis xiv chair, showing the characteristic underbracing.] there were many new and elaborate styles of beds that came into fashion at this time. there was the _lit d'ange_, which had a canopy that did not extend over the entire bed, and had no pillars at the foot, the curtains were drawn back at the head and the counterpane went over the foot of the bed. there was the _lit d'alcove_, the _lit de bout_, _lit clos_, _lit de glace_, with a mirror framed in the ceiling, and many others. a _lit de parade_ was like the great bed of louis xiv at versailles. both the tall and bracket clocks showed this same love of ornament and they were carved and gilded and enriched with chased brass and wonderful inlay by boulle. the dials also were beautifully designed. consoles, tables, cabinets, etc., were all treated in this elaborate way. many of the ceilings were painted by great artists, and those at versailles, painted by le brun and others, are good examples. there was always a combination of the straight line and the curve, a strong feeling of balance, and a profusion of ornament in the way of scrolls, garlands, shells, the acanthus, anthemion, etc. the moldings were wide and sometimes a torus of laurel leaves was used, but in spite of the great amount of ornament lavished on everything, there is the feeling of balance and symmetry and strength that gives dignity and beauty. louis was indeed fortunate in having the great colbert for one of his ministers. he was a man of gigantic intellect, capable of originating and executing vast schemes. it was to his policy of state patronage, wisely directed, and energetically and lavishly carried out, that we owe the magnificent achievements of this period. everywhere the impression is given of brilliancy and splendor--gold on the walls, gold on the furniture, rich velvets and damasks and tapestries, marbles and marquetry and painting, furniture worth a king's ransom. it all formed a beautiful and fitting background for the proud king, who could do no wrong, and the dazzling, care-free people who played their brilliant, selfish parts in the midst of its splendor. they never gave a thought to the great mass of the common people who were over-burdened with taxation; they never heard the first faint mutterings of discontent which were to grow, ever louder and louder, until the blood and horror of the revolution paid the debt. _the regency and louis xv_ when louis xiv died in , his great-grandson, louis xv, was but five years old, so philippe, duc d'orleans, became regent. during the last years of louis xiv's life the court had resented more or less the gloom cast over it by the influence of madame de maintenon, and turned with avidity to the new ruler. he was a vain and selfish man, feeling none of the responsibilities of his position, and living chiefly for pleasure. the change in decoration had been foreshadowed in the closing years of the previous reign, and it is often hard to say whether a piece of furniture is late louis xiv or regency. the new gained rapidly over the old, and the magnificent and stately extravagance of louis xiv turned into the daintier but no less extravagant and rich decoration of the regency and louis xv. one of the noticeable changes was that rooms were smaller, and the reign of the boudoir began. it has been truly said that after the death of louis xiv "came the substitution of the finery of coquetry for the worship of the great in style." there was greater variety in the designs of furniture and a greater use of carved metal ornament and gilt bronze, beautifully chased. the ornaments took many shapes, such as shells, shaped foliage, roses, seaweed, strings of pearls, etc., and at its best there was great beauty in the treatment. it was during the regency that the great artist and sculptor in metal, charles cressant, flourished. he was made _ébeniste_ of the regent, and his influence was always to keep up the traditions when the reaction against the severe might easily have led to degeneration. there are beautiful examples of his work in many of the great collections of furniture, notably the wonderful commode in the wallace collection. the dragon mounts of ormolu on it show the strong influence the orient had at the time. he often used the figures of women with great delicacy on the corners of his furniture, and he also used tortoise-shell and many colored woods in marquetry, but his most wonderful work was done in brass and gilded bronze. in , when louis was thirteen years old, he was declared of age and became king. the influence of the regent was, naturally, still strong, and unfortunately did much to form the character of the young king. selfishness, pleasure, and low ideals, were the order of court life, and paved the way for the debased taste for rococo ornament which was one marked phase of the style of louis xv. the great influence of the orient at this time is very noticeable. there had been a beginning of it in the previous reign, but during the regency and the reign of louis xv it became very marked. "_singerie_" and "_chinoiserie_" were the rage, and gay little monkeys clambered and climbed over walls and furniture with a careless abandon that had a certain fascination and charm in spite of their being monkeys. the "_salon des singes_" in the chateau de chantilly gives one a good idea of this. the style was easily overdone and did not last a great while. during this time of oriental influence lacquer was much used and beautiful lacquer panels became one of the great features of french furniture. pieces of furniture were sent to china and japan to be lacquered and this, combined with the expense of importing it, led many men in france to try to find out the oriental secret. le sieur dagly was supposed to have imported the secret and was established at the gobelins works where he made what was called "_vernis de gobelins_." the martin family evolved a most characteristically french style of decoration from the chinese and japanese lacquers. the varnish they made, called "_vernis martin_," gave its name to the furniture decorated by them, which was well suited to the dainty boudoirs of the day. all kinds of furniture were decorated in this way--sedan chairs and even snuff-boxes, until at last the supply became so great that the fashion died. there are many charming examples of it to be seen in museums and private collections, but the modern garish copies of it in many shops give no idea of the charm of the original. watteau's delightful decorations also give the true spirit of the time, with their gayety and frivolity showing the arcadian affectations--the fad of the moment. as the time passed decoration grew more and more ornate, and the followers of cressant exaggerated his traits. one of these was jules aurèle meissonier, an italian by birth, who brought with him to france the decadent italian taste. he had a most marvelous power of invention and lavished ornament on everything, carrying the rocaille style to its utmost limit. he broke up all straight lines, put curves and convolutions everywhere, and rarely had two sides alike, for symmetry had no charms for him. the curved endive decoration was used in architraves, in the panels of overdoors and panel moldings, everywhere it possibly could be used, in fact. his work was in great demand by the king and nobility. he designed furniture of all kinds, altars, sledges, candelabra and a great amount of silversmith's work, and also published a book of designs. unfortunately it is this rococo style which is meant by many people when they speak of the style of louis xv. louis xv furniture and decoration at its best period is extremely beautiful, and the foremost architects of the day were undisturbed by the demand for rococo, knowing it was a vulgarism of taste which would pass. in france, bad as it was, it never went to such lengths as it did in italy and spain. [illustration: the mantel with its great glass reaching to the cornice, the wall panels, paintings over the doors, and beautiful furniture, all show the spirit of the best louis xv period. the fur rug is an anachronism and detracts from the effect of the room.] [illustration: the rare console tables and chairs and the gobelin tapestry, "games of children," show to great advantage in this beautifully proportioned room of soft dull gold. the side-and centre-lights, reflected in the mirror, light the room correctly.] the easy generalization of the girl who said the difference between the styles of louis xv and louis xvi was like the difference in hair, one was curly and one was straight, has more than a grain of truth in it. the curved line was used persistently until the last years of louis xv's time, but it was a beautiful, gracious curve, elaborate, and in furniture, richly carved, which was used during the best period. the decline came when good taste was lost in the craze for rococo. chairs were carved and gilded, or painted, or lacquered, and also beautiful natural woods were used. the sofas and chairs had a general square appearance, but the framework was much curved and carved and gilded. they were upholstered in silks, brocades, velvets, damasks in flowered designs, edged with braid. gobelin, aubusson and beauvais tapestry, with watteau designs, were also used. nothing more dainty or charming could be found than the tapestry seats and chair backs and screens which were woven especially to fit certain pieces of furniture. the tapestry weavers now used thousands of colors in place of the nineteen used in the early days, and this enabled them to copy with great exactness the charming pictures of watteau and boucher. the idea of sitting on beautiful ladies and gentlemen airily playing at country life, does not appeal to our modern taste, but it seems to be in accord with those days. desks were much used and were conveniently arranged with drawers, pigeon-holes and shelves, and roll-top desks were made at this time. commodes were painted, or richly ornamented with lacquer panels, or panels of rosewood or violet wood, and all were embellished with wonderful bronze or ormolu. many pieces of furniture were inlaid with lovely sèvres plaques, a manner which is not always pleasing in effect. there were many different and elaborate kinds of beds, taking their names from their form and draping. "_lit d'anglaise_" had a back, head-board and foot-board, and could be used as a sofa. "_lit a romaine_" had a canopy and four festooned curtains, and so on. the most common form of salon was rectangular, with proportions of to , or to . there were also many square, round, octagonal and oval salons, these last being among the most beautiful. they all were decorated with great richness, the walls being paneled with carved and gilded--or partially gilded--wood. tapestry and brocade and painted panels were used. large mirrors with elaborate frames were placed over the mantels, with panels above reaching to the cornice or cove of the ceiling, and large mirrors were also used over console tables and as panels. the paneled overdoors reached to the cornice, and windows were also treated in this way. windows and doors were not looked upon merely as openings to admit air and light and human beings, but formed a part of the scheme of decoration of the room. there were beautiful brackets and candelabra of ormolu to light the rooms, and the boudoirs and salons, with their white and gold and beautifully decorated walls and gilded furniture, gave an air of gayety and richness, extravagance and beauty. an apartment in the time of louis xv usually had a vestibule, rather severely decorated with columns or pilasters and often statues in niches. the first ante-room was a waiting-room for servants and was plainly treated, the woodwork being the chief decoration. the second ante-room had mirrors, console tables, carved and gilded woodwork, and sometimes tapestry was used above a wainscot. dining-rooms were elaborate, often having fountains and plants in the niches near the buffet. bedrooms usually had an alcove, and the room, not counting the alcove, was an exact square. the bed faced the windows and a large mirror over a console table was just opposite it. the chimney faced the principal entrance. a "_chambre en niche_" was a room where the bed space was not so large as an alcove. the designs for sides of rooms by meissonier, blondel, briseux cuilles and others give a good idea of the arrangement and proportions of the different rooms. the cabinets or studies, and the _garde robes_, were entered usually from doors near the alcove. the ceilings were painted by boucher and others in soft and charming colors, with cupids playing in the clouds, and other subjects of the kind. great attention was given to clocks and they formed an important and beautiful part of the decoration. the natural consequence of the period of excessive rococo with its superabundance of curves and ornament, was that, during the last years of louis's reign, the reaction slowly began to make itself felt. there was no sudden change to the use of the straight line, but people were tired of so much lavishness and motion in their decoration. there were other influences also at work, for robert adam had, in england, established the classic taste, and the excavations at pompeii were causing widespread interest and admiration. the fact is proved that what we call louis xvi decoration was well known before the death of louis xv, by his furnishing luciennes for madam du barri in almost pure louis xvi style. [illustration: a chair from fontainebleau, typical of the early louis xiv epoch before the development of its full grandeur.] [illustration: this louis xv bergère is especially interesting as it shows the broad seat made to accommodate the full dresses of the period.] [illustration: there is a special charm about this old louis xvi bench with its gobelin tapestry cover.] _louis xvi_ louis xvi came to the throne in , and reigned for nineteen years, until that fatal year of ' . he was kind, benign, and simple, and had no sympathy with the life of the court during the preceding reign. marie antoinette disliked the great pomp of court functions and liked to play at the simple life, so shepherdesses, shepherd's crooks, hats, wreaths of roses, watering-pots and many other rustic symbols became the fashion. marie antoinette was but fifteen years old when in she came to france as a bride, and it is hardly reasonable to think that the taste of a young girl would have originated a great period of decoration, although the idea is firmly fixed in many minds. it is known that the transition period was well advanced before she became queen, but there is no doubt that her simpler taste and that of louis led them to accept with joy the classical ideas of beauty which were slowly gaining ground. as dauphin and dauphiness they naturally had a great following, and as king and queen their taste was paramount, and the style became established. architecture became more simple and interior decoration followed suit. the restfulness and beauty of the straight line appeared again, and ornament took its proper place as a decoration of the construction, and was subordinate to its design. during the period of louis xvi the rooms had rectangular panels formed by simpler moldings than in the previous reign, with pilasters of delicate design between the panels. the overdoors and mantels were carried to the cornice and the paneling was usually of oak, painted in soft colors or white and gilded. walls were also covered with tapestry and brocade. some of the most characteristic marks of the style are the straight tapering legs of the furniture, usually fluted, with some carving. fluted columns and pilasters often had metal quills filling them for a part of the distance at top and bottom, leaving a plain channel between. the laurel leaf was used in wreath form, and bell flowers were used on the legs of furniture. oval medallions, surmounted by a wreath of flowers and a bow-knot, appear very often, and in about round medallions were used. furniture was covered with brocade or tapestry, with shepherds and shepherdesses or pastoral scenes for the design. the gayest kinds of designs were used in the silks and brocades; ribbons and bow-knots and interlacing stripes with flowers and rustic symbols scattered over them. curtains were less festooned and cut with great exactness. the canopies of beds became smaller, until often only a ring or crown held the draperies, and it became the fashion to place the bed sideways, "_vu de face_." there was a great deal of beautiful ornament in gilded bronze and ormolu on the furniture, and many colored woods were used in marquetry. the fashion of using sèvres plaques in inlay was continued. there was a great deal of white and colored marble used and very fine ironwork was made. riesener, roentgen, gouthiére, fragonard and boucher are some of the names that stand out most distinctly as authors of the beautiful decorations of the time. marie antoinette's boudoir at fontainebleau is a perfect example of the style and many of the other rooms both there and at the petit trianon show its great beauty, gayety and dignity combined with its richness and magnificence. the influence of pompeii must not be overlooked in studying the style of louis xvi, for it appeared in much of the decoration of the time. the beautiful little boudoir of the marquise de sérilly is a charming example of its adaptation. the problem of bad proportion is also most interestingly overcome. the room was too high for its size, so it was divided into four arched openings separated by carved pilasters, and the walls covered with paintings. the ceiling was darker than the walls, which made it seem lower, and the whole color scheme was so arranged that the feeling of extreme height was lessened. the mantel is a beautiful example of the period. this room was furnished about - . compared to the lavish curves of the style of louis xv, the fine outlines and the beautiful ornament of louis xvi appear to some people cold, but if they look carefully at the matter, they will find them not really so. the warmth of the gallic temperament still shows through the new garb, giving life and beauty to the dainty but strong furniture. if one studies the examples of the styles of louis xiv, louis xv and louis xvi that one finds in the great palaces, collections, museums and books of prints and photographs, one will see that the wonderful foundation laid by louis xiv was still there in the other two reigns. during the time of louis xvi the pose of rustic simplicity was a very sophisticated pose indeed, but the reaction from the rocaille style of louis xv led to one of the most beautiful styles of decoration that the world has seen. it had dignity, true beauty and the joy of life expressed in it. [illustration: rare louis xvi chair--an original from fontainebleau.] [illustration: the american empire sofa, when not too elaborate, is a very beautiful article of furniture.] _the empire_ the french revolution made a tremendous change in the production of beautiful furniture, as royalty and the nobility could no longer encourage it. many of the great artists died in poverty and many of them went to other countries where life was more secure. after the revolution there was wholesale destruction of the wonderful works of art which had cost such vast sums to collect. nothing was to remain that would remind the people of departed kings and queens, and a committee on art was appointed to make selections of what was to be saved and what was to be destroyed. that committee of "tragic comedians" set up a new standard of art criticism; it was not the artistic merits of a piece of tapestry, for instance, that interested them, but whether a king or queen dared show their heads upon it. if so, into the flames it went. thousands of priceless things were destroyed before they finished their dreadful work. when napoleon came into power he turned to ancient rome for inspiration. the imperial cæsars became his ideal and gave him a wide field in which to display his love for splendor, uncontrolled by any true artistic sense. it gave decoration a blow from which it was hard to recover. massive furniture without real beauty of line, loaded with ormolu, took the place of the old. the furniture was simple in construction with little carving, until later when all kinds of animal heads and claws, and animals never seen by man, and horns of plenty, were used to support tables and chairs and sofas. everywhere one turned the feeling of martial grandeur was in the air. ormolu mounts of bay wreaths, torches, eagles, military emblems and trophies, winged figures, the sphinx, the bee, and the initial n, were used on furniture; and these same motives were used in wall decoration. the furniture was left the natural color of the wood, and mahogany, rosewood, and ebony, were used. veneer was also extensively used. the front legs of chairs were usually straight, and the back legs slightly curved. beds were massive, with head and foot-board of even height, and the tops rolled over into a scroll. swans were used on the arms of chairs and sofas and the sides of beds. tables were often round, with tripod legs; in fact, the tripod was a great favorite. there was a great deal of inlay of the favorite emblems but little carving. plain columns with doric caps and metal ornaments were used. the change in the use of color was very marked, for deep brown, blue and other dark colors were used instead of the light and gay ones of the previous period. the materials used were usually of solid colors with a design in golden yellow, a wreath, or a torch, or the bee, or one of the other favorite emblems being used in a spot design, or powdered on. some of the color combinations in the rooms we read of sound quite alarming. since the time of the empire, france has done as the rest of the world has, gone without any special style. _english furniture from gothic days to the period of queen anne._ the early history of furniture in all countries is very much the same--there is not any. we know about kings and queens, and war and sudden death, and fortresses and pyramids, but of that which the people used for furniture we know very little. research has revealed the mention in old manuscripts once in a while of benches and chests, and the bayeux tapestry and old seals show us that william the conquerer and richard coeur de lion sat on chairs, even if they were not very promising ones, but at best it is all very vague. it is natural to suppose that the early saxons had furniture of some kind, for, as the remains of saxon metalwork show great skill, it is probable they had skill also in woodworking. in england, as in france, the first pieces of furniture that we can be sure of are chests and benches. they served all purposes apparently, for the family slept on them by night and used them for seats and tables by day. the bedding was kept in the chests, and when traveling had to be done all the family possessions were packed in them. there is an old chest at stoke d'abernon church, dating from the thirteenth century, that has a little carving on it, and another at brampton church of the twelfth or thirteenth century that has iron decorations. some chests show great freedom in the carving, st. george and the dragon and other stories being carved in high relief. [illustration: an apostles bed of the tudor period, so-called from the carved panels of the back. the over elaboration of the late tudor work corresponded in time with france's deterioration in the reign of henry iv.] nearly all the existing specimens of gothic furniture are ecclesiastical, but there are a few that were evidently for household use. these show distinctly the architectural treatment of design in the furniture. chairs were not commonly used until the sixteenth century. our distinguished ancestors decided that one chair in a house was enough, and that was for the master, while his family and friends sat on benches and chests. it is a long step in comfort and manners from the fifteenth to the twentieth century. later the guest of honor was given the chair, and from that may come the saying that a speaker "takes the chair." gothic tables were probably supported by trestles, and beds were probably very much like the early sixteenth century beds in general shape. there were cupboards and armoires also, but examples are very rare. from an old historical document we learn that henry iii, in , ordered the sheriff to attend to the painting of the wainscoted chamber in winchester castle and to see that "the pictures and histories were the same as before." another order is for having the wall of the king's chamber at westminster "painted a good green color in imitation of a curtain." these painted walls and stained glass that we know they had, and the tapestry, must have given a cheerful color scheme to the houses of the wealthy class even if there was not much comfort. [illustration: in this walnut dressing-table the period of william and mary has been adapted to modern needs.] [illustration: this reproduction of a charles ii chair shows cherubs supporting crowns.] the history of the great houses of england, and also the smaller manor-houses, is full of interest in connection with the study of furniture. there are many manor-houses that show all the characteristics of the gothic, renaissance, tudor and jacobean periods, and from them we can learn much of the life of the times. the early ones show absolute simplicity in the arrangement, one large hall for everything, and later a small room or two added. the fire was on the floor and the smoke wandered around until it found its way out at the opening, or louvre, in the roof. then a chimney was built at the dais end of the hall, and the mantelpiece became an important part of the decoration. the hall was divided by "screens" into smaller rooms, leaving the remainder for retainers, and causing the clergy to inveigh against the new custom of the lord of the manor "eating in secret places." the staircase developed from the early winding stair about a newel or post to the beautiful broad stairs of the tudor period. these were usually six or seven feet broad, with about six wide easy steps and then a landing, and the carving on the balusters was often very elaborate and sometimes very beautiful--a ladder raised to the _n_th power. slowly the gothic period died in england and slowly the renaissance took its place. there was never the gayety of decorative treatment that we find in france, but the english workmen, while keeping their own individuality, learned a tremendous amount from the italians who came to the country. their influence is shown in the henry viith chapel in westminster abbey, and in the old part of hampton court palace, built by cardinal wolsey. the religious troubles between henry viii and the pope and the change of religion helped to drive the italians from the country, so the renaissance did not get such a firm foothold in england as it did in france. the mingling of gothic and renaissance forms what we call the tudor period. during the time of elizabeth all trace of gothic disappeared, and the influence of the germans and flemings who came to the country in great numbers, helped to shorten the influence of the renaissance. the over-elaboration of the late tudor time corresponded with the deterioration shown in france in the time of henry iv. the hall of gray's inn, the halls of oxford, the charterhouse and the hall of the middle temple are all fine examples of the tudor period. we find very few names of furniture makers of those days; in fact, there are very few names known in connection with the buildings themselves. the word architect was little used until after the renaissance. the owner and the "surveyor" were the people responsible, and the plans, directions and details given to the workmen were astonishingly meager. the great charm that we all feel in the tudor and jacobean periods is largely due to the beautiful paneled walls. their woodwork has a color that only age can give and that no stain can copy. the first panels were longer than the later ones. wide use was made of the beautiful "linen-fold" design in the wainscoting, and there was also much elaborate carving and strapwork. scenes like the temptation of adam and eve were represented, heads in circular medallions, and simply decorative designs were used. in the days of elizabeth it became the fashion to have the carving at the top of the paneling with plain panels below. tudor and jacobean mantelpieces were most elaborate and were of wood, stone, or marble richly carved, to say nothing of the beautiful plaster ones, and there are many fine examples in existence. they were fond of figure decoration, and many subjects were taken from the bible. the overmantels were decorated with coats-of-arms and other carving, and the entablature over the fireplace often had latin mottoes. the earliest firebacks date from the fifteenth century. coats-of-arms and many curious designs were used upon them. the furniture of the tudor period was much carved, and was made chiefly of oak. cornices of beds and cabinets often had the egg-and-dart molding used on them, and the s-curve is often seen opposed on the backs of settees and chairs. it has a suggestion of a dolphin and is reminiscent of the dolphins of the renaissance. the beds were very large, the "great bed of ware" being twelve feet square. the cornice, the bed-head, the pedestals and pillars supporting the cornice were all richly carved. frequently the pillars at the foot of the bed were not connected with it, but supported the cornice which was longer than the bed. the "courtney bedstead," dated , showing many of the characteristics of the ornament of the time, is - / inches high, inches long, inches wide. the majority of the beds were smaller and lower, however, and the pillars usually rose out of drum-like members, huge acorn-like bulbs that were often so large as to be ugly. they appeared also on other articles of furniture. when in good proportion, with pillars tapering from them, they were very effective, and gradually they grew smaller. some of the beds had the four apostles, matthew, mark, luke and john, carved on the posts. they were probably the origin of the nursery rhyme: "four corners to my bed, four angels round my head, matthew, mark, luke and john, bless the bed that i lie on." [illustration: in this living-room, italian, jacobean, and modern stuffed furniture, give a satisfactory effect because each piece is good of its kind and is in a certain relationship to each other. the huge clock with chimes and the animal casts are out of keeping.] bed hanging were of silk, velvet, damask, wool damask, tapestry, etc., and there were fine linen sheets and blankets and counterpanes of wool work. the chairs were high-backed of solid oak with cushions. there were also jointed stools, folding screens, chests, cabinets, tables with carpets (table covers) tapestry hangings, curtains, cushions, silver sconces, etc. [illustration: original jacobean settle with tapestry covering. these pieces of furniture range in price between $ and $ , .] [illustration: fine reproductions of jacobean chairs of the time of charles ii. the carved front rail balances the carving on the back perfectly.] the jacobean period began with james i, and lasted until the time of william and mary, or from to about . in the early part there was still a strong tudor feeling, and toward the end foreign influence made itself felt until the dutch under william became paramount. inigo jones did his great work at this time in the palladian style of architecture. his simpler taste did much to reduce the exaggeration of the late tudor days. chests of various kinds still remained of importance. their growth is interesting: first the plain ones of very early days, then panels appeared, then the pointed arch with its architectural effect, then the low-pointed arch of tudor and early jacobian times, and the geometrical ornament. then came a change in the general shape, a drawer being added at the bottom, and at last it turned into a complete chest of drawers. cabinets or cupboards were also used a great deal, and the most interesting are the court-and livery-cupboards. the derivation of the names is a bit obscure, but the court cupboard probably comes from the french _court_, short. the first ones were high and unwieldy and the later ones were lower with some enclosed shelves. they were used for a display of plate, much as the modern sideboard is used. the number of shelves was limited by rank; the wife of a baronet could have two, a countess three, a princess four, a queen five. they were beautifully carved, very often, the doors to the enclosed portions having heads, tudor roses, arches, spindle ornaments and many other designs common to the tudor and jacobean periods. they had a silk "carpet" put on the shelves with the fringe hanging over the ends, but not the front, and on this was placed the silver. the livery-cupboard was used for food, and the word probably comes from the french _livrer_, to deliver. it had several shelves enclosed by rails, not panels, so the air could circulate, and some of them had open shelves and a drawer for linen. they were used much as we use a serving-table, or as the kitchen dresser was used in old new england days. in them were kept food and drink for people to take to their bedrooms to keep starvation at bay until breakfast. drawing-tables were very popular during jacobean times. they were described as having two ends that were drawn out and supported by sliders, while the center, previously held by them, fell into place by its own weight. another characteristic table was the gate-legged or thousand-legged table, that was used so much in our own colonial times. there were also round, oval and square tables which had flaps supported by legs that were drawn out. tables were almost invariably covered with a table cloth. some of the chairs of the time of james i were much like those of louis xiii, having the short back covered with leather, damask, or tapestry, put on with brass or silver nails and fringe around the edge of the seat. the chief characteristic of the chairs of this time was solidity, with the ornament chiefly on the upper parts, which were molded oftener than carved, with the backs usually high. a plain leather chair called the "cromwell chair," was imported from holland. the solid oak back gave way at last to the half solid back, then came the open back with rails, and then the charles ii chair, with its carved or turned uprights, its high back of cane, and an ornamental stretcher like the top of the chair back, between the front legs. this is a very attractive feature, as it serves to give balance of decoration and also partly hides the plain stretcher from sight. a typical detail of charles ii furniture is the crown supported by cherubs or opposed s-curves. james ii used a crown and palm leaves. grinling gibbons did his wonderful work in carving at this time, using chiefly pear and lime wood. the greater part of his work was wall decoration, but he made tables, mirrors and other furniture as well. the carving was often in lighter wood than the background, and was in such high relief that portions of it had often to be "pinned" together, for it seemed almost in the round. evelyn discovered gibbons in a little shop working away at such a wonderful piece of carving that he could not rest until he had taken him to sir christopher wrenn. from this introduction came the great amount of work they did together. the influence of his work was still seen in the early eighteenth century. the room at knole house that was furnished for james i is of great interest, as it is the same to-day as when first furnished. the bed is said to have cost £ , . as it is one of the show places of england one should not miss a chance of seeing it. until the time of the restoration the furniture of england could not compare in sumptuousness with that of the continental countries. england, besides having a simpler point of view, was in a perpetual state of unrest. the honest and hard-working english joiners and carpenters adapted in a plain and often clumsy way the styles of the different foreigners who came to the country. through it all, however, they kept the touch of national character that makes the furniture so interesting, and they often did work of great beauty and worth. when charles ii came to the throne he brought with him the ideas of france, where he had spent so many years, and the change became very marked. the natural stuart extravagance also helped to form his taste, and soon we hear of much more elaborate decoration throughout the land. many of the country towns were far behind london in the style of furniture, and this explains why some furniture that is dated , for instance, seems to belong to an earlier time. the famous silver furniture of knole house, seven-oaks, belongs to this time. evelyn mentions in his diary that the rooms of the duchess of portsmouth were full of "japan cabinets and screens, pendule clocks, greate vases of wrought plate, tables, stands, chimney furniture, sconces, branches, baseras, etc., all of massive silver," and later he mentions again her "massy pieces of plate, whole tables and stands of incredible value." in the reign of william and mary, dutch influence was naturally very pronounced, as william disliked everything english. the english, being now well grounded in the knowledge of construction, took the dutch ideas as a foundation and developed them along their own lines, until we have the late queen anne type made by chippendale. the change in the style of chairs was most marked and noticeable. they were more open backed than in charles's time and had two uprights and a spoon-or fiddle-shaped splat to support the sitter's back. the chair backs took more the curve of the human figure, and the seats were broader in front than in the back; the cabriole legs were broad at the top and ended in claw or pad feet, and there were no straining-rails. the shell was a common form of ornament, and all crowns and cherubs had disappeared. inlay and marquetry came to be generously used, but there had been many cabinets of dutch marquetry brought to england even before the time of william and mary. flower designs in dyed woods, shell, mother-of-pearl, and ivory were used. the marquetry clocks made at this time are wonderful and characteristic examples of the work, and are among the finest clocks ever made for beauty of line and finish, and proportion. although marquetry and inlay have much in common there is one great difference between them, and they should not be used as synonymous terms. in marquetry the entire surface of the article is covered with pieces of different colored woods cut very thin and glued on. it is like a modern picture puzzle done with regard to the design. in inlay, the design only is inlaid in the wood, leaving a much larger plain background. veneering is a thin layer of beautiful and often rare wood glued to a foundation of some cheaper kind. the tall clocks and cabinets of william and mary's time and the wonderful work of boulle in france are examples of marquetry, the fine furniture of hepplewhite and sheraton are masterly examples of inlay. [illustration: examples of line reproductions. the lacquer chairs carry out the true feeling of the old with great skill.] [illustration: a reproduction of a walnut chair with cane seat and back, of the william and mary period.] [illustration: reproduction of chair showing the transition between the time of charles ii and william and mary. the carved strut remains but the back is lower and simpler.] _queen anne_ "queen anne" furniture is a very elastic term, for it is often used to cover the reigns of william and mary, queen anne, george i, and a part of the reign of george ii, or, in other words, all the time of dutch influence. the more usual method is to leave out william and mary, but at best the classification of furniture is more or less arbitrary, for in england, as well as other countries, the different styles overlap each other. chippendale's early work was distinctly influenced by the dutch. walnut superseded oak in popularity, and after mahogany gradually became the favorite. there was a good deal of walnut veneering done, and the best logs were saved for the purpose. marquetry died out and gave place to carving, and the cabriole leg, one of the chief marks of dutch influence, became a firmly fixed style. the carving was put on the knees and the legs ended in claw and ball and pad feet. some chairs were simply carved with a shell or leaf or scroll on top rail and knees of the legs. in the more elaborately carved chairs the arms, legs, splat, and top rail were all carved with acanthus leaves, or designs from gibbons's decoration. chairs were broad in the seat and high of back with wide splats, often decorated with inlay, in the early part of the period. the top rail curved into the side uprights, and the seat was set into a rebate or box-seat. the chair backs slowly changed in shape, becoming broader and lower, the splat ceased to be inlaid and was pierced and carved, and the whole chair assumed the shape made so familiar to us by chippendale. tables usually had cabriole legs, although there were some gate-or thousand-legged, tables, and card tables, writing-tables, and flap-tables, were all used. it was in the queen anne period that highboys and lowboys made their first appearance. in the short reign of anne it also became the fashion to have great displays of chinese porcelain, and over-mantels, cupboards, shelves and tables were covered with wonderful pieces of it. addison, in sir roger de coverley, humorously describes a lady's library of the time. "... and as it was some time before the lady came to me i had an opportunity of turning over a great many of her books, which were ranged in a very beautiful order. at the end of the folios (which were finely bound and gilt) were great jars of china placed one above another in a very noble piece of architecture. the quartos were separated from the octavos by a pile of smaller vessels, which rose in a delightful pyramid. the octavos were bounded by tea-dishes of all shapes, colors, and sizes, which were so disposed on a wooden frame that they looked like one continued pillar indented with the finest strokes of sculpture and stained with the greatest variety of dyes. part of the library was enclosed in a kind of square, consisting of one of the prettiest grotesque works that ever i saw, and made up of scaramouches, lions, monkeys, mandarins, trees, shells, and a thousand other odd figures in china ware. in the midst of the room was a little japan table." between and lacquer ware became very fashionable, and many experiments were made to imitate the beautiful oriental articles brought home by dutch traders. in holland a fair amount of success was attained and a good deal of lacquered furniture was sent from there to england where the brass and silver mounts were added. english and french were experimenting, the french with the greatest success in their vernis martin, mentioned elsewhere, which really stood quite in a class by itself, but the imitations of chinese and japanese lacquer were inferior to the originals. pine, oak, lime, and many other woods, were used as a base, and the fashion was so decided that nearly all kinds of furniture were covered with it. this lacquer ware of william and mary's and queen anne's time must not be confounded with the japanned furniture of hepplewhite's and sheraton's time, which was quite different and of much lower grade. it was in the reign of queen anne that the sun began to rise on english cabinet work; it shone gloriously through the eighteenth century, and sank in early victorian clouds. [illustration: two important phases of chippendale's work--an elaborate ribbon-back chair, and one of the more staid gothic type.] [illustration: an elaborately carved and gilded chippendale mantel mirror, showing french influence.] [illustration: one of the most beautiful examples of chippendale's fretwork tea-tables in existence.] _chippendale and the eighteenth century in england._ the classification of furniture in england is on a different basis from that of france, as the rulers of england were not such patrons of art as were the french kings. flemish, dutch and french influences all helped to form the taste of the people. the jacobean period lasted from the time of james i to the time of william and mary. william brought with him from holland the strong dutch feeling that had a tremendous influence on the history of english furniture, and during anne's short reign the dutch feeling still lasted. it was not until the early years of the reign of george ii that the georgian period came into its own with chippendale at its head. some authorities include william and mary and queen anne in the georgian period, but the more usual idea is to divide it into several parts, better known as the times of chippendale, adam, hepplewhite and sheraton. french influence is marked throughout and is divided into parts. the period of chippendale was contemporaneous with that of louis xv, and the second part included the other three men and corresponded with the last years of louis xv, when the transition to louis xvi was beginning, and the time of louis xvi. it was not until the latter part of chippendale's life that he gave up his love of rococo curves and scrolls, dripping water effects, and his chinese and gothic styles. his early chairs had a dutch feeling, and it is often only by ornamentation that one can date them. the top of the dutch chair had a flowing curve, the splat was first solid and plain, then carved, and later pierced in geometrical designs; then came the curves that were used so much by chippendale. the carving consisted of swags and pendants of fruit and flowers, shells, acanthus leaves, scrolls, eagle's heads, carved in relief on the surface. dutch chairs were usually of walnut and some of the late ones were of mahogany. mahogany was not used to any extent before , but at that time it began to be imported in large quantities, and its lightness and the ease with which it could be worked made it appropriate for the lighter style of furniture then coming into vogue. chippendale began to make chairs with the curved top that is so characteristic of his work. the splat back was always used, in spite of the french, and its treatment is one of the most interesting things in the history of english furniture. it gave scope for great originality. although, as i have said before, foreign influence was strong, the ideas were adapted and worked out by the great cabinet-makers of the georgian period with a vigor and beauty that made a distinct english style, and often went far, far ahead of the originals. there were, so far as we know, three thomas chippendales: the second was the great one. he was born in worcester, england, about , and died in . he and his father, who was also a carver, came to london before . very little is known about his life, but we may feel sure he was that rare combination: a man of genius with decided business ability. he not only designed the furniture which was made in his shop, but executed a large part of it also, and superintended all the work done there by others. that he was a man of originality shows distinctly through his work, for although he adapted and copied freely and was strongly influenced by the dutch, french, and "chinese taste," there is always his own distinctive touch. the furniture of his best period, and those belonging to his school, has great beauty of line and proportion, and the exquisite carving shows a true feeling for ornament in relation to plain surfaces. there are a few examples in existence of carving in almost as high relief as that of grinling gibbons, swags, etc., and in his most rococo period his carving was very elaborate. it always had great clearness of edge and cut, and a wonderful feeling for light and shade. in what is called "irish chippendale," which was furniture made in ireland after the style of chippendale, the carving was in low relief and the edges fairly smoothed off, which made it much less interesting. chippendale looked upon his work as one of the arts and placed his ideal of achievement very high, and that he received the recognition of the best people of the time as an artist of merit is proved by his election to the society of arts with such men as sir joshua reynolds, horace walpole, samuel johnson, david garrick, and others. the genius of chippendale justly puts him in the front rank of cabinet-makers and his influence was the foundation of much of the fine work done by many others during the eighteenth century. he is often criticized for his excessive rococo taste as displayed in the plates of the "gentleman's and cabinet-maker's director," and in some of his finished work. many of the designs in the "director" were probably never carried out, and some of them were probably added to by the soaring imaginations of the engraver. this is true of all the books published by the great cabinet-makers, and it always seems more fair to have their reputations rest on their finished work which has come down to us. [illustration: the dripping-water effect, of which chippendale was so fond at one time, is plainly shown on the doors of this particularly fine example of his work.] chippendale, of course, must bear the chief part of the charge of over-elaboration, and he frankly says that he thinks "much enrichment is necessary." he copied meissonier's designs and had a great love for gilding, but the display of rococo taste is not in all his work by any means, nor was it so excessive as that of the french. the more self-restrained temperament of the anglo-saxon race makes a deal of difference. he early used the ogee curve and cabriole leg, the knees of which he carved with cartouches and leaves or other designs. the front rail of the chair also was often carved. there were several styles of curved leg, the cabriole leg of dutch influence, and the curved style of louis xv. there were also several variations on the claw and ball foot. many chippendale chairs were without stretchers, but the straight legged style usually had four. the seats were sometimes in a box frame or rebate, and sometimes the covering was drawn over the frame and fastened with brass headed nails. chippendale in the "director" speaks of red morocco, spanish leather, damask, tapestry and other needlework as being appropriate for the covering of his chairs. [illustration: a chair from early in the th century of the dutch type.] [illustration: one of the chippendale patterns, dating from about .] [illustration: hepplewhite's characteristic shield-shaped back.] [illustration: thomas sheraton's rectangular type of chair-back.] in about or he began to use the straight leg for his chairs. the different shapes of splats will often help in deciding the dates of their making, and its development is of great interest. the curves shown in the diagram on page are the merest suggestions of the outline of the splat, and they were carved most beautifully in many different designs. ribbon-back chairs are dated about and show the adapted french influence. his gothic and chinese designs were made about - . ladder-back chairs nearly always had straight legs, either plain or with double ogee curve and bead moldings, but there are a few examples of ladder-back and cabriole legs combined, although these are very rare. the chair settees of the dutch time, with backs having the appearance of chairs side by side, were also made by chippendale. "love seats" were small settees. it was naïvely said that "they were too large for one and too small for two." a large armchair that shows a decided difference in the manners of the early eighteenth century and the present day was called the "drunkard's chair." [illustration: different types of chair splats used by chippendale.] when the craze for "indian work" was at its height, there were many pieces of old oak and walnut furniture covered with lacquer to bring it up to the fashionable standard, but their forms were not suitable, and oak especially, with its coarse grain did not lend itself to the process. the stands for lacquer cabinets vary in style, but were often gilded in late louis xiv and louis xv style. the difference between true lacquer and its imitations is hard to explain. the true was made by repeated coats of a special varnish, each rubbed down and allowed to become hard before the next was put on. this gave a hard, cool, smooth surface with no stickiness. modern work, done with paint and french varnish, has not this delightful feeling, but is nearly always clammy to the touch, and the colors are hurt by the process of polishing. chippendale did not use much lacquer, but in the "director" he often says such and such designs would be suitable for it. much of the furniture that chippendale made was heavy, but the best of it had much beauty. his delicate fretwork tea-tables are a delight, with their fretwork cupboards and carving. he seemed to combine many sides in his artistic temperament, a fact that many people lay to his power of assimilating the work of others. he did not make sideboards in our sense of the word. his were large side-tables, sometimes with a drawer for silver and sometimes not. pier-tables were very much like them in shape, but smaller, and were often gilded to match the mirrors which were placed above them. the larger pieces of chippendale furniture have the same characteristic of perfect workmanship and detail which the chairs possess. dining-tables were made in sections consisting of two semi-circular ends and two center pieces with flaps which could all be joined together and make a very large table. the beds he made had four posts and cornice tops elaborately carved and often gilded, with a strong louis xv feeling. the curtains hung from the inside of the cornice. he also made many other styles of beds, such as canopy beds, tent beds, flat tester beds, chinese beds, gothic beds: there was almost nothing he did not make for the house from wall brackets to the largest wardrobes. to many people used to the simple chippendale furniture which is commonly seen, the idea of rich and beautiful carving and gilding comes as a surprise, and even in the "director" there are no plates which show his most beautiful work. his elaborate furniture was naturally chiefly order work, and so was not pictured, and much of it that is left is still in the possession of the descendants of the original owners. the small number of authentic pieces which have reached public sales have been eagerly snapped up by private collectors and museums at large prices. [illustration: it is interesting to compare the generous curves of the chippendale sofa with the greater severity of hepplewhite's taste..] in america much of the furniture called chippendale was not made by chippendale himself, but was made after his designs and copied from imported pieces by clever cabinet-makers here in the, then, colonies. the average american of the eighteenth century was a simple and not over rich person of good breeding and refined taste who appreciated the fact that the elaborate furniture of england and france would not be in keeping with life in america, and so either imported the simpler kinds, or demanded that the home cabinet-maker choose good models for his work. this partly explains why we have so much really good colonial furniture, and not so much of the elaborately carved and gilded variety. [illustration: a valuable collection of an adam mirror, a block-front, knee-hole chest of drawers, and a hepplewhite chair.] _robert adam_ robert adam was the second of the four sons of william adam, and was born in . the adam family was scotch of good social position. robert early showed a talent for drawing. he was ambitious, and, as old roman architecture interested him above all other subjects, he decided that he could attain his ideals only by study and travel in italy. he returned to england in after four years of hard work with the results of his labors, the chief treasure being his careful drawings of diocletian's villa. his classical taste was firmly established, and was to be one of the important influences of the eighteenth century. robert and james adam went into partnership and became the most noted architects of their day in england. the list of their buildings is long and interesting, and much of their architectural and decorative work is still in existence. to many people it will seem like putting the cart before the horse to say that robert adam had in any way influenced the style we call louis xvi, but it is a plausible theory and certainly an interesting one. mr. g. owen wheeler in his interesting book on "old english furniture" makes a strong case in favor of the adam brothers. classical taste was well established in england by , before the transition from louis xv to louis xvi began, and robert adam published his book in parallel columns of french and english, which shows it must have been in some demand in france. the great influence of the excavations at pompeii must naturally not be underestimated, as it was far reaching, but with the beautiful adam style well developed, just across the channel, it seems probable that it may have had its share in forming french taste. the foundation being there, the french put their characteristic touch to it and developed a much richer style than that of the adam brothers, but the two have so much in common that louis xvi furniture may be put into an adam room with perfect fitness, and vice versa. as the adams cared only to design furniture some one else had to carry out the designs, and chippendale was master carver and cabinet-maker under them at harewood house, yorkshire, and probably was also in many other instances. [illustration: a mantel of marble and steel in the drawing-room, rushton hall, northamptonshire--the work of the brothers adam.] [illustration: another adam mantel. it is interesting to note how clearly these mantels are the inspiration of our own colonial work.] the early furniture of adam was plain, and the walls were treated with much decoration that was classic in feeling. he possessed the secret of a composition of which his exquisite decorations on walls and ceilings were made. after he simplified his walls and elaborated his furniture designs until they met in a beautiful and graceful harmony. he designed furniture to suit the room it was in, and with the dainty and charming coloring, the beauty of proportion and the charm of the wall decoration, the scheme had great beauty. [illustration: this group of old mirrors indicates the extent to which refinement of design was carried during the georgian period in england--the time of the great cabinet-makers.] he used the ram's head, wreaths, honeysuckle, mythological subjects, lozenge-shaped, oval and octagonal panels, and many other designs. he was one of the first to use the french idea of decorating furniture with painting and porcelain plaques, and the furniture itself was simple and beautiful in line. the stucco ceilings designed by the brothers were picked out with delicate colors and have much beauty of line. a great deal of the most beautiful adam decoration was the painting on walls and ceilings and furniture by angelica kaufmann, zucchi, pergolesi, cipriani, and columbani. the standard of work was so high that only the best was satisfactory. adam usually designed his furniture for the room in which it was to stand, and he often planned the house and all its contents, even to the table silver, to say nothing of the door-locks. the chairs were of mahogany, or painted, or gilded, wood. some had oval upholstered backs, with the covering specially designed for the room, and some had lyre backs, later used so much by sheraton, and others had small painted panels placed in the top rail, with beautiful carving. mirrors were among the most charming articles designed by adam, and had composition wreaths and cupids and medallions for ornament. they were usually made in pairs in both large and small sizes. a pair of antique mirrors should be kept together, as they are very much more valuable than when separated. adam was one of the first to assemble the pieces that later grew into the sideboard--a table, two pedestals, and a cellaret. there is a sideboard designed by him for gillows, in which the parts are connected, and it is at least one of the ancestors of the beautiful shearer and hepplewhite ones and our modern useful, though not always beautiful, article. when, late in his career, adam attempted to copy the french, he was not so successful, as he did not have their flexibility of temperament, and was unable to give the warmer touch to the classic, which they did so well. his paneled walls, however, have great dignity and purity of line and feeling, and the applied ornament was really an ornament, and not a disfigurement as too often happens in our day. with adam one feels the surety of knowledge and the refinement of good taste led by a high ideal. [illustration: there are many details worthy of notice in this room, the mahogany doors, the paneled walls with the old picture paper, the over-mantel, the knife boxes on the sideboard, the hepplewhite furniture, and the side-lights. the chandelier is badly chosen.] [illustration: a fine old hepplewhite sideboard, with old glass and silver, but the modern wallpaper is not in harmony.] [illustration: a modern hepplewhite settee, showing the draped scarf carving he used so much.] _hepplewhite_ the work of hepplewhite and his school lasted from about to ; the last nine years of the time the business was carried on by his widow, alice, under the name of a. hepplewhite & co. for five years after that some work was done after his manner, but it was distinctly inferior. in the early seventies hepplewhite's work was so well known and so much admired that its influence was shown in the work of his contemporaries. there was a great difference between his style and that of chippendale, his being much lighter in construction and effect, besides the many differences of design. hepplewhite was strongly influenced by the french style of louis xvi, and also the pure taste of robert adam at its height. hepplewhite, however, like all the great cabinet-makers, both french and english, was a great genius himself and stamped the impress of his own personality upon his work. many people date hepplewhite's fame from the time of the publication of his book, "the cabinet maker and upholsterer's guide," in , not realizing that he had been dead for two years when it appeared. its publication was justified by the well established popularity of his furniture and the success with which his designs were carried out by a. hepplewhite & co. it is interesting to notice the difference in the size of chairs which became apparent during hepplewhite's time. hoop-skirts and stiffened coats went out of fashion, and with them went the need of large chair seats. the transition chairs made by hepplewhite were not very attractive in proportion, as the backs were too low for the width. the transition from chippendale to hepplewhite was not sudden, as the last style of chippendale was simpler and had more of the classic feeling in it. hepplewhite says, in the preface to his book: "to unite elegance and utility, and blend the useful with the agreeable, has ever been considered a difficult, but an honorable task." he sometimes failed and sometimes succeeded. his knowledge of construction enabled him to make his chairs with shield, oval, and heart-shaped backs. the tops were slightly curved, also the tops of the splats, and at the lower edge where the back and the splat join, a half rosette was carved. he often used the three feathers of the prince of wales, sheaves of wheat, anthemion, urns, and festoons of drapery, all beautifully carved, and forming the splat. the backs of his chairs were supported at the sides by uprights running into the shield-shaped back and did not touch the seat frame in any other way. with this apparent weakness of construction it is wonderful how many of his chairs have come down to us in perfect condition, but it was his knowledge of combining lightness with strength which made it possible. hepplewhite used straight or tapering legs with spade feet for his furniture, often inlaid with bellflowers in satinwood. the legs were sometimes carved with a double ogee curve and bead molding. he did not use carving in the lavish manner of chippendale, but it was always beautifully done, and he used a great deal of inlay of satinwood, etc., oval panels, lines, urns, and many other motives common to the other cabinet-makers of the day, and also painted some of his furniture. his japan work was inferior in every way to that of the early part of the eighteenth century. the upholstery was fastened to the chairs with brass-headed tacks, often in a festoon pattern. oval-shaped brass handles were used on his bureaus, desks, and other furniture. he made many sideboards, some, in fact, going back to the side table and pedestal idea, and bottle-cases and knife-boxes were put on the ends of the sideboards. his regular sideboards were founded on shearer's design. shearer's furniture was simple and dainty in design, and he has the honor of making the first real serpentine sideboard, about , which was not a more or less disconnected collection of tables and pedestals. it was the forerunner of the hepplewhite and sheraton sideboards that we know so well. shearer is now hardly known even by name to the general world, but without doubt his ideal of lightness and strength in construction had a good deal of influence on his contemporaries and followers. hepplewhite was very fond of oval and semi-circular shapes, and many of his tables are made in either one way or the other. his sideboards, founded on shearer's designs, are very elegant, as he liked to say, in their simplicity of line, their inlay, and their general beauty of wood. he was most successful in his chairs, sideboards, tables, and small household articles, for his larger pieces of furniture were often too heavy. some of the worst, however, were made by other cabinet-makers after his designs, and not by hepplewhite himself. _sheraton_ thomas sheraton was born in , and was a journeyman cabinet-maker when he went to london. his great genius for furniture design was combined with a love of writing tracts and sermons. unfortunately for his success in life, he had a most disagreeable personality, being conceited, jealous, and perfectly willing to pour scorn on his brother cabinet-makers. this impression he quite frankly gives about himself in his books. the name of robert adam is not mentioned, and this seems particularly unpleasant when one thinks of the latter's undoubted influence on sheraton's work. sheraton's unfortunate disposition probably helped to make his life a failure. it is very sad to see such possibilities as his not reaping their true reward, for poverty dogged his steps all through life, and he was always struggling for a bare livelihood. his books were not financially successful, and at last he gave up his workshop and ceased to make the furniture he designed. he was an expert draughtsman and his designs were carried out by the skillful cabinet-makers of the day. adam black gives a very pitiful account of the poverty in which sheraton lived, and says: "that by attempting to do everything he does nothing." his "nothing," however, has proved a very big something in the years which have followed, for sheraton is responsible for one of the most beautiful types of furniture the world has known, and although his life was hard and bitter, his fame is great. sheraton took the style of louis xvi as his standard, and some of his best work is quite equal to that of the french workmen. he felt the lack of the exquisite brass and ormolu work done in france, and said if it were only possible to get as fine in england, the superior cabinet-making of the english would put them far ahead in the ranks. to many of us this loss is not so great, for the beauty of the wood counts for more, and is not detracted from by an oversupply of metal ornament, as sometimes happened in france. "enough is as good as a feast." sheraton, at his best, had beauty, grace, and refinement of line without weakness, lightness and yet perfect construction, combined with balance, and the ornament just sufficient to enhance the beauty of the article without overpowering it. it is this fine work which the world remembers and which gave him his fame, and so it is far better to forget his later period when nearly all trace of his former greatness was lost. [illustration: a sheraton bureau with a delightful little dressing-glass.] sheraton profited by the work of chippendale, adam, and hepplewhite, for these great men blazed the trail for him, so to speak, in raising the art of cabinet-making to so high a plane that england was full of skilled workmen. the influence of adam, shearer, and hepplewhite, was very great on his work, and it is often difficult to tell whether he or hepplewhite or shearer made some pieces. he evidently did not have business ability and his bitter nature hampered him at every turn. the sheraton school lasted from about to . he died in , fairly worn out with his struggle for existence. poor sheraton, it certainly is a pitiful story. [illustration: one of sheraton's charming desks, with sliding doors made of thin strips of wood glued on cloth.] [illustration: a sewing-table having the spirit of both hepplewhite and sheraton.] sheraton's chair backs are rectangular in type, with urn splats, and splats divided into seven radiates, and also many other designs. the chairs were made of mahogany and satinwood, some carved, some inlaid, and some painted. the splat never ran into the seat, but was supported on a cross rail running from side to side a few inches above the seat. the material used for upholstery was nailed over the frame with brass-headed tacks. bookcases were of mahogany and satinwood veneer, and the large ones were often in three sections, the center section standing farther out than the two sides. the glass was covered with a graceful design in moldings, and the pediments were of various shapes, the swan-neck being a favorite. sideboards were built on very much the lines of those made by shearer and hepplewhite. there were drawers and cupboards for various uses. the knife-boxes to put on the top came in sets of two, and sometimes there was a third box. the legs were light and tapering with inlay of satinwood, and sometimes they were reeded. there was inlay also on the doors and drawers. there were also sideboards without inlay. the legs for his furniture were at first plain, and then tapering and reeded. he used some carving, and a great deal of satinwood and tulip-wood were inlaid in the mahogany; he also used rosewood. the bellflower, urn, festoons, and acanthus were all favorites of his for decoration. he made some elaborate and startling designs for beds, but the best known ones are charming with slender turned posts or reeded posts, and often the plain ones were made of painted satinwood. the satinwood from the east indies was fine and of a beautiful yellow color, while that from the west indies was coarser in grain and darker in color. it is a slow growing tree, and that used nowadays cannot compare with the old, in spite of the gallant efforts of the hard working fakirs to copy its beautiful golden tone. all the cabinet-makers of the eighteenth century made ingenious contrivances in the way of furniture, washstands concealed in what appear to be corner cupboards, a table that looks as simple as a table possibly can, but has a small step-ladder and book rest hidden away in its useful inside, and many others. sheraton was especially clever in making these conveniences, as these two examples show, and his books have many others pictured in them. sheraton's list of articles of furniture is long, for he made almost everything from knife-boxes to "chamber-horses," which were contrivances of a saddle and springs for people to take exercise upon at home. sheraton's "drawing book" was the best of those he published. it was sold chiefly to other cabinet-makers and did not bring in many orders, as chippendale's and hepplewhite's did. his other books showed his decline, and his "encyclopedia," on which he was working at the time of his death, had many subjects in it beside furniture and cabinet-making. his sideboards, card-tables, sewing-tables, tables of every kind, chairs--in fact, everything he made during his best period--have a sureness and beauty of line that makes it doubly sad that through the stress of circumstances he should have deserted it for the style of the empire that was then the fashion in france. one or two of his empire designs have beauty, but most of them are too dreadful, but it was the beginning of the end, and the eighteenth century saw the beautiful principles of the eighteenth century lost in a bog of ugliness. there were many other cabinet-makers of merit that space does not allow me to mention, but the great four who stood head and shoulders above them all were chippendale, adam, hepplewhite and sheraton. they, being human, did much work that is best forgotten, but the heights to which they all rose have set a standard for english furniture in beauty and construction that it would be well to keep in mind. the nineteenth century passed away without any especial genius, and in fact, with a very black mark against its name in the hideous early victorian era. the twentieth century is moving along without anything we can really call a beautiful and worthy style being born. there are many working their way towards it, but there is apt to be too much of the bizarre in the attempts to make them satisfactory, and so we turn to the past for our models and are thankful for the legacy of beauty it has left to the world. _a general talk_ when one faces the momentous question of furnishing a house, there are numerous things which must be looked into and thoroughly understood if success is to be assured. if one is building in the country the first question is the placing of the house in regard to the view, but in town there is not much choice. the architect being chosen with due regard to the style of house one wishes, the planning can go merrily on. the architect should be told if there are any especially large and beautiful pieces of furniture or tapestry to be planned for, so they shall receive their rightful setting. after all, architects are but human, and cannot tell by intuition what furniture is in storage. it is sad to see how often architecture and decoration are looked upon as two entirely disconnected subjects, instead of being closely allied, playing into each other's hands, as it were, to make a perfect whole. to many people, a room is simply a room to be treated as they wish; whereas many rooms are absolute laws unto themselves, and demand a certain kind of treatment, or disaster follows. in america this kind of house is not found so often as in europe, but the number is growing rapidly as architects and their clients realize more and more the beauties and possibilities of the great periods as applied to the modern house. it is only to the well-trained architect and decorator with correct taste that one may safely turn, for the ill-trained and commonplace still continue to make their astounding errors, and so to have the decoration of a room truly successful one must begin with the architect, for he knows the correct proportions of the different styles and appreciates their importance. he will plan the rooms so that they, when decorated, may complete his work and form a beautiful and convincing whole. this will give the restfulness and beauty that absolute appropriateness always lends. [illustration: this room shows how fresh and charming white paint and simplicity can be.] this matter of appropriateness must not be overlooked, and the whole house should express the spirit of the owner; it should be in absolute keeping with his circumstances. there are few houses which naturally demand the treatment of palaces, but there are many which correspond with the smaller chateaux of france and the manor-houses of england. it is to these we must turn for our inspiration, for they have the beauty of good taste and high standards without the lavishness of royalty; but even royalty did not always live in rooms of state, for at versailles, and petit trianon, there is much simple exquisite furniture. the wonderful and elaborate furniture of the past must be studied of course, but to the majority of people, then as now, the simpler expression of its fundamental lines of beauty are more satisfactory. the trouble with many houses is that their furnishings are copied from too grand models, and the effect in an average modern house is unsuitable in every way. they cannot give the large vistas and appropriate background in color and proportion which are necessary. beauty does not depend upon magnificence. [illustration: the warm tones of a brown chinese wallpaper are attractive with the mahogany furniture, and the pattern is prevented from becoming monotonous by the strong rectangular lines of the ivory woodwork which frames it. the corner cupboard and the exceptionally fine dining-table and the variety of chairs are interesting.] if one has to live in a house planned and built by others one often has to give up some long cherished scheme and adopt something else more suited to the surroundings. for instance, the rooms of the great french periods were high, and often the modern house has very low ceilings, that would not allow space for the cornice, over-doors and correctly proportioned paneling, that are marked features of those times. mrs. wharton has aptly said: "proportion is the good breeding of architecture," and one might add that proportion is good breeding itself. one little slip from the narrow path into false proportion in line or color or mass and the perfection of effect is gone. proportion is another word for the fitness of things, and that little phrase, "the fitness of things," is what alice in wonderland calls a "portmanteau" phrase, for it holds so much, and one must feel it strongly to escape the pitfalls of period furnishing. most amazing things are done with perfect complacency, but although the french and english kings who gave their names to the various periods were far from models of virtue, they certainly deserved no such cruel punishment as to have some of the modern rooms, such as we have all seen, called after them. the best decorators refuse to mix styles in one room and they thus save people from many mistakes, but a decorator without a thorough understanding of the subject, often leads one to disaster. a case in point is an apartment where a small louis xv room opens on a narrow hall of nondescript modern style, with a wide archway opening into a mission dining-room. as one sits in the midst of pink brocade and gilding and looks across to the dining-room, fitted out in all the heavy paraphernalia of mission furniture, one's head fairly reels. no contrast could be more marked or more unsuitable, and yet this is by no means an uncommon case. if one intends to adopt a style in decorating one's house, there should be a uniformity of treatment in all connecting rooms, and there must be harmony in the furniture and architecture and ornament, as well as harmony in the color scheme. the foundation must be right before the decoration is added. the proportion of doors and windows, for instance, is very important, with the decorated over-door reaching to the ceiling. the over-doors and mantels were architectural features of the rooms, and it was not until wallpapers came into common use, in the early part of the nineteenth century, that these decorative features slowly died out. the mantel and fireplace should be a center of interest and should be balanced with something of importance on the other side of the room, either architectural or decorative. it was this regard for symmetry, balance, proportion, and harmony, which made the old rooms so satisfying; there was no magic about it, it was artistic common sense. the use for which a room is intended must be kept in view and carried out with real understanding of its needs. the individuality of the owner is of course a factor. unfortunately the word individuality is often confounded with eccentricity and to many people it means putting perfectly worthy and unassuming articles to startling uses. by individuality one should really mean the best expression of one's sense of beauty and the fitness of things, and when it is guided by the laws of harmony and proportion the result is usually one of great charm, convenience, and comfort. these qualities must be in every successful house. in furnishing any house, whether in some special period or not, there are certain things which must be taken into account. one of these is the general color scheme. arranging a color scheme for a house is not such a difficult matter as many people suppose, nor is it the simple thing that many others seem to think. there is a happy land between the two extremes, and the guide posts pointing to it are a good color sense, a true feeling for the proportion and harmony of color, and an understanding of the laws of light. the trouble is that people often do not use their eyes; red is red to them, blue is blue, and green is green. they have never appeared to notice that there are dozens of tones in these colors. nature is one of the greatest teachers of color harmony if we would but learn from her. look at a salt marsh on an autumn day and notice the wonderful browns and yellows and golds in it, the reds and russets and touches of green in the woods on its edge, and the clear blue sky over all with the reflections in the little pools. it is a picture of such splendor of color that one fairly gasps. then look at the same marsh under gray skies and see the change; there is just as much beauty as before, the same russets and golds and reds, but exquisitely softened. one is sparkling, gay, a harmony of brilliancy; the other is more gentle, sweet and appealing, a harmony of softened glory. again, nature makes a thousand and one shades of green leaves to harmonize with her flowers; the yellow green of the golden rod, the silver green of the milkweed, the bright green of the nasturtium. notice the woods in wintertime with the wonderful purple browns and grays of the tree trunks and branches, the bronze and russet of the dead leaves, and the deep shadows in the snow. everywhere one turns there are lessons to learn if one will only use seeing eyes and a thinking mind. a house should be looked at as a whole, not as so many units to be treated in a care-free manner. a room is affected by all the rooms opening from it, as they, in turn, are affected by it. there can be variety of color with harmony of contrast, or there can be the same color used throughout, with the variety gained by the use of its different tones. the plan of each floor should be carefully studied to get the vistas in all directions so that harmony may reign and there will be no danger of a clashing color discord when a door is opened. the connecting rooms need not be all in one color, of course, but they should form a perfect color harmony one with another, with deft touches of contrast to accent and bring out the beauty of the whole scheme: this matter of harmony in contrast is an important one. the idea of using a predominant color is a restful one, and adds dignity and apparent size to a house. the walls, for instance, could be paneled in white enameled wood, or plaster, and the necessary color and variety could be supplied by the rugs, hangings, furniture, and pictures. another charming plan is to have different tones of one color used--a scheme running from cream or old ivory through soft yellow and tan to a russet brown would be lovely, especially if the house did not have an over supply of light. greens may be used with discretion, and a cool and attractive scheme is from white to soft blue through gray. if different colors are to be used in the different rooms the number of combinations is almost unlimited, but there must always be the restraining influence of a good color sense in forming the scheme or the result will be disappointing, to say the least. a very important matter in the use of color is in its relation to the amount and quality of the light. dreary rooms can be made cheerful, and too bright and dazzling rooms can be softened in effect, by the skillful use of color. the warm colors,--cream white, yellows--but not lemon yellow--orange, warm tans, russet, pinks, yellow greens, yellowish reds are to be used on the north or shady side of the house. the cool colors,--white, cream white, blues, grays, greens, and violet, are for the sunny side. endless combinations may be made of these colors, and if a gray room, for example, is wished on the north side of the house, it can be used by first choosing a warm tone of gray and combining with it one of the warm colors, such as certain shades of soft pink or yellow. we can stand more brilliancy of color out-of-doors than we can in the house, where it is shut in with us. it is too exciting and we become restless and nervous. no matter on what scale a house is furnished one of its aims should be to be restful. there is one great mistake which many people make of thinking of red as a cheerful color, and one which is good to use in a dark room. the average red used in large quantities absorbs the light in a most disheartening manner, making a room seem smaller than it really is; it makes ugly gloomy shadows in the corners, for at night it seems to turn to a dingy black, and increases the electric light bill. red is also a severe strain on the eyes, and many a red living-room is the cause of seemingly unaccountable headaches. i do not mean to say that red should never be used, for it is often a very necessary color, but it must be used with the greatest discretion, and one must remember that a little of it goes a long way. a room, for instance, paneled with oak, with an oriental rug with soft red in it, red hangings, and a touch of red in an old stained glass panel in the window, and red velvet cushions on the window seat, would have much more warmth and charm than if the walls were covered entirely with red. one red cushion is often enough to give the required note. the effect of color is very strong upon people, although a great many do not realize it, but nearly everyone will remember a sudden and apparently unexplained change of mood in going into some room. one can learn a deal by analyzing one's own sensations. figured wall-papers should also be chosen with the greatest care for this same reason. papers which have perpetual motion in their design, or eyes which seem to peer, or an unstable pattern of gold running over it, must all be ignored. people who choose this kind of paper are blest, or cursed, whichever way one looks at it, by an utter lack of imagination. a room is divided into three parts, the floor, the walls, and the ceiling, and the color of the room naturally follows the law of nature; the heaviest or darkest at the bottom, or floor; the medium tone in the center, or walls; and the lightest at the top, or ceiling. it is only when one has to artificially correct the architectural proportions of a room that the ceiling should be as dark, or darker, than the walls. a ceiling can also be seemingly lowered by bringing the ceiling color down on the side walls. a low room should never have a dark ceiling, as it makes the room seem lower. walls should be treated as a background or as a decoration in themselves. in the latter case any pictures should be set in specially arranged panels and should be pictures of importance, or fresco painting. the walls of the great periods were of this decorative order. they were treated architecturally and the feeling of absolute support which they gave was most satisfactory. the pilasters ran from base or dado to the cornice and the over-doors made the doors a dignified part of the scheme, rather than mere useful holes in the wall as they too often are nowadays. paneling is one of the most beautiful methods of wall decoration. there are many styles of paneling, stone, marble, stucco, plaster, and wood, and each period has its own distinctive way of using them, and should be the correct type for the style chosen. the paneling of a tudor room is quite different from a louis xvi room. in the course of a long period like that of louis xv the paneling slowly changed its character and the rococo style was followed by the more dignified one that later became the style of louis xvi. tapestry and paintings of importance should have panels especially planned for them. if one does not wish to have the paneling cover the entire wall, a wainscot or dado with the wall above it covered with tapestry, silk, painting, or paper, will make a beautiful and appropriate room for many of the different styles of furniture. a wainscot should not be too high; about thirty-six inches is a good height, but should form a background for the chairs, sofas, and tables, placed around the room. a wainscot six or more feet high is not as architecturally correct as a lower one, because a wall is, in a way, like an order in its divisions, and if the base, or wainscot, is too high it does not allow the wall, which corresponds to the column, to have its fair proportion. this feeling is very strong in many apartment houses where small rooms are overburdened by this kind of wainscot, and to make matters worse, the top is used as a plate-rail. a high wainscot should be used only in a large room, and if there are pilasters arranged to connect it with the cornice, and the wall covering is put on in panel effect between, the result is much better than if the wall were left plain, as it seems to give more of a _raison d'être_. tapestry is another of the beautiful and important wall coverings, and the happy possessor of flemish or gobelin, or beauvais, tapestries, is indeed to be envied. a rare old tapestry should be paneled or hung so it will serve as a background. used as portières, tapestry does not show the full beauty of its wonderful time-worn colors and its fascination of texture. it is not everyone, however, who is able to own these almost priceless treasures of the past, and so modern machinery has been called to the aid of those who wish to cover their walls and furniture with tapestry. many of these modern manufactures are really beautiful, thick in texture, soft in color, and often have the little imperfections and unevennesses of hand weaving reproduced, so that we feel the charm of the old in the new. many do not realize that in new york there are looms making wonderful hand-woven tapestries with the true decorative feeling of the best days of the past. on the top floor of a large modern building stand the looms of various sizes, the dyeing tubs, the dripping skeins of wool and silk, the spindles and bobbins, and the weavers hard at work carrying out the beautiful designs of the artist owner. there are few colors used, as in mediæval days, but wonderful effects are produced by a method of winding the threads together which gives a vibrating quality to the color. when the warp in some of the coarser fabrics is not entirely covered it is sometimes dyed, which gives an indescribable charm. tapestries of all sizes have been made on these looms, from the important decoration of a great hall, to sofa and chair coverings. special rugs are also made. it is a pleasure to think that an art which many considered dead is being practiced with the highest artistic aim and knowledge and skill in the midst of our modern rush. this hand-woven tapestry is made to fit special spaces and rooms, and there is nothing more beautiful and suitable for rooms of importance to be found in all the long list of possibilities. the effect of modern tapestry, like the old, is enhanced if the walls are planned to receive it, for it was never intended to be used as wall-paper. it is sometimes used as a free hanging frieze, so to speak, and sometimes a great piece of it is hung flat against the wall, but as a general thing to panel it is the better way. another beautiful wall covering is leather. it should be used much more than it is, and is especially well adapted for halls, libraries, dining-rooms, smoking-and billiard-rooms, and dens. its wonderful possibilities for rooms which are to be furnished in a dignified and beautiful manner are unsurpassed. it may be used in connection with paneling or cover the wall above a wainscot. fresco painting is another of the noble army of wall treatments which lends itself beautifully to all kinds and styles of rooms. amidst all the grandeur of tapestry and painting one must not lose sight of the simpler methods, for they are not to be distained. wall-papers are growing more and more beautiful in color, design, and texture, and one can find among them papers suited to all needs. fabrics of all kinds have become possibilities since their dust-collecting capacity is now no longer a source of terror, as vacuum cleaners are one of the commonplaces of existence. painting or tinting the walls, when done correctly, is very satisfactory in many rooms. there is no doubt that in many houses are wonderful collections of furniture, tapestries and treasures of many kinds, that are placed without regard to the absolute harmony of period, although the general feeling of french or italian or english is kept. they are usually great houses where the sense of space keeps one from feeling discrepancies that would be too marked in a smaller one, and the interest and beauty of the rare originals against the old tapestries have an atmosphere all their own that no modern reproduction can have. there are few of us, however, who can live in this semi-museum kind of house, and so one would better stick to the highway of good usage, or there is danger of making the house look like an antique shop. [illustration: dorothy quincy's bedroom contains a fine old mahogany field bed, which is appropriately covered with the flowered chintz popular at the end of the eighteenth century. the chairs are fitting for all bedrooms decorated in colonial style. notice the woodwork in the room and hall.] to carry out a style perfectly, all the small details should be attended to--the door-locks, the framework of the doors and windows, the carving. all these must be taken into account if one wishes success. it is better not to attempt a style throughout if it is to be a makeshift affair and show the effects of inadequate knowledge. the elaborate side of any style carried out to the last detail is really only possible and also only appropriate for those who have houses to correspond, but one can choose the simpler side and have beautiful and charming rooms that are perfectly suited to the average home. for instance, if one does not wish elaborate gilded louis xvi furniture, upholstered in brocade, one can choose beautiful cane furniture of the time and have it either in the natural french walnut or enameled a soft gray or white to match the woodwork, with cushion of cretonne or silk in an appropriate design. period furnishing does not necessarily mean a greater outlay than the nondescript and miscellaneous method so often seen. [illustration: a very solid but not especially pleasing desk that was used by washington while he was president. the railing is interesting. the idea was used by chippendale in his gallery tables.] [illustration: the tambour work doors in the upper part of this sheraton secretary roll back; also notice the handles and inlay and tapering legs.] whatever the plan for furnishing a house may be, the balance of decoration must be kept; the same general feeling throughout all connecting parts. if a drawing-room is too fine for the hall through which one has to pass to reach it, the balance is upset. if too simple chairs are used in a grand dining-room the balance is upset, the fitness of things is not observed. when the happy medium is struck throughout the house one feels the delightful well-bred charm which a regard for the unities always gives. it is not only in the quality of the decorations that this feeling of balance must be kept, but in the style also. if one chooses a period style for the drawing-room it is better to keep to it through the house, using it in its different expressions according to the needs of the different rooms. if one style throughout should seem a bit monotonous at least one nationality should be kept, such as french, or english. if several styles of french furniture are used do not have them in the same room; for instance, louis xv and empire have absolutely nothing in common, but very late louis xvi and early empire have to a certain extent. it does not give the average person a severe shock to walk from a louis xvi hall into a louis xv drawing-room, but the two mixed in one room do not give a pleasing effect. the oak furniture of jacobean days does not harmonize with the delicate mahogany furniture of the eighteenth century in england. the delicate beauty of adam furniture would be lost in the greatness of a renaissance salon. a lady whose dining-room was furnished in sheraton furniture one day saw two elaborate rococo louis xv console tables which she instantly bought to add to it. the shopman luckily had more sense of the fitness of things than a mere desire to sell his wares, and was so appalled when he saw the room that he absolutely refused to have them placed in it. she saw the point, and learned a valuable lesson. one could go on indefinitely, giving examples to warn people against startling and inappropriate mixtures which put the whole scheme out of key. i am taking it for granted that reproductions are to be chosen, as originals are not only very rare, but also almost prohibitive in price. good reproductions are carefully made and finished to harmonize with the color scheme. the styles most used at present are, louis xiv, xv, xvi, jacobean, william and mary, and georgian. gothic, italian and french renaissance, louis xiii, and tudor styles are not so commonly used. we naturally associate dignity and grandeur with the renaissance, and it is rather difficult to make it seem appropriate for the average american house, so it is usually used only for important houses and buildings. some of the tudor manor houses can be copied with delightful effect. the styles of henri ii and louis xiii can both be used in libraries and dining-rooms with most effective and dignified results. the best period of the style of louis xv is very beautiful and is delightfully suited to ball-rooms, small reception-rooms, boudoirs, and some bedrooms. in regard to these last, one must use discretion, for one would not expect one's aged grandmother to take real comfort in one. nor does this style appeal to one for use in a library, as its gayety and curves would not harmonize with the necessarily straight lines of the bookcases and rows of books. any one of the other styles may be chosen for a library. the english developed the dining-room in our modern sense of the word, while the french used small ante-chambers, or rooms that were used for other purposes between meals, and i suppose this is partly the reason we so often turn to an english ideal for one. there are many beautiful dining-rooms done in the styles of louis xv and xvi, but they seem more like gala rooms and are usually distinctly formal in treatment. georgian furniture, or as we so often say, colonial, is especially well suited to our american life, as one can have a very simple room, or one carried out in the most delightful detail. in either case the true feeling must be kept and no startling anachronisms should be allowed; radiators, for instance, should be hidden in window-seats. this same style may be used for any room in the house, and there are beautiful reproductions of chippendale, adam, hepplewhite, and sheraton furniture that are appropriate for any need. in choosing new "old" furniture, do not buy any that has a bright and hideous finish. the great cabinet-makers and their followers used wax, or oil, and rubbed, rubbed, rubbed. this dull finish is imitated, but not equaled, by all good furniture makers, and the bright finish simply proclaims the cheap department store. in parts of the country georgian furniture has been used and served as a standard from the first, and it is a happy thing for the beauty of our homes that once more it has come into its own. it is the high grade of reproduction which has made it possible. the mahogany used by chippendale, and in fact by all the eighteenth century cabinet-makers, was much more beautiful than is possible to get to-day, for the logs were old and well seasoned wood, allowed to dry by the true process of time, which leaves a wonderful depth of color quite impossible to find in young kiln-dried wood. the best furniture makers nowadays, those who have a high standard and pride in their work, have by careful and artistic staining and beautiful finish, achieved very fine results, but the factory article with its dreadful "mahogany" stain, its coarse carving, and its brilliant finish, shows a sad difference in ideal. the best reproductions are well worth buying, and, as they are made with regard to the laws of construction, they stand a very good chance of becoming valued heirlooms. there are certain characteristics of all the eighteenth century cabinet-makers, both english and french, which are picked out and overdone by ill-informed manufacturers. the rococo of chippendale is coarsened, his chinese style loses its fine, if eccentric, distinction, and the inlay of hepplewhite and sheraton is another example of spoiling a beautiful thing. thickening a line here and there, or curving a curve a bit more or less, or enlarging the amount of inlay, achieves a vulgarity of appearance quite different from the beautiful proportions of the originals, and it is this which one must guard against in buying reproductions. the lack of knowledge of correct proportion is not confined to the cheaper grades, where necessary simplicity is often a protection, but is apt to be found in all. the best makers, as i have said, take a pride in their work and one can rely on them for fine workmanship and being true to the spirit of the originals. there is one matter of great importance to be kept in mind and practiced with the sternest self-control, and that is, to eliminate, eliminate, eliminate. walk into the center of a room and look about with seeing, but impersonal eyes, and you will be astonished to find how many things there are which are unnecessary, in fact, how much the room would be improved without them. in every house the useless things which go under the generic name of "trash" accumulate with alarming swiftness, and one must be up with the lark to keep ahead of the supply. if something is ugly and spoils a room, and there is no hope of bringing it into harmony, discard it; turn your eyes aside if you must while the deed is being done, but screw your courage to the sticking point, and do it. she is, indeed, a lucky woman who can start from the beginning or has only beautiful heritages from the past, for the majority of people have some distressingly strong pieces of ugly furniture which, for one reason or another, must be kept. one sensible woman furnished a room with all her pieces of this kind, called it the chamber of horrors, and used it only under great stress and strain, which was much better than letting her house be spoiled. a home should not be a museum, where one grows exhausted going from one room to another looking at wonderful things. rather should it have as many beautiful things in it as can be done full justice to, where the feeling of simplicity and restfulness and charm adds to their beauty, and the whole is convincingly right. the fussy house is, luckily, a thing of the past, or fast getting to be so, but we should all help the good cause of true simplicity. it does not debar one from the most beautiful things in the world, but adds dignity and worth to them. it does not make rooms stiff and solemn, but makes it possible to have the true gayety and joy of life expressed in the best periods. _georgian furniture_ a delightful renaissance of the georgian period in house decoration is being felt more and more, and every day we see new evidence that people are turning with thanksgiving to the light and graceful designs of the eighteenth century english cabinet-makers. there is a charm and distinction about their work which appeals very strongly to us, and its beauty and simplicity of line makes delightful schemes possible. the georgian period seems especially fitted for use in our homes, for it was the inspiration of our colonial houses and furniture, which we adapted and made our own in many ways. the best examples of colonial architecture are found in the thirteen original states. in many of these houses we find an almost perfect sense of proportion, of harmony and balance, of dignity, and a spaciousness and sense of hospitality, which few of our modern houses achieve. the halls were broad and often went directly through the house, giving a glimpse of the garden beyond; the stairs with their carefully thought-out curve and sweep and well placed landings, gave at once an air of importance to the house, while the large rooms opening from the hall, with their white woodwork, their large fireplaces, and comfortable window-seats, confirmed the impression. it is to this ideal of simple and beautiful elegance that many people are turning. by simplicity i do not mean poverty of line and decoration, but the simplicity given by the fundamental lines being simple and beautiful with decoration which enhances their charms, but does not overload them. even the most elaborate adam room with its exquisite painted furniture, its beautifully designed mantel and ceiling and paneled walls, gave the feeling of delightful and beautiful simplicity. this same feeling is expressed in the furniture of louis xvi, for no matter how elaborate it may be, it is fundamentally simple, but with a warmer touch than is found in the english furniture of the same time. the question of period furnishing has two sides, and by far the more delightful side is the one of having originals. there is a glamor about old furniture, a certain air of fragility, although in reality it is usually much stronger than most of our modern factory output, which adds to the charm. with furniture, as with people, breeding will out. when one has inherited the furniture, the charm is still greater, for it is pleasant to think of one's own ancestors as having used the chairs and tables, and danced the stately minuet, with soft candle-light falling from the candelabra, and the great logs burning on the old brass andirons. but if one cannot have one's own family traditions, the next best thing is to have furniture with some other family's traditions, and the third choice is to have the best modern reproductions, and build up one's own traditions oneself. the feeling which many people have that georgian furniture was stiff and uncomfortable is not borne out by the facts. the sofas were large and roomy, the settees delightful, the arm-chairs and wing chairs regular havens of rest, and when one adds the comfort which modern upholstery gives, there is little left to desire. even the regulation side-chair of the period, which some think was the only chair in very common use, is absolutely comfortable for its purpose. lounging was much less in vogue then than nowadays and the old cabinet-makers realized that one must be comfortable when sitting up as well as when taking one's ease. one must not be deterred by this unfounded bugaboo of discomfort if one wishes a room or house done after the great period styles of the eighteenth century. with care and knowledge, the result is sure to be delightful and beautiful. this little book, as i have said before, is not intended to be a guide for collectors, for that is a very big subject in itself, but is meant to try to help a little about the modern side of the question. there are many grades of furniture made, and one should buy with circumspection, and the best grade which is possible for one to afford. the very best reproductions are made with as much care and knowledge and skill as the originals, and will last as long, and become treasured heirlooms like those handed down to us. they are works of art like their eighteenth century models. the wood is chosen with regard to its beauty of grain, and is treated and finished so the beauty and depth of color is brought out, and the surface is rubbed until there is a soft glow to it. if one could have the ages-old mahogany which chippendale and his contemporaries used, there would be little to choose between the originals and our best reproductions, so far as soundness of construction and beauty of detail go. but the fact that they were the originals of a great style, that no one since then has been able to design any furniture of greater beauty than that of england and france in the eighteenth century, and that we are still copying it, gives an added charm to a rare old chair or sideboard or mirror. the modern workman in the best workshops is obliged to know the different styles so well that he cannot make mistakes, and if he ventures to take a little flight of fancy on his own account, it will be done with such correctness of feeling that one is glad he flew; but few attempt it. in the lower grade of reproductions one must have an eagle eye when buying. i saw a rather astounding looking chippendale chair in a shop one day, with a touch of gothic--a suspicion of his early dutch manner--and, to give a final touch, tapering legs with carved bellflowers! "what authority have you for that chair?" i asked, for i really wanted to know what they would call the wonder. "that," the shopman answered, the pride of knowledge shining in his eyes, "is chinese chippendale." another anachronism which has appeared lately, and sad to say in some of the shops that should know better, is painted adam furniture with pictures on it of the famous actresses of the eighteenth century. the painting of angelica kauffman, cipriani, pergolesi and the others, was charming and delightful. nymphs and cupids, flowers, wreaths, musical instruments, and poetical little scenes, but never the head of a living woman! the bad taste of it would have been as apparent to them as putting the picture of miss marlowe, or lillian russell on a chair back would be to us. the finish is another matter to bear in mind. there is a thick red stain, which for some mysterious reason is called mahogany, which is put on cheaper grades of furniture and finished with a high polish. fortunately, it is chiefly used on furniture of vulgar design, but it sometimes creeps in on better models. shun it whenever seen. the handles must be correct also, and a glance at the different illustrations will be of help in this matter. the pieces of furniture used throughout a house, no matter what the period may be, are more or less the same, so many chairs, tables, beds, mirrors, etc., and when one has decided what one's needs are, the matter of selection is much simplified. of course one's needs are influenced by the size of the house, one's circumstances, and one's manner of life. to be successful, a house must be furnished in absolute harmony with the life within its walls. a small house does not need an elaborate drawing-room, which could only be had at the expense of family comfort; a simple drawing-room would be far better, really more of a living-room. in a large house one may have as many as one wishes. a house could be furnished throughout with chippendale furniture and show no sign of monotony of treatment. the walls could be paneled in some rooms, wainscoted in others, and papered in others. this question of paper is one we have taken in our own hands nowadays, and although it was not used much before the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, there are so many lovely designs copied from old-time stuffs and landscape papers, which are in harmony with the furniture, that they are used with perfect propriety. one must be careful not to choose anything with a too modern air, and a plain wall is always safe. the average hall will probably need a pair of console tables and mirrors, some chairs, oriental rugs, a tall clock if one wishes, and, if the hall is very large and calls for more furniture, there are many other interesting pieces to choose from. a hall should be treated with a certain amount of formality, and the greater the house, the greater the amount; but it also should have an air of hospitality, of impersonal welcome, which makes one wish to enter the rooms beyond where the real welcome waits. the window frames of colonial and georgian houses were often of such good design that no curtains were used, and the wooden inside shutters were shut at night. nowadays the average house has what might be called utility woodwork at its windows and so we cover them with curtains. these curtains may be of linen, cretonne, damask, or brocade, according to the house, and may either fall straight at the side with a slight drapery or shaped or plain valance at the top, or be drawn back from the center. a carved cornice or the regular box frame may be used. the stairs were often of beautifully polished hardwood, and they were sometimes covered with rugs. large chinese porcelain jars on the console tables are suitable, and other beautiful ornaments. as the drawing-room usually opens from the hall, it is better to keep both rooms in the same general scale of furnishing. the average sized drawing-room will need sofas, a small settee, two or three tables, one of them a gallery table if desired, chairs of different shapes and size, mirrors, a cabinet if one has rare pieces of old porcelain, and candelabra. oriental rugs, a fire screen, ornaments, and pictures, but these last should not be of the modern impressionistic school. the woodwork should be white, or light, and the furniture covered with damask, needlework, brocade or tapestry. the dining-room can be made most charming with corner cupboards and cabinet, a large mahogany table and side table and beautiful morocco covered chairs. chippendale did not make sideboards in our sense of the word, but used large side tables. one of the modern designs which many like to use, for to them it seems a necessity, is a sideboard made in the style of chippendale. the screen may be leather painted after "the chinese taste," or it may be damask. the chairs may be covered with tapestry or damask if one does not care for morocco. portraits are interesting in a dining-room, or old prints, or paintings, and if you can get the old dull gold carved frames, so much the better. they may also be set in panels. the bedrooms may have either four-post canopy beds or low-posts beds. chippendale's canopy beds had usually a carved cornice with the curtains hung from the inside. the other furniture should consist of a dressing-table, a chest of drawers to correspond with a chiffonier, a highboy, a sewing table, a bedside table, a comfortable sofa, a fireside or wing chair and other chairs according to one's need. the walls may be covered with either an old-fashioned or plain paper,--or paneled, with hangings and chair coverings of chintz or cretonne. the bed hangings may be of cretonne also, for it makes a very charming room, but if one objects to colored bed hangings, white dimity, or muslin or linen may be used. it is the art of keeping the correct feeling which makes or mars a room of this kind, and no pieces of markedly modern and inharmonious furniture should be used. in furnishing a house in georgian or colonial manner one need not keep all the rooms in the same division of the period, for there is a certain general air of harmony and relationship about them all, and the common bond of mahogany makes it possible to have a chippendale library, an adam drawing-room, a hepplewhite dining-room and a sheraton hall, or any other combination desired. the spirit of all the eighteenth century cabinet-makers was one of honest construction and beauty of line and workmanship. when they took ideas from other sources they made them so distinctly their own, so essentially english that there is a family resemblance through all their work. adam decoration and furniture makes most delightful rooms. the painted satinwood furniture for dining-room, drawing-room and bedrooms, lends itself to lovely schemes with its soft golden tones, its delightfully woven cane chair backs and panels. a room on the sunny side of the house, with a soft old ivory colored wall, dull blue silk curtains, and a yellow and blue chinese rug, would be most charming with this satinwood furniture. then, as i have said before, there are the many different shades of enameled and carved furniture and also beautiful natural wood. one can have more of a sideboard in an adam than in a chippendale room, as he used two pedestals, one at each end of a large serving-table. he often made tables to fit in niches, which is a charming idea. an adam mantel is very distinctive and one should be careful in having it correct. there are beautiful reproductions made. the lamp and candle shades should also be designed in the spirit of the time. there are lovely adam designs in nearly all materials suitable for hangings and chair coverings. oriental rugs or plain colored carpets appeal to us more than large-figured rugs. adam sometimes had special rugs made exactly reproducing the design of the ceiling, but it is an idea that is better forgotten. with hepplewhite and sheraton the same general ideas hold; keep to the spirit of the furniture, try to have a central idea in the house furnishing, so that the restful effect of harmony may be given. [illustration: pembroke tables were made by hepplewhite. this is a fine example and shows characteristic inlay and the legs sloping on the inside edge only. the flaps fold down and make a small oblong table.] [illustration: this fine sheraton sideboard shows curved doors, and knife boxes with oval inlay of satinwood. the center cupboard is straight. the legs are reeded.] the rugs which harmonize best with georgian furniture are orientals of different weaves and colors, or plain domestic carpet rugs. the floor should be the darkest of the three divisions of a room--the floor, the walls, the ceiling, but it should be an even gradation of color value, the walls half-way in tone between the other two. this is a safe general plan, to be varied when necessity demands. in drawing-rooms light and soft colors are usually in better harmony than dark ones, and a wide and beautiful choice can be made among kermanshah, kirman, khorasan, tabriz, chinese, oman rugs, and many others. it is more restful in effect if the greater part of the floor is covered with a large rug, but if one has beautiful small rugs they may be used if they are enough alike in general tone to escape the appearance of being spotty. one should try them in different positions until the best arrangement is found. [illustration: a pleasing design of the old field bed. the chairs here are samples of some eighteenth century manufacture that are to-day reproduced in admirable consistency. the patch work quilt is interesting and the bed hanging are exceptionally good.] living-rooms and libraries are usually more solid in color than drawing-rooms and so need deeper tones in the rugs. the choice is wide, and the color scheme can be the deciding note if one is buying new rugs. if one already has rugs they must be the foundation for the color scheme of the room. _furnishing with french furniture_ "this is my louis xvi drawing-room," said a lady, proudly displaying her house. "what makes you think so?" asked her well informed friend. to guard against the possibility of such biting humor one must be ever on the alert in furnishing a period room. it is not a bow-knot and a rococo curve or two that will turn a modern room, fresh from the builder's hands, into a louis xv drawing-room. french furniture is not appropriate to all kinds of houses, and it is often difficult to adapt it to circumstances over which one has no control. the leisurely and pleasant custom of our ancestors of building a house as they wished it, and what is more, living in it for generations, is more or less a thing of the past. nowadays a house is built, and is complete and beautiful in every way, but almost before the house-warming is over, business is sitting on the doorstep, and so the family moves on. we, as a nation, have not the comfortable point of view of the english who consider their home, their home, no matter how the outside world may be behaving. their front doors are the protection which insures their cherished privacy, and the feeling that they are as settled as the everlasting hills gives a calmness to their attitude toward life which is often missing from ours. how many times have we heard people say when talking over plans--"have it thus and so, for it would be much better in case we ever care to sell." this attitude, to which of course there are hundreds of exceptions, is an outgrowth of our busy life and our tremendous country. the larger part of the home ideal is the one which americans so firmly believe in and act upon--that it is the spirit and atmosphere which makes a home, and not only the bricks and mortar. it is this point of view which makes it possible for many of us to live happily in rented houses whose architecture and arrangement often give us cold shivers. we are not to blame if all the proportions are wrong; and there is a certain pleasure in getting the better of difficulties. if one is building a house, or is living in one planned with a due regard to some special period, and has a well thought out scheme of decoration, the work is much simplified; but if one has to live in the average nondescript house and wishes to use french furniture, the problem will take time and thought to solve. in this kind of house, if one cannot change it at all, it is better to keep as simple and unobtrusive a background as possible, to have the color scheme and hangings and furniture so beautiful that they are a convincing reason themselves of the need of their being there, but one should not try to turn the room itself into a period room, for it would mean failure. the walls may be covered with a light plain paper, or silk, the woodwork enameled white or cream or ivory, and then with one's mirrors and furnishings, the best thing possible has been done, and it ought to be a charming room, if not a perfect one. if one can make a few changes i advise new lighting fixtures and a new mantel, for these two important objects in the room are conspicuous and nearly always wrong. it is almost impossible to give a list of furniture for each room in a house, as each house is a law unto itself, but the fundamental principles of beauty and utility and appropriateness apply to all. the furniture of the time of louis xiv, having so much that is magnificent about it, is especially well suited to large rooms for state occasions, great ballrooms and state drawing-rooms. these rooms not being destined for everyday use should be treated as a brilliant background; paneling, painting, tapestry, and gilding should decorate the walls, and beautiful lights and mirrors should aid in the effect of brilliancy. it must be done with such knowledge that there is no suggestion of an hotel about it. console tables, and large and dignified chairs should be used for furniture. nothing small and fussy in the way of ornaments should be put in the rooms, for they would be completely out of scale and ruin the effect. every house does not need these rooms for the elaborate side of life, and the average drawing-room is a much simpler affair. if both kinds are required the simpler one should be in the same general style as the great rooms, but not on so grand a scale. if the style of louis xv is chosen for all, in the family drawing-and living-rooms the paneling, or dado, and furniture should be of the simpler kind, and beautiful, gay, and home-like rooms, evolved with soft colored brocades, beauvais or gobelin tapestry, and either gilded or enameled or natural walnut furniture. the arm-chairs or _bergères_ of both louis xv and louis xvi are very comfortable, the _chaise-longue_ cannot be surpassed, and the settees of different shapes and sizes are delightful. there need be no lack of comfort in any period room, whether french or english. a music room, to be perfect, should not have heavy draperies to deaden the sound, and the window and door openings should be treated architecturally to make this possible. in a french music room the walls may be either paneled, or have a dado with a soft tint above it. this space may be treated in several ways: it may have silk panels outlined with moldings, or dainty pastoral scenes painted and framed with wreaths and garlands of composition. the style of the regency with its use of musical instruments for decorative motifs is also attractive. the chairs should be comfortable, the lights soft and well shaded side-lights, with a plentiful supply near the piano. [illustration: a beautiful doorway in the bedroom of the empress, compiègne. the fastening shows how much thought was expended on small matters, so the balance of decoration would be kept. the chairs are louis xvi.] [illustration: an exquisite reproduction of the bed of marie antoinette.] [illustration: a simple but charming louis xvi bed in enamel and cane.] a piano is usually a difficulty, for they are so unwieldy and dark that they are quite out of key with the rest of the room. we have become so used to its ugliness, however, that, sad to say, we are not so much shocked by it as we should be, thinking it a necessary evil. if we walk through the show rooms of one of the great piano companies we shall see that this is a mistake, for there are many cases made of light colored woods, and some have a much more graceful outline than the regulation piano. cases can be made to order to suit any scheme, if one has a competent designer. a music room should not have small and meaningless ornaments in it; the ideal is a restful and charming room where one may listen with an undistracted mind. the modern dining-room with all its comforts is really of english descent. in france, even in the eighteenth century, only the palaces and great houses had rooms especially set apart for dining-rooms. usually a small ante-chamber was used, which served as a boudoir or reception room between meals. to our more established point of view it seems a very casual method. at last, late in the century, the real ideal of a dining-room began to gain ground, and although they were very different from ours, we find really charming ones described and pictured. the walls were usually light in tone, paneled, with graceful ornamentation, and often there were niches containing wall-fountains of delightful design. the sideboards were either large side-tables, or a species of side-table built in niches, with a fountain between them which was used as a wine cooler. these fountains where cupids and dolphins disported themselves would be a most attractive feature to copy in some of our rooms, in country houses especially. the tables were round or square, but not the extension type which came later from england, and the chairs were comfortable, with broad upholstered or cane seats, and rather low backs. there should be a screen to harmonize with the room in front of the pantry door. we also add hangings, for, as i have said many times, our window-frames are not a decoration in themselves. old prints show most delightfully the manner in which curtains were hung when they were used; the very elaborate methods, however, were not used by the better class. a morning-room should be furnished as a small informal living-room, and the simpler style of the chosen period used. the style of louis xvi is beautifully adapted to libraries, for they do not have to be dark and solid in style, as many seem to think. in fact a library may be in any style if carried out with the true feeling and love of books, but of course some styles are more appropriate than others. in a louis xvi library the paneling gives way to the built-in bookcases which are spaced with due regard to keeping the correct proportions. there is usually a cupboard space running round the room about the height of a dado and projecting a little beyond the bookcases above. the colors of the rugs and hangings may be warm and rich as the books give the walls a certain strength. there are also beautiful reproductions of bedroom furniture, chairs and dressing-tables, desks, chiffoniers and _chaises-longues,_ and beds. andirons, side-lights for the walls and dressing-table, doorknobs and locks, can all be carried out perfectly. lamp and candle shades and sofa cushions should all be in keeping. the walls may be paneled in wood enameled with white or some light color, or they may be covered with silk or paper, in a panel design, with curtains to match. there are lovely designs in french period stuffs. the rugs most appropriate for french period rooms are light or medium in tone, and of persian design. the floral patterns of the persians seem to harmonize better with the curves and style of furniture than do the geometrical designs of the caucasian rugs. savonnerie and aubusson rugs may also be used, if chosen with care, and the plain carpets and rugs mentioned later are a far better choice than gaudy orientals of modern make, or bad imitations. _country houses_ the country house is a comparatively modern idea, and one which has added much to the joy of life. there are all kinds and conditions of them, great and small, grand and simple, and each is a joy to the proud possessor. life was such a turbulent affair in the middle ages that country life in the modern sense was an impossibility. the chateaux and castles and large manor-houses were strongly fortified, and there were inner courts for exercise. when war became the exception and not the rule, the inherent love in all human beings for the open began to assert itself, and the country house idea began to grow. italy was the first country where we find this freedom of attitude exemplified in the beautiful renaissance villas near rome and florence. the best were built during the sixteenth century, and were owned by the great italian families, like the de medici and d'este. they seem more like places built for the parade and show of life than homes, but the home ideal with all its conveniences was another outgrowth of peace. the plan of an italian villa is very interesting to study, to see how every advantage was taken of the land, how the residence, or casino, was placed in regard to the formal garden and the view over the valley, for they were usually on a hillside and the slope was terraced, how the statues and fountains, the beautiful ilex and cypress and orange trees, the box-edged flower-beds and gravel paths, all formed a wonderful setting for the house, and together made a perfect whole. the italian villa was not necessarily large, in fact the villa lante contains only six acres, which are divided into four terraces, the house being on the second and built in two parts, one on each side. each terrace has a beautiful fountain, with a cascade connecting those on the fourth and third. this villa is indeed, an example of taking advantage of a fairly small space. it was built by the great vignola in , and although slightly showing the wear of time, has all the beauty and charm and romance which only centuries can give. the italian villa can be adapted to the american climate and scenery and point of view, but it must be done by one of the architects who have made a deep study of the italian renaissance so the true feeling will be kept. there are some beautiful examples already in the country. in france, the chateaux which have most influenced country house building are those which were built during the sixteenth century, many of them during the reign of francis st. among the number are azay le rideau, chenonceaux, and chaumont. blois and amboise are also absorbingly interesting, but belong partly to an earlier time. the chateau region in touraine is a treasure land of architectural beauty. in the time of louis xiv le nôtre changed many of these old chateaux from their fortified state to the more open form made possible by a peaceful life. we turn to england for the most perfect examples of country houses, for the theory of country living is so thoroughly understood there, one might really say it is a national institution. many of the manor-houses, both great and small, are beautiful examples of tudor architecture, which seems especially suited to their setting of lovely green parks. the smaller country house, which has no pretention to being a show place, is as perfect in its way. the english love for out-of-doors makes them achieve wonders with even small gardens, and the climate, being gentle, helps matters immensely. in america we are taking up the english country house ideal more and more and adapting it to our own needs. the question of architecture is a question of personal choice influenced by climate, and there are now numberless charming houses scattered over the length and breadth of the land which have been built with the purpose of being country homes. they are not for summer use only, but all the year round keep their hospitable doors open, or else the season begins so early and ends so late, that, with the holiday time between, the house hardly seems closed at all. it is this attitude which is changing country house architecture to a great extent. the terraces and porches and gardens and glasshouses are all there, but the house itself is more solidly built and is prepared to stand cold weather. for the average american the best types of country house to choose from are the smaller tudor manor-houses, italian villas, georgian architecture in england, and our own colonial style which of course was founded on the georgian. in the south and southwestern parts of this country a modified spanish type may be used in place of tudor, which does not give the feeling of cool spaces so necessary in hot climates. the bungalow type is also popular in the south. there are many architects in this country who understand thoroughly the plan and spirit of colonial times, and who succeed in giving to the comforts of modern days the true stamp of the eighteenth century. the style makes most delightful houses, and with the great supply of appropriate furniture from which to choose, it would be hard to fail in having a charming whole. the house and garden should be planned together to have the best effect. each can be added to as time goes on, but when a plan is followed there is a look of belonging together which adds greatly to the charm. [illustration: a hall to conjure with--although a hepplewhite or sheraton chair would be more in keeping.] in an all-the-year country house a vestibule is a necessity as much as in a town house, and the hall should be treated with the dignity a hall deserves, and not as a second living-room. in many english houses of tudor days the stairs were behind a carved screen, or concealed in some manner, which made it possible to use the hall as a gathering place. our modern hall is not a descendant of this old hall of a past day (the living-room is much more so), but is really only a passage, often raised to the _n_th power, connecting the different rooms of the house, and should be treated as such. the stairs and landing and vista should be beautiful, and the furnishing should be dignified and in perfect scale with the rest of the house. marble stairs and tapestry and old carved furniture and beautiful rugs, or the simplest possible furniture, may be used, but the hall should have an impersonally hospitable air, one which gives the keynote of the house, but reserves its full expression until the privacy of the living-rooms is reached. [illustration: a very rare block-front chest of drawers with the original brasses.] the average country house is neither very magnificent nor very simple, but strikes the happy medium and achieves a most delightful home-like charm, which at the very outset makes life seem well worth living. it is rarely furnished in a period style throughout, but has the modern air of comfort which good taste and correct feeling give. for instance, the hall may have paneling and chippendale mirror, a table, and chairs; the living-room furnished in a general colonial manner mixed with some comfortable stuffed furniture, but not over-stuffed, lovely chintz or silk hangings, and a wide fireplace; the morning-room on something the same plan, but a little less formal; and the drawing-room a little more so, say in adam or simple louis xvi furniture. the library should have plenty of comfortable sofas and chairs, and a large table (it is hard to get one too large), some of the bookcases should be built in to form part of the architectural plan of the room, and personally i think it is a better idea to have all the space intended for bookcases built in in the first place, as this insures harmony of plan. another important thing in a library is to have the lights precisely right, and the window-seats and the fireplace should be all that their names imply in the way of added charm and comfort to the room. the dining-room should be bright and cheerful and in harmony with the near-by rooms. a breakfast-room done in lacquer is very charming. the bedrooms should be light and airy, and so planned that the beds can be properly placed. they may be furnished in old mahogany, french walnut in either louis xv or xvi style, or in carefully chosen empire; painted adam furniture is also lovely, and willow furniture makes a fresh and attractive room. the curtains should be hung so they can be drawn at night if desired, and the material should be chosen to harmonize in design with the room. the children's rooms should be sunny and bright and furnished according to their special tastes, which if too astounding, as sometimes happens, can be tactfully guided into safe channels. the servants should be given separate bedrooms, a bathroom, and a comfortable sitting-room beside their dining-room. making them comfortable seems a simple way of solving the servant question. the bungalow type of small country house is usually very simply furnished, and the best type of mission furniture or willow is especially well suited to it. bungalows are growing more and more in favor, and, although they originated in america in the west, we find delightful ones everywhere, on the maine coast and in the woods and mountains. they are a tremendous advance over the small and elaborate house of a few years ago. cretonne and chintz can be used in all the rooms of a country house with perfect propriety, and is a really lovely method of furnishing, as it is fresh and washable, and comes in all gradations of price. willow furniture with cretonne cushions makes a pleasant variety with mahogany in simple rooms. fresh air and sunlight, lovely vistas through doors and windows of the garden beyond, cool and comfortable rooms furnished appropriately, and with an atmosphere about them which expresses a hospitable and charming home spirit, is the ideal standard for a country house. _the nursery and play-room_ we should be thankful that the old idea of a nursery has passed away and instead of the dreary and rather shabby room has come the charming modern nursery with its special furniture and papers, its common sense and sanitary wisdom and its regard for the childish point of view. the influence of surroundings during the formative years of childhood has a deal to do with the child's future attitude toward life, and now that parents realize this more, the ideal nursery has simplicity, charm and artistic merit, all suited to the needs of its romping inhabitants. the wall-papers for nurseries are especially attractive with their gay friezes of wonderful fairy-tale people, mother goose, noah's ark and happy little children playing among the flowers. some of the designs come in sets of four panels that can be framed if desired. a noah's ark frieze with the animals marching two by two under the watchful eyes of the noah family, with an ark and stiff little noah's ark trees, will give endless pleasure if placed about three feet from the floor where small tots can take in its charm. if placed too high, it is very often not noticed at all. some of the most attractive nurseries have painted walls with special designs stenciled on them. if any one of these friezes is placed above a simple wainscot, the effect is charming. the paper for nurseries is usually waterproof, for a nursery must be absolutely spick and span. another thing that gives much pleasure in a nursery is to build on one side of the room a platform about a yard wide and six inches high, and cover it with cushions. the furniture in a day nursery should consist of a toy cupboard stained to match the color scheme of the room and large enough for each child to have his own special compartment in it. if the children's initials are painted or burned on the doors, it gives an added feeling of pride in keeping the toys in order. there are many designs of small tables and chairs made with good lines, and the wicker ones with gay cretonne cushions are very attractive. the tables and chairs should not have sharp corners and should be heavy enough not to tip over easily. there should be a bookcase for favorite picture-books. besides the special china for the children's own meals there should be a set of play china for doll's parties. a sand table, with a lump of clay for modeling, a blackboard and, in the spring, window-boxes where the children can plant seeds, will all add vastly to the joy of life. and do not forget a comfortable chair for the nurse-maid. white muslin curtains with side hangings of washable chintz or linen or some special nursery design in cretonne should hang to the sill. the colors in both day and night nurseries should be soft and cheerful, and the color scheme as carefully thought out as for the rest of the house. both rooms should be on the sunny side of the house, and far enough away from the family living-room to avoid any one's being disturbed when armies charge up and down the play-room battle-ground or indians start out on the warpath. the best floor covering for a day nursery is plain linoleum, as it is not dangerously slippery and is easily kept clean. if the floor is hard wood, it must not have a slippery wax finish. it will also save tumbles if the day nursery has no rugs, but the night nursery ought to have one large one or several small ones by the beds and in front of the open fire. washable cotton rugs are best to use for this purpose. when children are very small, it is necessary to have sides to the beds to keep them from falling out. the beds should be placed so that the light does not shine directly in the children's eyes in the morning, and there should be plenty of fresh air. the rest of the night nursery furniture should consist of a dressing-table, a chest of drawers, a night table and some chairs. there should be a few pictures on the walls hung low, and beautiful and interesting in subjects and treatment. the fire should be well screened. pictures like the "songs of childhood," for instance, would be charming simply framed. if there is only one nursery for both day and night use, the room should be decorated as a day nursery and the bed-cover made of white dimity with a border of the curtain stuff or made entirely of it. _curtains_ the modern window, with its huge panes of glass and simple framework, makes an insistent demand for curtains. without curtains windows of this kind give a blank, staring appearance to the room and also a sense of insecurity in having so many holes in the walls. the beautiful windows of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in italy, england and france, give no such feeling of incompleteness, for their well-carved frames, and over-windows, and their small panes of glass, were important parts of the decorative scheme. windows and doors were more than mere openings in those days, but things have changed, and the hard lines of our perfectly useful windows get on our nerves if we do not soften them with drapery. in that hopeless time in the last century called "early victorian," when black walnut reigned supreme, the curtains were as terrifying as the curves of the furniture and the colors of the carpets. luckily most of us know only from pictures what that time was, but we all have seen enough remnants of its past glories to be thankful for modern ways and days. the over-draped, stuffy, upholstered nightmares have entirely disappeared, and in their place have come curtains of a high standard of beauty and practicality--simple, appropriate, and serving the ends they were intended for. the effect of curtains must be taken into account from both the outside and the inside of the house. the outside view should show a general similarity of appearance in the windows of each story, in the manner of hanging the curtains and also of material. the shades throughout the house should be of the same color, and if a different color is needed inside for the sake of the color scheme, either two shades should be used or they should be the double-faced kind. shades should also be kept drawn down to the same line, or else be rolled up out of sight, for there is nothing that gives a more ill-kept look to a house than having the shades and curtains at any haphazard height or angle. and now to "return to our muttons." the average window needs two sets of curtains and a shade. sometimes a thin net or lace curtain, a _"bonne femme"_ is hung close to the glass, but this is usual only in cities where privacy has to be maintained by main force, or where the curtains of a floor differ greatly. thin curtains in combination with side curtains of some thicker material are most often used. curtains either make or mar a room, and they should be carefully planned to make it a perfect whole. they must be so convincingly right that one only thinks at first how restful and pleasant and charming the whole room is; the details come later. when curtains stand out and astound one, they are wrong. it is not upholstery one is trying to display, but to make a perfect background for one's furniture, one's pictures and one's friends. there are so many materials to choose from that all tastes and purses can be suited; nets, thin silk and gauzes; scrims and batistes; cotton and silk crepes, muslin or dotted swiss, cheesecloth, soleil cloth, madras, and a host of other fascinating fabrics which may be used in any room of the house. the ready-made curtains are also charming. there are muslin curtains with appliqué borders cut from flowered cretonne; sometimes the cretonne is appliqué on net which is let into the curtain with a four-inch hem at the bottom and sides. a simpler style has a band of flowered muslin sewed on the white muslin, or used as a ruffle. it is also added to the valance. there are many kinds of net and lace curtains ready for use that will harmonize with any kind of room. some of the expensive ones are really beautiful examples of needlecraft, with lace medallions and insertions and embroidery stitches. when it comes to the question of side curtains the supply to choose from is almost unlimited, and this great supply forms the bog in which so many are lost. a thing may be beautiful in itself and yet cause woe and havoc in an otherwise charming room. there are linens of all prices, and cretonnes, both the inexpensive kind and the wonderful shadow ones; there are silks and velvets and velours, aurora cloth, cotton crêpe and arras cloth, and a thousand other beautiful stuffs that are cheap or medium-priced or expensive, whose names only the shopman knows, but which win our admiration from afar. the curtains for a country house are usually of less valuable materials than those for a town house, and this is as it should be, for winter life is usually more formal than summer life. nothing can be prettier, however, for a country house than cretonne. it is fresh and dainty and gives a cool and delightful appearance to a room. among the many designs there are some for every style of decoration. [illustration: the arrangement of sofa and table are excellent, but there should be other centers of interest in the room. as it is, this room just misses its aim, and is neither a strict period room nor a really comfortable modern one.] the height and size of a room must be taken into account in hanging curtains, for with their aid, and also that of wallpaper, we can often change a room of bad proportions to one of seemingly good ones. if a room is very low, a stripe more or less marked in the design, and the curtains straight to the floor, will make it seem higher. a high room may have the curtains reach only to the sills with a valance across the top. this style may be used in a fairly low room if the curtain material is chosen with discretion and is not of a marked design. if the windows are narrow they can be made to seem wider by having the rod for the side curtains extend about eight inches on each side of the window, and the curtain cover the frame and a part of the wall. this leaves all the window for light and air. a valance connecting the side curtains and covering the top of the net curtains will also make the window seem broader. a group of three windows can be treated as one by using only one pair of side curtains with a connecting ruffle, and a pair of net curtains at each window. curtains may hang in straight lines or be simply looped back, but fancy festooning is not permissible. there is another attractive method of dividing the curtains in halves, the upper sections to hang so they just cover the brass rod for the lower sections, which are pushed back at the sides. these lower sections may have the rod on which they are run fastened to the window-sash if one wishes. they will then go up with the window and of course keep clean much longer, but to my mind it is not so alluring as a gently blowing curtain on a hot day. i have seen a whole house curtained most charmingly in this manner, with curtains of unbleached muslin edged with a narrow little ruffle. they hung close to the glass and reached just to the sill with the lower part pushed back at the sides. the outside view was most attractive, and the inside curtains varied according to the needs of each room. [illustration: a charming window treatment, in a room whose color scheme is carried out in the garden, giving a unique and delightful touch.] casement windows should have the muslin curtains drawn back with a cord or a muslin band, and the side curtains should hang straight, with a little top ruffle; if the windows open into the room the curtains may be hung on the frames. the muslin curtains may be left out entirely if one wishes. net curtains on french doors should be run on small brass rods at top and bottom, and the heavy curtains that are drawn together at night for privacy's sake should be so hung that they will not interfere with the opening of the door. there should be plenty of room under all ruffles or shaped valances where the curtains are to be drawn to allow for easy working of the cords, otherwise tempers are liable to be suddenly lost. all windows over eighteen inches wide need two curtains, and the average allowance of fullness is at least twice the width of the window for net and any very soft material, while once and a half is usually enough for material with more body. great care must be taken to measure curtains correctly and have them cut evenly. it is also a good plan to allow for extra length, which can be folded into the top hem and will not show, but will allow for shrinking. stenciling can be very attractively used for curtains and portières for country houses. cheesecloth, scrim, aurora cloth, pongee, linen, and velours, are a few of the materials that can be used. the design and kind used in a room should be chosen with due regard to its suitability. a louis xvi room could not possibly have arras cloth used in it, while it would be charming and appropriate in a modern bungalow. arras cloth with an appliqué design of linen couched on it makes beautiful curtains and portières to go with the mission or craftsman furniture. there is an old farmhouse on long island that has been made over into a most delightful country house, and the furnishing throughout is consistent and charming. the curtains are reproductions of old designs in chintz and cretonne. the living-room, with its white paneling to the ceiling, its wide fireplace, old mahogany furniture, and curtains gay with parrots and flowers, hanging over cool white muslin, is a room to conjure with. in town houses the curtains and hangings must also harmonize with the style of furnishing. when the windows are hung with soft colored brocade, the portières are usually beautiful tapestry or rich toned velvets, and care is always taken to have the balance of color kept and the color values correct. there are silks and damasks and velvets, and many lesser stuffs, made for all the period styles, whether carried out simply or elaborately, and it is the art of getting the suitable ones for the different rooms which gives the air of harmony, beauty, and restfulness, for which the word home stands. in hanging these more formal curtains the shaped valance is usually used with the curtains hanging straight at the sides of the window, so they can be drawn together at night. the cords and pulleys should always be in perfect working order. another method is to have the curtains simply parted in the center, either with a valance or without, and drawn back at the sides with heavy cords and tassels, or bands of the stuff. if a draped effect is desired great care must be taken not to have it too elaborate. if the walls of a room are plain in color one may have either plain or figured hangings, but if the wall covering is figured it gives a feeling of unrest if the curtains are also figured. sometimes one sees bedrooms and small boudoirs where the walls and curtains show the same design, but it must be done with skill, or disaster is sure to follow. plain casement cloth or the different "sunfast" fabrics are attractive with plain or figured papers, especially in bedrooms of country houses. if one has to live in the town house through the summer do not make the fatal mistake of taking down the curtains and living in bare discomfort during the hot season. if the curtains are too handsome to be kept up, buy a second set of inexpensive ones that can be washed without injury. it is better that they should stop the dust, and then go into the tub, than that one's lungs should collect it all. curtains are useful as well as ornamental, and a house without them is as dreary as breakfast without coffee. _floors and floor coverings_ in planning a room the color values should be divided into the natural divisions of the heaviest, or darkest, part at the bottom, which is the floor; the medium color tone in the middle, which is the wall; and the lightest at the top, which is the ceiling. this keeps the room from seeming top-heavy and gives the necessary feeling of support for the wall and ceiling. the walls and floor serve as a background and should not be insistant or startling in color; and the size and height of the room, the amount of wall space, the position of doors, windows and fireplace, the quantity and quality of the light, and the connecting rooms will all be factors in the color scheme and materials chosen. the floor of a room must be right or all the character of the furnishings will be lost. one should first see that it is in perfect condition. if it is a hardwood or parquetry floor it should not be finished the bright and glaring yellow which is sometimes seen, but should be slightly toned down before the finish is put on. samples of different tones should be submitted to be tried with samples of the rug and stuffs to be used before the decision is made. a wax finish is better than the usual coats of shellac, for the wax has a soft and beautiful glow, while shellac has a hard commercial glare. a waxed floor, if properly taken care of, which is not difficult, wears extremely well and does not have the distressingly shabby appearance of a partly worn shellaced floor. if the floor is old and worn and is to be painted or stained all cracks should be filled, and the color chosen should be a neutral color-in harmony with the rest of the room, the wood shades usually being the best, with the exception of cherry and the red tones of mahogany. teak is a good tone for hard wood. soft wood floors of such woods as pine, fir, and cypress can be made to have the appearance of hardwood if first scraped or sandpapered and then stained with an oil stain and finished with a thin coat of shellac and two coats of prepared floor wax. the usual ways of using floor covering are: one large rug which leaves a border of hard wood floor of about a foot all around it; several small rugs placed with a well balanced plan upon the floor; and carpet, either seamless or of strips sewed together, made into one rug or entirely covering the floor. in the majority of cases the use of a single large plain rug is by far the best plan, for it gives the feeling of an unobtrusive background whose beauty of color serves to bind the room in the unity of a well planned scheme; and this sense of dignity and solidity goes a long way on the road to success. it is one of the most satisfactory methods of covering a floor imaginable. these plain carpets come in several grades and many colors and are woven in widths from nine to thirty feet which can be cut in any desired length. this makes it possible to have a rug which will be a suitable size for a room. the colors are very good, especially the soft grays, tans, putty color, and taupe. there are also some good blues and greens, a very beautiful dark blue having great possibilities. there are also, besides these wide carpets, narrow carpets from twenty-seven inches to four feet wide which can be sewed together and made into rugs, or the carpet can cover the entire floor. in some cases this is the most attractive thing to do, for it will make a room seem larger by carrying the vision all the way to the wall without the break of a border; and it also covers a multitude of sins in the way of a rough floor. in these days of vacuum cleaners the old terrors of dust have lost their sting. a plain carpet or rug may be used with propriety in any room in the house, provided the right color is chosen for the surroundings. some people, however, prefer a figured carpet in the dining-room on account of the wear and tear around the table. this risk is not very great if the rug is of good quality in the first place. a two-toned all-over design is often chosen for halls and stairs because of the special wear which they receive, and a chinese rug is a good selection to make with a stair carpet of soft blue and yellow chinese design to match. a small, figured, all-over design is a good choice for a nursery. bedrooms may have either one large rug or be covered entirely with carpet, or have several rugs so placed that the floor is practically covered but is easily kept clean. plain rugs are more restful in effect in bedrooms than figured rugs, and with plain walls and chintz are fresh and charming. these carpet rugs should be made with a flat binding which turns under and is sewed down, as this looks far better and lies flatter on the floor than the usual over-and-over finish, which is apt to stretch. all rugs should be thoroughly stretched before they are delivered as otherwise they will not lie flat. there is a kind of plain woven linen rug, with a different colored border if desired, which is very good to use in many country houses. these rugs come in a large assortment of colors and sizes, and, when sufficient time is allowed, they can be made in special sizes. old-fashioned woven and hooked rag rugs are not appropriate in all kinds of rooms, even in the country. they should only be used in the simple farm house type and in some bungalows, and should be used with the simple styles of old furniture and never with fine examples, whether copies or originals. [illustration: this attractive colonial hallway shows a good arrangement of rugs. the border on the portières spoils the effect, but the lamp is well chosen.] the light in a room must be taken into account in choosing a rug, and cold colors should not be used in north or cheerless rooms. the theory of color in regard to light has been explained in other chapters, very fully in the chapter on wallpapers, and its principles should be applied to all questions of furnishing, or disappointment will be the result. [illustration: the oriental rug used on the stairs harmonizes with those used on the floor.] [illustration: this bed-room is a good example of a simple colonial bed-room, and the rag rugs are in keeping with it. the repeat design of the wallpaper ties the room into a unified whole.] the question of whether to use oriental rugs or plain rugs is one which many people find hard to solve. one of the deciding factors is often finding just what is right for the room, for really beautiful oriental rugs in large or carpet size are rare and also expensive, but soft-toned persian rugs with their interesting floral designs, and chinese rugs with their wonderful tones of blue and yellow are works of art and well worth the trouble necessary to discover them and the price asked. they are best adapted to some libraries and halls and some dining-rooms, but they should not be startling in either design or color. to my mind oriental rugs are not well suited to the majority of living-rooms and bedrooms because of the constant and varied use of these rooms. when oriental rugs are used there should be plenty of plain effect in the room; the walls, for instance, should be plain. i have never seen a room which was successful if both walls and rug were figured. a fine tapestry may be used with oriental rugs, but that is quite different from a figured wall. if several rugs are to be used in one room they must be of the same color value and the same general color tone or the floor will appear uneven. one does not wish to have a room give the uncomfortable effect of "the rocky road to dublin." a rug with a general blue tone must not be put with other rugs of many colors or an overpowering amount of red, but should be matched in color by having blue the chief color of the other rugs also. the color value, too, must be even, for a light rug next to a dark has the same disagreeable effect. it is impossible to have a beautiful room if the rug seems to rise up and smite you as you enter. persian rugs with their conventional floral designs should not be used with the marked color and geometrical designs of caucasian rugs. these points are important to remember and follow, for otherwise unity of scheme for the room will be impossible. if one has several fine rugs well matched in color value and design they should be placed with a due regard to the shape of the room and the position of the furniture. a rug placed cat-a-cornered breaks up the structural plan of the room and makes it appear smaller than it really is. the new lines formed are at odds with the lines of the walls and interfere with the sense of space by stopping the eye in its instinctive journey to the boundary of things. oriental rugs should be tried if possible in the rooms in which they are to be used before the final choice is made, and one must always try the rug with the light falling across the nap and also with the nap, for one way makes the rug lighter and the other darker, and one of the two may be just what is wanted. if one owns a rug which seems far too bright to use it can be toned down, but the owner must take the risk of its being spoiled in the process. to me it does not seem a great risk, because if the rug is so bright that it is absolutely nerve-destroying and useless, and there is a chance that for a small sum it can be made charming, why not take it? i have never heard of one failing, but i suppose some of them must or the stipulation would not be made. if an oriental rug is used it should give the keynote for the color scheme, and the design of the rug will decide whether there can be any figured material used in the room. it is far easier to build up a scheme from a satisfactory rug than it is to try to fit one into a room which is otherwise finished. one's field of choice is much wider. samples of wallpaper, curtain material and furniture coverings should always be tried with the rugs, whether oriental or plain in color, for the scheme of a room must be worked out as a whole, not piece-meal. each room must be considered in relation to the other rooms near it, because, although it may be beautiful in itself, if it does not harmonize with the connecting rooms the whole effect will be a failure. vistas from one room to another should be alluring and charming; there should be no violent and clashing contrasts of color or styles of furniture or sudden change in the scale of furnishings. one room cannot shake off its relationship to the rest of the house and be a success, and floor coverings must bear their full share of responsibility in making the whole house beautiful. _the treatment of walls_ the walls of a house hold a most important place in the order of things and their treatment requires much thought. the floor is the darkest color value in a room, as it is the foundation, and the walls come next in color value and consideration. what i have said in other chapters about the necessity of connecting rooms being harmonious applies of course to the selection of wall coverings. the first question to be settled is: shall paint or paper be used? if a house is new the walls are apt to settle a little making the plaster crack, and it is far better in such a case to allow the walls to remain white for a year. if the effect of plain white plaster strikes one as too cold one of the many water tints may be used as this will not interfere with any later scheme. in houses that have been built for a number of years the walls are often so badly cracked and marred that to put them into condition for painting would be more expensive than preparing them for paper. estimates should be given for both paint and paper. when the plaster has done its worst and settled down to a quiet life the work of covering the walls appropriately begun. plain walls, whether painted, tinted, or papered, are more restful in effect and form better backgrounds than figured walls. this is not a question of the beauty of the design or the expense of the material, but simply the fact that a plain surface is quiet, while a figured wall, even if only two-toned, will at once assert itself more, and so be less of a background. if many pictures and mirrors are to be used, or a figured rug and much furniture, by all means have plain walls. if one has some special object of great beauty and interest, it should be treated with the dignity and honor it deserves and given a plain background. a miscellaneous collection of lares and penates can be made to hold together better by having a plain wall of some soft neutral color rather than a figured paper, which would only make the confusion more pronounced. small rooms should have plain and light colored walls, as they then appear larger. plain walls give a wider scope in the matter of decoration, for, beside the possibilities of plain stuffs, chintz and various striped silks and linen may be used which would be quite out of the question with figured walls, more flowers may be used, and lampshades, always a bit assertive, take their proper place in the scheme, instead of making another distracting note. [illustration: a built-in corner cupboard has an architecturally decorative value for it supplies a spot of color in the paneled walls. the modern china closet is bad, and the chairs have the failing of many reproductions, the backs are a little too high for the width.] the question of paint or paper has often to be decided by circumstances, such as the condition of the walls or the climate. with paint one can have the exact shade desired and either a "glossy" or eggshell finish. with paper it is often a matter of taking the nearest thing to the color wanted and changing the other colors to harmonize. paint is better to use in a damp or foggy climate, as paper may peel from the walls in the course of time. [illustration: this fine well-curtained four poster, once the property of lafayette, the trundle-bed, cradle, chairs and table, are all interesting, but the wallpaper appears to be of the ugly time of about . something more appropriate should be chosen.] walls may be tinted or painted, and paneled with strips of molding which are painted the wall color or a tone lighter or darker as the scheme requires. also, the wall inside the moulding may be a tone lighter than the wall outside, or vice versa, but the contrast must not be strong or the wall at once becomes uneven in effect and ceases to be a good background. paintings may be paneled on the walls. if one has only one suitable picture for the room it should be placed over the mantel, or in some other position of importance, making a centre of interest in the room. using pictures and pieces of tapestry in this way is quite different from having the walls painted in two sharply contrasting colors, because the paint gives the feeling of permanence while the picture is obviously an added decoration requiring a correct background. i am speaking of the average house, not of houses and palaces where the walls have been painted by great artists. painted walls are appropriate for all manner of homes, from the elaborate country or city house all through the list to the farm house or small bungalow, but if, for any reason, one cannot have painted walls, or prefers paper, one need not forego the restful pleasure of plain backgrounds, for there are many beautiful plain papers to be had. personal taste usually decides whether paint or paper is to be used. paint is thought by some to be too cold or hard in appearance (it is only so when badly done or when disagreeable colors are chosen,) or it is considered too formal, or, with the memory of new england farm houses in mind, too informal. for those who wish paper, the possibilities are very great if the paper is properly chosen. the reason why so many people are disappointed with the effect of their newly papered rooms is that they judged the paper at the shop from one piece, and did not realize that a design which appealed to them there might be overpowering when repeated again and again and again on the wall. when choosing a figured paper several strips should be placed side by side to enable one to judge whether the horizontal repeat is as satisfactory and pleasant as the perpendicular. when an acceptable one is found a large sample should be taken home to pin on the wall to show the effect in its future environment. samples of the curtains and furniture coverings should also be tried with the sample of paper before the final choice is made. if a paper with a decided figure is chosen pictures should be banished, for their beauty will be killed by the repeated design. the scale of the design in relation to the size of the room must also be taken into account. a small room will be overpowered by a large figure, but often the repeat of a small figure is quite correct in a large room as it gives an all-over, unobtrusive effect. if the wall space is much cut by doors and windows one should select a plain, neutral toned paper. it would be a fatal error to use a figured paper, for the room would look restless and chaotic and probably out of balance. if the windows are in groups and the doors balance each other the danger is lessened, but not done away with. one of the beautiful features in fine old colonial houses is this ordered position of doors, but in many a modern house the doors have a trying way of appearing in a corner, as if they were a bit ashamed of themselves; and they have good cause to be, for a badly placed door is a calamity. if one is fortunate enough to plan one's own house, this matter can be taken care of properly, but in the average ready made house one has to try to make the doors less conspicuous by having them painted in very much the tone of the wall. with a gray wall, for instance, there should have a slightly lighter tone of gray for the woodwork, with a white and gray striped paper white paint may be used, with a soft tan a deep old ivory, and so on. if a room is badly proportioned it can often be improved by the simple expedient of using a correct paper. if the room is too high for its size the ceiling color may be brought down on the side wall for eighteen inches or so and finished with a moulding. this stops the eye before it reaches the ceiling and so makes the room seem lower. if the room is too low a striped paper may be used which will make the room seem higher by carrying the eye up to the ceiling where the paper is finished with a moulding. vertical lines give the appearance of height, horizontal lines of width. striped paper should not be used in narrow halls, for it makes them seem narrower and gives one the feeling of being in a cage. two-toned striped papers of nearly the same color value, such as gray and white, yellow and cream-white, and white and cream color, are better to use than those of more marked contrast, although some of the green and white and blue and white are charming and fresh looking for bedrooms. black and white is too eccentric for the average house; one should beware of all eccentric papers. there are a few kinds of paper which should be left severely alone, for they will spoil any room. one of them has a plain general tone but a suggestion of other colors which give it a blurred and mottled appearance which is singularly disagreeable. another is plain in color but has a lumpy effect like a toad's back, and is really quite awful. others are metallic papers, and there is a heavy paper embossed in self color with a conventional design which is apt to have a shining surface. papers with dashes and little flecks of gold should be avoided, for the gold gives the wall an unstable and cheap appearance. papers with small single figures repeated all over the surface are apt to look as if a plague of flies or beetles had arrived and are quite impossible to live with. borders and cut out borders have a commonplace appearance and are not in the best of taste. and then there are papers with vulgarity of design. this quality is hard to define clearly, for it may be only a slightly redundant curve or other lack of true feeling for the beauty of line, or a bit too much, or too little, color, or a bad combination of color, or a lack of knowledge of the laws of balance and harmony and ornament, or a wrong surface of texture to the paper. but whatever the cause, a vulgar paper will vulgarize any room, no matter what is done in the way of furniture. it will assert itself like an ill-bred person. luckily both are easily recognized. but the picture is not all dark by any means, for some of the american made papers, as well as the imported papers, are very beautiful. the makers are taking great pains to have fine designs and beautiful colors which will appeal to people of knowledge and taste. the situation is much better than it was a few years ago. some of the copies of old figured and scenic papers are exceptionally fine, and can be used with great distinction in dining-rooms or halls with ivory or cream-white woodwork and wainscoting, and georgian or colonial furniture. one should not use pictures with these papers, but mirrors are permissable and will have the best effect if placed on a wood-paneled over-mantel. these papers come in tones of gray and white and also sepia. oriental rugs, if not of too conspicuous a design, may be used with them, but plain rugs are better with plain hangings and striped silk chair seats. these papers are very attractive in country houses. there are also colored scenic papers, an especially fascinating one having a chinese design which could be used as a connected scene or in panels, and would be lovely in a country house drawing-room or dining-room or hall. it could also be used in a city house with beautiful effect if due thought be given to the question of hangings, woodwork, rug, and furniture. introduce a false note, and a room of this kind is ruined. these scenic papers come in sets, but the copies of the other old papers come in the regular rolls. some of the lovely old "_toile de jouy_" designs have been used for wall paper, and these with other chintz designs, can be softened in effect by a special method of glazing which makes them very harmonious and charming with antique furniture or reproductions of fine old models. these old chintz papers are lovely for bedrooms or morning-rooms, with fresh crisp muslin curtains and plain silk or linen or chambray side-curtains. either painted or mahogany furniture could be employed. a motif from the paper can be used for the furniture or it can simply be striped with the color chosen for the plain curtains. some of the good and rather stunning bird design papers treated with this special glazing make beautiful halls with plain rugs and hangings and chair covers. papers cost from about forty cents to several dollars a roll, but the choice is large and attractive between one and three dollars a roll, and there are also excellent ones for eighty-five cents. it is almost impossible, however, to give a satisfactory list of prices as they vary in different parts of the country. the reproductions of old scenic papers of which i have spoken are expensive, costing about one hundred dollars a set, but they may go down again now that the war is over. the difference in expense between paint and paper is not very great, in fact, with the average paper at a dollar or a dollar and a half a roll, paint is about the same, or perhaps a bit cheaper if the walls are in fairly good condition. it is a mistake to use inferior paper, and there should never be more than a lining paper and the paper itself on the wall. in some cases where there is only one paper of soft color on the wall, with no lining paper, this paper may be used as a lining paper if it is absolutely tight and firm. the risk is that the new paste may loosen the old a bit and so let all come down. old paper must be entirely removed if there are any marred places as they will show through the new and ruin the effect. the amount of wall space and the quality and the quantity of the light are important factors in deciding the color scheme because by using them correctly we can brighten a cheerless, dark room or soften the blaze in a too sunny one. if the light is a cold dreary one from the north, the room will be vastly improved if warm, cheerful colors are used: warm ivory, deep cream color, soft or bright yellow without any greenish tinge in it, soft yellow pinks (there is a hard pink which is very ugly), yellow green (but not olive), and tones of golden tan. it is the dash of yellow in these colors which makes them cheerful and gives the impression of sunlight. tans should never come too close to brown for a dark room, for nothing is more dreary or hopeless than a room done in that depressing color. the beautiful tones of old oak, or properly treated modern oak paneling, are quite a different matter. small amounts of red or orange will do wonders, if used with discretion, in brightening a dull room, and are often just what are needed to bring out the beauty of the rest of the scheme; but it is a great mistake to think that red walls and a great deal of red in the hangings and furniture covering will make a cheerful or pleasant room. red absorbs light and is also an irritant to the eyes and nerves, and, unless it is used with great skill, it is apt to look extremely commonplace and ugly or like an ostentatious hotel or public building. few of us have large enough houses to make it possible to use red in great amounts, and it is well for the average person to shun it and remember that in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred a red wall will spoil a room. [illustration: there are few treatments for walls in a colonial dining-room that can compare with paneled walls, or wainscoting with a decorative paper above. the subject, however, must be in keeping. this paper is extremely inappropriate, and the center light is also badly chosen and could be eliminated.] cool colors should be used in bright and sunny rooms--blues, greens, grays, grayish tans, and those delightful colors, old ivory, and soft deep cream color and linen color. colors with a tone of yellow in them are easier to use than cold blues and greens and violets, for the yellow tinge, be it ever so little, brings them into relation with the majority of woods used in floors and furniture frames. light colors make a room seem larger by apparently making the walls recede, and dark colors make it seem smaller, as they make us conscious of the walls and so seem to bring them nearer. any very bright room may have dark walls to soften the glare, but if it has to be used by artificial light it will then be heavy and cheerless in effect; and so a better choice would be some soft neutral color of medium or lighter color values, such as gray green, and use awnings and dark shades. this matter of color in relation to light is important to remember when planning one's house. there is also another question which has great influence on one's choice of paper, and that is the amount and kind of furniture to be used in the room. georgian furniture calls for plain or paneled walls, or if a figured paper is used it should be one of the old-fashioned designs or one of the striped papers. old-fashioned chintz designs are also appropriate for bedrooms with mahogany or painted furniture. plain or paneled walls, striped paper, and some of the fine floral designs, which can also be used as panels, and the charming _toile de jouy_ designs, are all appropriate when used with french furniture. heavily made furniture like craftsman or mission needs the support of strong walls which may be rough-finished natural-colored or painted plaster, or grass cloth, or one of the many good plain papers of heavy texture. there are also figured papers which are appropriate. wicker furniture will go with almost any kind of attractive paper which is correct for the room, but when there is much figure the cushions should be covered with plain stuff. all-over stuffed furniture when covered with chintz looks best with plain walls. painted furniture looks well with plain walls and chintz. a motif from the chintz can be used on the furniture for the decoration, but if the wall paper is figured the effect will be more restful if the furniture is only striped. [illustration: this room is unattractive because of the poor arrangement of the furniture and the inappropriate bed-hangings. the bed, sheraton chair, and card-table, are all very good examples.] in summing up: the important points which govern the choice and color of wall covering are the connecting rooms, the amount and quality of light, the size and shape of the room, its use, the furnishings which are to be used, the condition of the walls, and personal preference as to paint or paper. do not be afraid of the idea that plain walls, whether paint or paper, may become tiresome, for one can stand well planned monotony year in and year out with a cheerful heart. if some rooms are to be papered with figured paper be sure the selection is made with care and with the idea in mind that a figured wall is in itself a decoration and should not have pictures crowded upon it. _artificial lighting_ to light a room successfully appropriate lights must be placed where they are needed to keep the feeling of balance and proportion and bring out the charm of the room by their relation to its furnishing. they should also be so placed that the life of the household can go on as cheerfully and smoothly in the evening as in the day time. the position and style of lighting fixtures is decided by the type of house, the size and height of the rooms, the amount of wall space, the use for which the rooms are intended, their style of furnishing, the chief centers of interest, such as mantels, doors, furniture, and pictures of importance, and also the manner in which the walls are treated, whether paneled or papered. if one is building a house one should give all possible data to the architect in regard to any special pieces of furniture or pictures which one may wish to use in certain places. by doing this the tragedy of a slightly too small wall space will be escaped, and the lights will be properly placed in the beginning. one must always remember in planning the position of the lights for a room that the eye naturally seeks the brightest spot, and badly placed lamps and sidelights will upset the balance of a room. the room must not be glaringly bright, but there should be a feeling of a certain evenness in the distribution of light. a top light makes the light come from the wrong direction. artificial light in a room should take its general idea from the lighting of the room in the day time. the daylight comes from the windows, the sides of the room, and the decoration of the room is built up with that in mind; so when we are planning the lighting scheme we should remember this and realize that the light should come from lamps placed advantageously on tables, and wall lights placed slightly above eye level. living-rooms should have a sufficient number of well placed sidelights to enhance the beauty of the room, and they should be placed near centers of importance such as each side of the fireplace, or wide door, or on each side of some important picture or mirror. if there is a group of two or three windows which need to be more convincingly drawn together to form a unit, lights may be placed on each side of the group. sidelights can be placed in the center of panels, thus forming a decoration for the panel, and, flanking paintings or mirrors or tapestries, make beautiful and formal rooms, especially for the different periods of french, english, or italian decoration. this treatment with simpler forms of fixtures may also be used in our charming, but more or less nondescript, chintz living-rooms and country house drawing-rooms or dining-rooms. with a sufficient number of lamps in the room the side-or wall-lights need not be lighted during the average stay-at-home evenings but are ready if there is some special occasion for brilliancy. there are some rooms which are much improved by having no side-lights at all, all the light coming from lamps. there should be plenty of floor sockets so placed that lamps may be used on tables near sofas and armchairs and on the writing table or large living-room table. it is this proper placing of lamps which has so much to do with the charm and comfort of a room when evening comes. in the average home there is no greater mistake in the matter of lighting than having a room lighted by chandelier or ceiling lights. lights at the top of the room, or a foot or two from the ceiling, break up completely the artistic balance of the room by drawing attention to them as the brightest spot. they make the room seem smaller both by day and night, they cast ugly shadows, they do not give sufficient or correct light for reading or writing, and the glare above one's head is nerve destroying. when the sun is directly overhead we hasten to put up sunshades, so why should we deliberately reproduce in our homes the most trying position of light? the fixtures also are usually extremely ugly. one sees sometimes in private houses what is called the indirect method of lighting, which is usually an alabaster bowl suspended by chains from the ceiling in which the lights are concealed. the reflected light on the ceiling is supposed to give a suffused and bright light. to my mind there is something extremely obnoxious about this method used in homes, for it smacks of department stores and banks and public buildings generally. and then, too, the light is unpleasant. if i were the unfortunate possessor of such a light i should have it taken down and use the bowl on a high wrought iron tripod for growing ivy and ferns, and thus try to get a little good from the ill wind that blew it there. there are a few cases, however, where top lights may be used, such as large drawing-or music-rooms, rooms in which formal entertaining is to be done. crystal ceiling lights are then best to use, or chandeliers with crystal drops or pendants. if these rooms are italian renaissance in style, the center lights must naturally harmonize in period. large halls with marble stairs and wrought-iron balustrade can have this elaborate kind of light, but the average hall demands a simpler chandelier. if one is to be used there are some very good copies of old colonial lights and lanterns, but personally i prefer wall brackets and a dignified lamp, or a floor lamp. torchères or lacquered floor lamps may be used in pairs if the hall is large enough to have them placed properly. in a long, narrow hall they would look a bit like lamp posts. rather close fitting round shades, nearly the same size at top and bottom, made of painted parchment give a decorative touch and sufficient light. as one does not need an especially bright light in a hall, a beautiful lamp can be made of one of the fine old alabaster vases which many people have by dropping an electric bulb in it. placed on a consol table before a mirror it makes a delightful spot in the hall. these lamps may also be used in other rooms where a light is needed for effect and not for use. in placing lamps the charm and utility of a reflection in a mirror must not be overlooked. a vestibule may have a lantern of some attractive design in harmony with the house, or side lights, if they can be so placed as not to be struck by the door. dining-rooms are far more beautiful and also better lighted if sidelights are used, with candles on the table, rather than a drop light. dining-room drop-lights or "domes" have all the disadvantages of other center lights and are extremely trying to the eyes of the diners, as well as being unbecoming. even when screened with thin silk drawn across the bottom there is something deadening to one's brain in having a light just over one's head. side lights with the added charm of candles will give plenty of light. it is a cause for thanksgiving that drop-lights over dining-tables are rarely seen now-a-days. bedrooms should have a good light over the dressing table, and to my mind, two movable lights upon it, which may be in the form of wired candlesticks or small lamps. these are much more convenient than fixed lights. there should be a light over any long mirror, and one for the desk and sofa or _chaise longue_, and one for the bedside table. the dressing-room should be supplied with a light over the chiffonier and long mirror, and there should also be a table light. clothes closets should have simple lights. and do not forget the kitchen if one wishes properly cooked meals. a light so placed that it shines into the oven has saved many a burned dish, and a light over the sink has saved many a broken one. the servants' sitting-room should have a good reading lamp. the question of the style of the fixtures is important, for if they are badly chosen they will quite spoil an otherwise perfect room. they must harmonize in period with the room, and also with its scale of furnishing. there is a wide choice in the shops, and some of the designs are very good indeed, having been carefully studied and adapted from beautiful museum specimens of old italian, french, english, and spanish, carvings and ornament. some of our iron workers make very fine metal fixtures which are beautiful copies of old french and italian work. there are graceful and sturdy designs, elaborate and simple, special period designs, and many which are appropriate for rooms of no particular period. there are charming lacquer sconces to go with lacquer furniture, and old-fashioned prism candelabra and sconces, and fixtures copied from choice old whale oil lamps in both brass and bronze. there are suitable designs for each and every room. the difficulty lies not in finding too few to choose from, but too many, and, growing weary, making a selection not quite so good as it should be. one should take blue prints to the shop if possible, but necessary measurements without fail. one must know not only the width of the wall spaces, but the width of the pictures and furniture to be put in the room, or the calamity may happen of having the fixtures a bit too wide. when fixtures are meant to be a special part of the decorative scheme, and support and enhance pictures and tapestries, they should have an appropriate decorative value also, but in the average home it is better and safer to choose the simpler, but still beautiful, designs. it is better to err on the side of simplicity than to have them too elaborate. lamps should be chosen to harmonize with the room, to add their usefulness and beauty to it as a part of the whole and be convincingly right both by day and night. there are many possibilities for having lamps made of different kinds of pottery and porcelain jars; some crackle-ware jars are very good in color. chinese porcelain jars, both single color and figured, make lovely lamps. old and valuable specimens should not be used in this way, for they are works of art. many modern jars are copies of the old and these should be used. there are lacquer lamps, bronze, and brass, and carved wood lamps, and lovely wedgwood and alabaster vases. there are charming little floor lamps, some of wrought iron with smart little parchment shades, some in sheraton design, some in lacquer or painted wood, which can be easily carried about to stand by bridge tables or a special chair. there are dozens of different jars and lamps to use, but the one absolutely necessary question to ask oneself is: is it right for my purpose? lamp shades are a part of the scheme of the room's decoration and should be chosen or made to order to achieve the desired effect. special shades are made by many clever people to harmonize with any room or period and are apt to be far better than the ready made variety. there are all manner of beautiful shades, lace, silk, plain and painted parchment and paper, mounted japanese prints, embroidery, and any number of other attractive combinations. to be perfect, beside the fine workmanship, they must harmonize in line with the lamps on which they are to be used, and harmonize in color and style with the room, and have an absolute lack of frills and furbelows. the shade for a reading lamp should spread enough to allow the light to shine out. lamp shades simply for illuminating purposes may be any desired shape if in harmony with the shape of the lamp. lacquered painted tin shades are liked by some for lamps on writing tables. there should be a certain amount of uniformity in the style of the shades in a room, although they need not be exactly alike. too much variety is ruinous to the effect of simple charm in the room. the chintz which is used for curtains will supply a motif for the painted shades if one wishes them, but if there is a great deal of chintz, plain shades will be more attractive. side lights may have little screens or shades, as one prefers, or none may be used. in that case the bulbs may be toned down by using ground glass and painting them with a thin coat of raw umber water color paint. bedroom shades follow the same rule of appropriateness that applies to the other shades in the house. there should be several sets of candle shades for the dining-room. there is really no reason why so many houses should be so badly lighted. often simply rearranging the lamps and changing the shape of the shades will do wonders in the way of improvement. radical changes in the wiring should be carefully thought out so there will be no mistakes to rectify. _painted furniture_ the love of color which is strong in human nature is shown in the welcome which has been given to painted furniture. if we turn back to review the past we find this same feeling cropping out in the different periods and in the different grades of furniture. the furniture of the italian renaissance was often richly gilded and painted; the carved swags of fruit, arabesques, and the entwined human figures, were painted in natural colors, or some of the important lines of the furniture were picked out with color or gold, or both. as the influence of the renaissance spread to france and england, changed by the national temperament of the different countries, we find their furniture often blossoming into color--not covered by a solid coat of paint but picked out here and there by lines and accenting points. during the time of louis xiv everything was ablaze with gold and glory, but later, during the reigns of louis xv and louis xvi, a gentler, more refined love of color came uppermost, and the lovely painted furniture was made which has given so much inspiration to our modern work. the simpler forms of the louis xv period, and the beautiful furniture of the louis xvi period, were often painted soft tones of ivory, blue, green, or yellow, and decorated with lovely branches of flowers, birds, and scenery where groups of people by fragonard and other great painters disported with all their eighteenth century charm. these decorations were usually painted on reserves of old ivory with the ground color outside of some soft tone. martin, the inventor of famous "vernis martin," flourished at this time, and the glow of his beautiful amber-colored finish decorated many a piece of furniture from sewing boxes to sedan chairs. in england the vogue of painted furniture was given impetus by the genius of the adam brothers and the beautiful work of angelica kaufmann, cipriani, and pergolesi. in both france and england there was at this time the comprehension and appreciation of beauty and good taste combined with a carefree gaiety which made the ineffable charm of the eighteenth century a living thing. there are some of our modern workmen and painters of furniture who feel this so thoroughly that their work is very fine, but the majority have no knowledge or understanding of the period, and, although they may copy the lovely things of that time, the essence, the true spirit, is lacking. cabinet making and painting in those days was a beloved and honored craft; to-day, alas, it is too often a matter of union rules. chinese lacquer, while not strictly coming under the head of painted furniture, was another branch of decorated furniture which was in great demand at this time. the design in gold was done on a black or red or green ground and was beautiful in effect. [illustration: the delicacy of the painting and the graceful proportions of these reproductions are in the true spirit of adam.] [illustration: a three-chair settee of the sheraton period, lacquered, and with cane seat. it would be appropriate for a living-room or hall.] [illustration: a wing-chair with a painted frame is comfortable and harmonizes with painted furniture.] [illustration: this simple slat-backed chair can be made most attractive at small expense with paint and a motif from the chintz for decoration.] while the upper classes were having this beautiful furniture made for their use, the peasant class was serenely going on its way decorating its furniture according to its own ideas and getting charming results. the designs were usually conventionalized field flowers done with great spirit and charm. from the peasants of brittany and flanders and holland have come down to us many beautiful marriage chests and other pieces of furniture which are simple and straightforward and a bit crude in their design and color, but which have done much to serve as a help and guide in our modern work. the supply of painted furniture to-day is inspired by these different kinds of the great periods of decoration. there are many grades and kinds in the market, some very fine, keeping up the old traditions of beauty, some charming and effective in style and color, but with a modern touch, and some very very bad indeed; "and when they are bad they are horrid." i have said a great deal in other chapters on this subject, but i cannot too often urge those of my readers who have the good fortune to live near one of our great art museums to study for themselves the precious specimens of the great days of genius. it will give a standard by which to judge modern work, and it is only by keeping our ideals and demands high that we can save a very beautiful art from deteriorating into a commercial affair. when selecting painted furniture, one can often have some special color scheme or decoration carried out at a little extra expense; and this is well worth while, for it takes away the "ready made" feeling and gives the touch of personality which adds so much to a home. one must see that the furniture is well made, that the painting and finishing are properly done, and that the decoration is appropriate. if the furniture is of one of the french periods, it should be one of the simpler styles and should be painted one of the soft ground colors used at the time, and the decoration should have the correct feeling--flowers and birds like those on old french brocade or _toile de jouy_ or old prints. the striping should be done in some contrasting color or in the wonderful brownish black which they used. the design may be taken from the chintz or brocade chosen for the room, but the painting must be done in the manner of the period. this holds true of any english period chosen, such as adam furniture or the painted furniture of sheraton. there are several firms who make a specialty of this fine grade of furniture, but it is not made by the car load; in fact it is usually special order work. the kind one finds most often in the shops is furniture copied from the simpler georgian styles or simple modern pieces slightly reminiscent of craftsmen furniture, but not heavy or awkward in build. this furniture is painted in different stock colors and designs, or can be painted according to the purchaser's wishes as a special order. these "stock" designs are often stenciled, but some of them have an effective charm and are suitable to country houses, and also many city ones. when there is much chintz used, the furniture will often be more attractive if it is only striped with the chief color used in the room. the designs which are to be avoided are of the art nouveau and cubist variety, roses that look like cabbages gone crazy, badly conventionalized flowers, and crude and revolting color schemes. it sounds as if it should not be necessary to warn people against these monstrosities, and i have never heard of any one who buys them, but some one must do so or they would not be in the shops. attractive and inexpensive painted furniture can be made to be used in simple surroundings by buying slat-backed chairs with splint seats and a drop-leaf pine table and having them painted the desired ground color and then striped and decorated with a motif from the chintz to be used in the room. a country house dining-room or bedroom could be most charmingly fitted up in this way, chintz cushions could be used on the chairs, and candle shades could be made to match. one can sometimes find a bed or chest of drawers or other piece of furniture which is a bit shopworn and can be had for a bargain. old bureaus can be made to serve as chests of drawers by taking the mirror off and using it as a wall mirror. in many houses there are old sets of ugly furniture which can be made useful and often attractive by having the jigsaw carving removed and painting them. in a set of this kind, which i was doing over for a client, there happened to be two beds with towering headboards, quite impossible to use, but i combined the two footboards, thus making one attractive bed. the furniture was painted a soft pumpkin yellow, striped with blue and with little, old-fashioned nosegays, and a lovely linen with yellow and cream stripes and baskets of flowers was used and turned a dark and dreary room into a cheerful and pretty one. one can find some kind of suitable painted furniture for nearly every room in the average modern house. people everywhere are turning away more and more from the heavy, depressing effects of a few years ago; but unless they know the ground they are walking on they must tread with care. the style chosen must be appropriate and in scale with the style of house. the fine examples would look quite out of place in a bungalow or very simple house, and the simple kind founded on peasant designs would not be suitable in rooms with paneled walls and lovely taffeta curtains. in georgian and simple french designs there are fascinating examples of chairs, settees and tables, corner cupboards and sideboards, beds and dressing-tables and chests of drawers, mirrors and footstools and candlesticks, everything both big and little which can be used in almost any of our charming rooms in the average house, with their fresh chintz and taffeta and well planned color schemes. lacquered furniture is more formal than the average painted furniture, and often one or two pieces are sufficient for a room. a beautiful lacquered cabinet with its fascinating mounts and its soft, wonderful red or black and gold tones is a thing to conjure with. lacquered furniture is lovely for some dining-rooms and morning-rooms. the tables should always be protected with glass tops, which also applies to other painted furniture. one or two pieces of painted furniture may be used in a room with other furniture if they happen to be just the thing needed to complete the scheme. a console table, for instance, with a mirror over it and sidelights, might be just the touch needed between two windows hung with plain taffeta curtains. like all good things there must be restraint in using it, but there are few things that have greater possibilities than painted furniture when properly used. _synopsis of period styles as an aid in buying furniture._ when trying to select furniture for the home, people often become bewildered by the amount and variety to be found in the shops, and, not knowing exactly what to look for in the different styles, make an inappropriate or bad selection. one does not have to be so very learned to have things right, but there are certain anachronisms which cry to heaven and a little knowledge in advance goes a long way. a purchaser should also know something about the construction and grade of the furniture he wishes to buy. there are good designs in all the grades, which, for the sake of convenience, may be divided into the expensive, the medium in price, and the cheap. the amount one wishes to spend will decide the grade, and one naturally must not expect to find all the beauties and virtues of the first in the last. the differences in these grades lie chiefly in the matters of the fit and balance of doors and drawers; the joining of corners where, in the better grade, the interior blocks used to keep the sides from spreading are screwed as well as glued; the selection of well seasoned wood of fine grain; careful matching of figures made by the grain of the wood in veneer; panels properly made and fitted so they will not shrink or split; careful finish both inside and out, and the correct color of the stain used; appropriate hardware; hand or machine or "applied" carving. in the cheap grades it is best to leave carving out of the question entirely, for it is sure to be bad. then there are the matters of the correctness of design and detail, in which all the knowledge one has collected of period furniture will be called upon; and in painted furniture the color of the background and the charm and execution of the design must be taken into account, whether it is done by hand or stenciled. nearly all kinds of woods are used, the difference in cost being caused by the grade and amount of labor needed, the kind of wood chosen and its abundance and the fineness of grain and the seasoning. mahogany costs more than stained birch, and walnut than gum wood, but there are certain people who for some strange reason feel that they are getting something a little smarter and better if it is tagged "birch mahogany" than if it were simply called birch. some of the furniture is well stained and some shockingly done, the would-be mahogany being either a dead and dreary brown or a most hideous shade of red, a very bolshevik among woods. one must remember that the mahogany of the th century, the best that there has ever been, was a beautiful glowing golden brown, and when a red stain was used it was only a little to enhance the richness of the natural color of the wood, more of a suggestion than a blazing fact. the wood was carefully rubbed with oil and pumice, and the shellac finish was rubbed to a soft glow. modern furniture, especially in the medium and cheap grades, is apt to look as if it were encased in a hard and shining armor of varnish. [illustration: this chair with its silk damask covering edged with gimp, the shape of the underframing and arms, and the dull gold carved ornaments, shows many characteristics of the italian renaissance.] [illustration: an elaborately carved chippendale chair, with late queen anne influence in the shape of the back. petit point covering which was so popular in her day is now wonderfully reproduced.] [illustration: this chippendale pie crust tip table shows the tripod base with claw feet and the carved edge which gives it its name, and which was carved down to the level, never applied. a genuine antique pie crust table is very valuable.] [illustration: this fine example of a queen anne lacquered chair shows the characteristic splat and top curve, the slip seat narrower at the back than front with rounded corners, and cabriole legs.] beside this practical knowledge one should have a general idea of the artistic side or the appearance of the different period styles and the manner in which they were used. to achieve this, one must study the best examples it is possible to find in originals, pictures, and properly made reproductions. many of the plates in this book are from extremely valuable originals and should be studied carefully as they give a fine idea of some of the chief points in the different styles. one should also go to libraries and art museums whenever possible and study their collections. the more knowledge gained the more ease one will have in furnishing one's home whether there is everything to buy, or one is planning to add a few articles to complete a charming interior, or, with an eye to a future plan, is buying good things piece by piece and slowly eliminating the bad. it is this knowledge which will help you to study your own possessions and decide what is needed and what will be correct to buy. that, is one of the most important points, to have a well thought out plan, and never to be haphazard in your purchases. very few of us have houses completely furnished in one period, but we do try to have a certain unity of spirit kept throughout the whole, whether it be french, italian, english, or our own charming colonial. there can be a great variety in any one of these divisions, and suitable furniture can be found for all rooms, from the simplest kind to the most elaborate. it is easier to find good reproductions in the english periods of jacobean, charles ii, william and mary, queen anne, and the georgian time, and the french periods of louis xv and louis xvi. [illustration: the upholstery of this sheraton chair is fastened on with brass-headed tacks placed in festoons.] [illustration: notice the curved seat of this hepplewhite chair.] [illustration: the wheel back design was often used by adam. the arms, the curve of the seat and carving, the tapering reeded legs, and the angle of the back legs should all be noticed.] [illustration: as chippendale did not use this style of leg they show that the chair was probably reconstructed from two old chairs.] if one wishes a house furnished in the gothic period it will be necessary to have nearly all the different pieces made to order, as there are few reproductions made. as our modern necessities of furniture were not known in those days, the designs would have to be carried out more in the spirit of the style than the letter, and one must be certain to have advice and designs from some person who thoroughly understands the period and who will see that the whole is properly carried out. gothic days were rough and strenuous, and the furniture was strong and heavy and was made chiefly of oak with no varnish of any kind. the characteristic lines of the furniture and the designs for carving were architectural, and a careful study of the gothic cathedrals of france, belgium, and england will give a very satisfactory idea of this wonderful time. the idea of the pointed arch, rose window, trefoil, quatrefoil, animal grotesques, and geometric designs, as well as the beautiful linen-fold design, were all adapted for use as carving in the panels of the furniture of the day, which consisted of chests that served as seats, buffets, armoires, screens, trestle tables, as well as the choir stalls of churches. this style is appropriate to large and dignified country houses. the architect must see that the background is correct. the renaissance period should not be attempted as a style to furnish one's house unless it can be carried out properly. the house should be large and architecturally correct, and there should be at least a near relation of a fortunatus purse to draw upon. it is one of the magnificent and dignified periods, and makeshifts and poor copies have a pitiful appearance and are really time and money wasted. much of the furniture of the renaissance was architectural in design, many chests and cupboards and cabinets having the appearance of temple façades. the carving was in both low and high relief and was extremely beautiful, but in the later part of the period became too ornate. walnut and chestnut were the chief woods used, and there was much inlay of tortoise shell, ivory, brass, mother-of-pearl, lapis-lazuli, and fine woods. there was much gilding, and paint was also used, and the metal mounts were of the finest workmanship. the bronze andirons, knockers, candlesticks, of this time have never been equalled. there was a strong feeling of balance in the decorations, and the chief motifs were the acanthus beautifully carved, conventionalized flowers and fruit, horns of plenty, swags and wreaths of fruit and flowers, the scroll, dolphin, human figure, and half figure ending in fanciful designs of foliage. beautiful and fascinating arabesques were carved and painted on the walls and pilasters. the chief pieces of furniture were magnificently carved chests and coffers which were also sometimes gilded and painted, oblong tables with elaborately carved supports at each end, usually with a connecting shelf on which were smaller carved supports. the chairs were high backed with much carving and gilding, and there were others of simpler form with leather or tapestry or damask seats and backs. the savanarola chair was in the form of a curved x with seat and back of velvet or leather or sometimes wood on which a cushion was used. mirror frames were magnificently carved and gilded and picked out with color. the rooms were a fitting background for all this splendor, for the woodwork and walls were paneled and carved and painted, the work often being done by the greatest painters of the day. the french renaissance followed the general line of the italian but was lighter and less architectural in its furniture designs and ornament. chairs were slowly becoming more common, and rooms began to be more livable. [illustration: this jacobean buffet is finely reproduced with the exception of the spiral carving of the legs, which is too sharp and thin, and gives the appearance of inadequate support. the split spindle ornament was much used on furniture of the period.] the english renaissance was of slow growth and was always marked by a certain english sturdiness, which is one of the reasons why it is more easily used in our modern houses. it began in the time of henry viii and lasted through the tudor and jacobean periods. [illustration: a style that harmonizes with chippendale furniture.] [illustration: this style of mirror was popular in the early nineteenth century.] [illustration: the painted scene is often an important feature.] [illustration: the empire style has columns at the sides and gilt ornaments.] the best modern copies of renaissance furniture are not to be found in every shop and are usually in the special order class. there are some makers in america, however, who make extraordinarily fine copies, and there is the supply from europe of fine copies and "faked" originals--a guaranteed original is a very rare and expensive thing. the period of louis xiv in france was another "magnificent" period and should not be used in small or simple houses. louis xiv furniture was large and massive, lavish in gilding and carving and ornament, but had dignity as well as splendor. the gobelin and beauvais tapestry works produced their wonderful series of tapestries, and boulle inlay of brass and tortoise shell was lavished on furniture, and the ormolu mounts were beautiful and elaborate. all workmanship was of the highest. during the early part of the period the legs of chairs and tables were straight and square in shape, sometimes tapering, and much carved, and had underframing. later they were curved and carved, a kind of elaborate cabriole leg, and had carved underframing. toward the end of the period the curved leg and underframing became much simpler, some of the furniture having no underframing, and slowly the style merged into that of the regency and louis xv. the illustrations for the long chapter on louis xiv show some very fine examples of both the grand and simple form of chair, and also show that comfort was becoming more of a fact. the materials used for upholstery were brocades of large pattern, tapestries, and splendid velvets. tables, chests, armoires, desks, console tables, mirrors, screens, all were carved or painted or inlaid, gilded and mounted with wonderful metal mounts. there is great danger, in buying furniture for both this period and the renaissance, that the reproductions chosen may be too florid, the gilding too bright, the carving too ornate, with an indescribable vulgarity of line in place of the beauty of line which the best originals have. some of the best makers are, however, making some very fine reproductions of the simpler forms of this time which are beautiful to use in houses of fair size and importance. if one wishes to use louis xv furniture it is better to choose the simpler and more beautiful designs rather than the over-elaborate rococo. the period was a long one, sixty-nine years, and began with a reminiscence of the grandeur and dignity of the time of louis xiv, which was soon lost in the orgy of curves and excessive ornament of the rococo portion; and toward the end came the reaction to simpler and finer taste which reached its perfection in the next reign of louis xvi. the legs of the furniture of louis xv time were curved and carved, light and slender, and had no underframes or stretchers. the frames which showed around the upholstery or cane were carved elaborately and later more simply (see illustration at end of chapter on louis xv). walnut, chestnut, ebony, and some mahogany were used. some of the furniture was veneered, and there was a great deal of gilding used and also much painted furniture. the ormolu mounts were most elaborate, curved and ornate like the carving, and were used wherever possible. the brocades used for furniture coverings were lovely in color and design. garlands, flowers, lace and ribbon effects, baskets of flowers, shells, curled endive, feathers, scrolls, all were used, as well as pastoral scenes by boucher and watteau for tapestry and paintings. comfort had made a long step forward. the period of louis xvi was much more beautiful in style than the preceding one, as it was more restrained and exquisite because of the use of the straight line or a gracious, simple curve. this comparative simplicity does not come from lack of true feeling for beauty but rather because of it. the sense of proper proportion was shown in both the furniture and the room decoration. the backs of chairs and settees were round or rectangular, and the legs were square, round, or fluted, and were tapering in all cases. the fluting was sometimes filled with metal husks at top and bottom, leaving a plain stretch between. walnut and mahogany were much used and were beautifully polished, but had no vulgar and hard varnished glare. there was wonderful inlay and veneer, and much of the furniture was enamelled in soft colors and picked out with gold or some harmonizing color. gilding was also used for the entire frame. the metal mounts were very fine. brocades of lovely color and designs of flowers, bowknots, wreaths, festoons, lace, feathers, etc.; chintz, the lovely "_toil de jouy_," which is so well copied nowadays; soft toned taffeta, gobelin and beauvais and aubusson tapestries, were all used for hanging and furniture coverings. cane also became much more popular. walls were paneled with moldings, and fluted pilasters divided too large spaces into good proportions. tapestry and paintings were paneled on the walls, and the colors chosen for the backgrounds were light and soft. the charm and beauty of this style as well as its dignity make it one which may be used in almost any modern house, as it ranges from simplicity to a beautiful restrained elaborateness suitable to the formal rooms. [illustration: the modern style of mirror is brought into harmony with the eighteenth century dressing-table by means of carving.] [illustration: this william and mary settee would be delightful in a country house. there are chairs to match it.] the change from louis xvi to the empire was a violent one both politically and artistically. the influence of the great days of the roman empire and the mystery of ancient egypt stirred napoleon's imagination and formed his taste. empire furniture was solid and heavy, with little or no carving, and much ornamentation of metal mounts. mahogany was chiefly used, and some furniture was gilded or bronzed. round columns finished with metal capitals and bases appeared on large desks and other pieces of furniture. chairs were solid, many of them throne-like in design, and many with elaborately carved arms in the form of swans and sphinxes, and metal ornaments. the simpler form of chair, which was copied and used extensively in america, as a dining-chair, often had a curved back and graceful lines. furniture coverings were very bright satins and velvets brocaded with the emperor's favorite emblems, the bee, torch, wreath, anthemion. it is a heavy and gaudy style and must be used with great discretion. american empire furniture was far simpler and is better suited to many american homes. in buying it, however, one must be careful to select copies from the earlier part of the time, for it fast deteriorated into heavy and vulgar curves. this american empire furniture is often shown in the shops under the name of colonial, which is a misnomer, as we had ceased to be colonies years before it came into existence. it was used during the first half of the nineteenth century. [illustration: these chairs are reproductions of designs by the adam brothers. they are of satinwood, covered with damask. this design was also used by hepplewhite.] [illustration: the first day beds, or chaise longue, were made during the jacobean period. as will be seen, this "stretcher," as they were also called, has charles ii influence in its carving and spanish feet.] when we come to english furniture, i think we all take heart of grace a little, for there is something about its sturdiness that seems to appeal to our american sense of appropriateness. by inheritance we have more of the english point of view about the standards of life and living and we seem to settle down with more comfort in a house furnished in any one of the english periods than we do with any of the other great styles. the english renaissance is often called the age of oak, and all through the long years of its slow development this oaken bond, so to speak, gave it a certain unity which makes it possible to use much of the furniture of its different divisions together. there are many fine reproductions made of the tudor and elizabethan times, but from the early stuart days, the time of james i onward, good reproductions become more plentiful. this does not mean, however, that one is safe in buying anything called jacobean or queen anne or georgian. one must still be careful and go armed with as much knowledge as possible. for instance, do not buy any tudor, elizabethan, jacobean, or charles ii furniture made of mahogany or with a high polish. do not buy any with finicky or delicate brass handles. this may seem an unnecessary warning, but i have seen dainty oval hepplewhite handles used on a heavy jacobean chest. this does not happen often, but a word to the wise--. the handles which were used were some times of iron and sometimes of brass, often with a little design etched on them, and the drop handles were either oblong or round rings, or pear- or tear-shaped drops with either a round or oblong plate. h-hinges of iron were used. chairs of the time of james i, which are much like those of louis xiii in france, were square and strong with plain or spiral turned legs, and stretchers, and had seats and half backs covered with needlework, leather, velvet, or damask. they would make very comfortable dining chairs and would harmonize with sturdy gate-legged tables, or the long narrow tables which show the influence of elizabeth's time in the carved drum or acorn-like bulbs of the legs. a court-cupboard would make a beautiful sideboard, and one of the long tables spoken of above would make an appropriate serving-table. carved chests, and screens covered with leather or needlework, may be used in rooms of this kind, and for modern comfort one may add stuffed chairs and sofas if the proper materials for coverings are chosen. there are some very fine copies made of old needlework of different kinds and also of damasks and other stuffs. one must have the right background for all this, oak paneled walls and tapestry and plain or figured velvet or damask hangings. there are also some finely designed heavy linens which are correct to use. the furniture of cromwell's time was much like that of the time of james i and charles i, but was simplified wherever possible. there were no pomps and vanities in those stern days. when charles ii came to the throne, there was a reaction against puritan gloom which showed in the furniture being of a more elaborate design. chair backs were high and narrow with carved and pierced panels of wood, or carved backs with cane panels, and the carved front rail carried out the feeling and balanced the carved top rail. the crown and rose and shell were used, supported by cherubs and opposed s curves. the illustration opposite page will give a very good idea of the general style. upholstery was also used, and day-beds and high-boys made their appearance. the chests of earlier days became chests of drawers. rooms were paneled in oak, and much beautiful tapestry was used. walnut began to take the place of oak in the later days of charles ii and those of james ii, and introduced the age of walnut which lasted through the reigns of william and mary and queen anne. the furniture of the early days of william and mary was much like that of the time of charles ii. the chair backs remained high and narrow, but the carving slowly grew simpler and the caning at last went entirely across the back. many of the early chairs had three carved splats or balusters in the back, and a feature which added greatly to comfort was the slight curve the backs were given instead of the perfectly straight backs of jacobean days. dutch influence at least conquered the old style, and the more characteristic furniture of william and mary was made. a rather elaborate form of the cabriole leg was used, ending in a species of hoof with a scroll-like stretcher between the front legs and curved stretchers connecting all four legs. the cabriole leg became simpler as time passed until in the days of queen mary it became the one we all know so well in the dutch chairs and the early work of chippendale. [illustration: these copies of rare old pieces of furniture are of the best. the choice of wood, the carving, the inlay, all show the highest ideals. the chinese chippendale table shows the pagoda effect, and the hepplewhite desk has the charm of a secret drawer.] there was much beautiful marquetry used; in fact it is a marked characteristic of much of the furniture of william and mary. after she died in , the white jasmine flower and green leaves were not used so much, and the sea-weed pattern and acanthus became more popular. [illustration: an exceptionally fine reproduction of a sheraton chest of drawers.] [illustration: the walnut used in this adaptation of the william and mary period is very fine. shaving-glasses were used throughout the eighteenth century.] the cup-and-ball design of turned legs with curved stretchers was used for chairs, settees, tables, cabinets. china cupboards with their double-hooded tops and soft colored brocade linings were used to display the wonderful china collections so much in vogue. there was much upholstered furniture covered with beautiful petit-point, which is perfectly reproduced nowadays, but is naturally expensive. silks, velvets, and damasks were also used, and queen mary had a "beautiful chintz bed." the handles used were of various kinds, the favorite being the drop from a round or star-shaped boss. the furniture was beautifully polished but did not have a bright gloss. when anne came to the throne in , the english cabinet maker had became an expert craftsman, and we have the beginning of the finest period of english cabinet-making, which later, in the georgian period, blossomed into its full glory. the furniture of this time was of walnut. the chairs had a narrow, fairly high back, with a central splat spoon-shaped and later fiddle-shaped. the corners of the back were always rounded. the cabriole legs were often carved with a shell on the knees, the acanthus being used in the more elaborate pieces of furniture, and ended chiefly in a club foot. stretchers became less common, but if they were used were pushed back and did not form such an important part of the chair design. seats were broader at the front than at the back, and all furniture showed a real desire for comfort and convenience. marquetry and lacquer were both in great favor, and there are wonderful examples of both reproduced, but especially lacquer. petit-point, damask, velvet, and chintz were all used for upholstery and hangings. chintz was becoming more plentiful, but it was not until the georgian period that it reached its perfection. the georgian period covers the work of chippendale, the adam brothers, hepplewhite, and sheraton, who gave to the eighteenth century its undying decorative fame. [illustration: a glassed-in sun-porch furnished with comfortable wicker furniture adds much to the joy of life.] when chippendale began his fine work, the dutch influence of queen anne's reign was still strong, and this shows in his furniture; but his genius lightened and improved it. the characteristics of his style which remained fairly stable through his different phases were the use of mahogany, a certain squareness and solidity of design which has no appearance of heaviness because of the fine proportions, chair backs with a center splat reaching to the seat. the curving top rail always had curving up corners (see drawings page ). the center splat was solid at first, but soon was pierced and carved, and went through the many developments of his style such as ribbon-back, chinese, and gothic. in some chairs he also used horizontal rails, and what are called "all-over backs." the legs of his earlier furniture were cabriole, and later they were straight. he used much and beautiful carving, gave great attention to the beauty of the wood and the perfection of workmanship and finish. chippendale's settees were at first designed like two chair backs side by side, and if a larger settee was made either a third chair back of the same design or a different but harmonizing one was used. his dining-tables were made up of two center pieces with wide flaps on each side, and two semicircular tables, and all four pieces could be fastened together into one long table by brass fasteners. the end pieces were used as side tables or sideboards, for the sideboard as we know it did not come until later. he also made oblong sidetables, some with marble tops, which were used as sideboards with wine-coolers placed underneath, and usually a large tea-caddy or tea box on top. the beds which chippendale made were large and elaborate four-posters, with beautiful carved cornices and posts. the curtains hung from the inside of the cornice, and silks or chintz were used for the curtains. his mirror frames were very elaborately carved, and in his rococo period were fairly fantastic with dripping water, chinese pagodas, rocks, birds with long beaks, and figures. they were gilded, and some were left in the natural mahogany. he made folding card-tables with saucer-like places at the corners for candles, and later when the candle-stand came into fashion, the tables were made without them. [illustration: an admirable example of the sheraton style mahogany settee with original silk covering.] [illustration: while this nest of mahogany tables is attractive in the room its appearance in the picture is of an inappropriate and heavy mission table.] [illustration: a lamp would be an addition to this corner. the footstool is victorian and a bit clumsy.] there are many fine reproductions of chippendale's furniture made which carry out the spirit of his work. in the medium and inexpensive grades, however, there is danger of bad carving, a clumsy thickening of proportions, a jumble of his different periods, and too red a stain and too high a varnish glitter. good examples can be found in these grades, but one must spend time looking for them, and perhaps it may be necessary to have them rubbed down with powdered pumice and linseed oil. if one uses chippendale furniture, or that of any of the other georgian makers, the walls should not be covered with a modern design of wall paper. plain walls or molding may be used, or one of the fine old designs of figured paper, and this must be used with great discretion and is better if there is a wainscot. chippendale was very fond of using morocco, but damask and velvet and chintz may also be used. the chintzes were charming in design, and many good copies are made. [illustration: this is in reality a moderate-sized room, yet the open arrangement and the clear center give the impression of great space. the curve of the fireplace and the oak panelling are simple tudor. the furniture is a mixture of many kinds.] [illustration: the wallpaper border, the bedspread, the table cover, and the curtains are all wrong in this room. the empire bed is good but should not have castors.] the adam brothers, of whom robert was the more important, showed strong classical influence in their work, and much of it resembles that of louis xvi, which was influenced from the same source. chairs had square or round or oval backs, and they also used a lyre-shaped splat which was copied later by sheraton. often the top rail was decorated by small and charming painted panels. these little panels were also used in the center of cobweb caning in chair backs and settees. legs of chairs and tables were tapering and round or square and often reeded or fluted. adam used much mahogany and kept its beautiful golden brown tone (not the dead brown called "adam" too often in the shops), and also satin-wood and painted wood. the best artists of the day did the painting. wedgwood medallions were introduced into the more important pieces of furniture. painted placques, lovely festoons, and charming groups of figures, vases of flowers, and wedgwood designs, and designs radiating from a center, as on semicircular console table tops, are all characteristic of his work. he also used much inlay. as adam usually planned all the furniture and the interior of the house, even to the door-knobs, he kept the feeling of unity in both background and furnishings. [illustration: the hancock desk was a design greatly favored in america in the eighteenth century. this fine example dates from about .] [illustration: the general proportions, the broken pediment and torch or flame ornaments and drops, large brasses, and cabriole legs all show that this splendid example of a highboy belongs to the same time as the desk, about .] hepplewhite's furniture has much of the delicacy of adam's work, by whom, without doubt, he was influenced, as he was also by the french styles of the time. luckily his own personality and sense of beauty and ingenuity were strong enough to develop a marked and beautiful style of his own. his favorite chair back was shield-shaped (see page ), and he also used heart-shaped and wheel backs, either round or oval, and charmingly painted little panels. the three feathers of the prince of wales was a favorite design. he also made ladder-back chairs, usually with four rails. on much of his furniture the legs tapered on the inside edge only and were put in at a slight angle which gave security both in fact and appearance. he also used reeded legs. his console and other tables are beautiful in design and workmanship, being painted usually in different forms of the radiating fan design, or inlaid with beautiful colored woods. the inlay used was often oval in shape, sometimes only a line and sometimes panels of different woods or matched veneer. the handles used were round or oval. he made sofas and settees with either chair-back backs or all upholstered with the frame showing and the covering tacked on with brass tacks close together. his cabinets are fascinating, with their beautiful inlay and delicate strap work over the glass. he made four-post beds with fluted posts, and chests of drawers and little work tables and candle-stands and screens; and one thing we must be deeply grateful to him for is that he developed the sideboard into a really useful and beautiful piece of furniture. he made nearly everything in the way of necessities, and all show the marks of his taste. his dining-tables were on the plan of those of chippendale but lighter in effect with tapering legs instead of the long cabriole leg ending in claw feet. his mirrors were usually oval with charming festoons. his favorite woods were mahogany and satin-wood, and he used many fine woods for inlay. chintz and taffeta and fine velvet are all appropriate to use. in his best designs sheraton was much influenced by adam and hepplewhite and the style of louis xvi, but like them he also developed his own special and beautiful style. he used mahogany and a great deal of satin-wood of beautiful grain and of a delightful straw color, which was often veneered on oak frames. he was exceedingly fond of inlay, and his designs called for inlaid panels, borders, and festoons. he used the shell, bell-flower, fan, etc., all carried out in fine colored woods. he also used much painted furniture, and often designed white and gold furniture for drawing-rooms. his characteristic chair back was rectangular in shape with a central splat resting on a rail a few inches above the seat (see page ). this splat was in many different forms, both inlaid and painted. the legs of his furniture were tapering and either square or reeded, the square usually being inlaid. he made beautiful sideboards which were inlaid and finished with a brass rail around the sides and back of the top, and round or oval or lion's-head handles with rings. he also designed most graceful inlaid knife boxes. like hepplewhite, he designed all kinds of furniture both large and small, and, until his deterioration came when he designed his astonishing empire furniture, his style is full of beauty and charm and delicacy, and is copied very successfully by our modern makers. _a_ book _of_ distinctive interiors _edited by_ william a. vollmer [illustration] new york mcbride, nast & company copyright, , , , by mcbride, nast & company _published november, _ contents page planning the living-room by _a. raymond ellis_ designing the dining-room by _a. raymond ellis_ decorating and furnishing the bedroom by _margaret greenleaf_ the problem of the bathroom by _a. raymond ellis_ the proper treatment for the nursery by _sarah leyburn coe_ characteristic halls and stairway types planning the kitchen by _james earle miller_ [illustration: pleasing decorative effects may be obtained by bringing out the natural graining of the woodwork. chestnut and cypress are particularly suitable for this as they may be stained and wax finished, or stained and rubbed down to produce this effect. this fireplace was built with outside bricks selected for their color. there is a mottling of purple and bluish tones among the reds that harmonizes strikingly with the oriental rug before it ] [illustration] planning the living-room [illustration: a lounge before the fireplace becomes more useful if a table bearing a lamp is placed behind it. cypress is reasonable for interior trim, costing from sixty to sixty-eight dollars a thousand feet ] after the method of modern planning, the living-room is treated as the principal room in the house. i do not mean to say that this room should be overdone, or given undue prominence to the exclusion of the other rooms, but it is essential that this room be treated differently from the old-fashioned way we formerly treated our living-rooms, then generally a front and back parlor. these two rooms have now been superseded by one large room, as our mode of living and entertaining makes it more desirable than the two small, stuffy rooms, then used only occasionally. to-day we plan to give pleasure and comfort to the family, rather than the occasional guest. [illustration: the drawing of the suggested room arrangement shows the fireplace and the french doors leading to the piazza. above the ivory tinted wainscoting the background paper is of a putty color and panels are filled with a striped and foliated fabric held in place by a molding strip the ground plan of the room shows a good arrangement of rugs and furniture in order that advantage may be taken of the fireplace and the various lights. conversation may be carried on with ease and comfort and the room used for various purposes conveniently ] [illustration: this reception room has chiefly louis xvi furniture, which appears well with the light gray and white woodwork designed after the adam style] there are probably two or three dozen ways that the living-room can be planned and decorated and at the same time be comfortable and attractive. i have chosen to illustrate this with a type of living-room that adapts itself to almost any house and offers the greatest amount of free space when the room is properly furnished. the room is ft. × ft. in., with a ceiling height of feet, these dimensions giving a well-proportioned room. the fireplace is in the center of the west wall, flanked on each side by two french doors which open out on a piazza. at each end of the room are two windows, balancing one another. on the east wall a wide opening with french doors permits access to the main hall. the most prominent feature of the room is the fireplace, which is accentuated and made a natural center. this is an important consideration when planning a natural grouping of the family or its guests. [illustration: such architectural features as beamed ceilings should only be used in rooms of pretentious size. a good example of caen stone fireplace is found here] the treatment of the room is colonial. a low wainscot, ft. in. high, comprising a base, panel, and cap, is carried around the room. the ceiling is beamed with four substantial beams and a half beam to form a cornice around the room at the junction of the wall and ceiling. over the heads of the doors and windows there is a wide wooden frieze with a cap which ties them, one might say, to the bottom of the cornice, and makes them more completely an integral part of the woodwork. the window stools form a part of the wainscot cap. [illustration: a summer living-room that achieves a brilliant note through white woodwork and figured hangings with upholstery to match] the finish of the room is white wood, given four coats of lead and oil paint, with a fifth coat of white enamel, rubbed down, and a sixth and final finishing coat of enamel of an ivory shade that dries out with a very dull satin-like luster that is very durable and not easily marred. above the wainscot the walls are covered with a heavy background paper having a body color almost of a putty shade, enlivened in certain lights with a pinkish caste. this is accented by the panels, between the windows and doors, of a delicately hued fabric with a foliated striped design. a flat molding covers the edge of the fabric and forms the panel. in order to balance these and add character to the room, the draperies at the windows and doors are of soft blue velour, without which the scheme would be lifeless and flat. the facing of the fireplace is of sienna marble surmounted with a simple mantel, consisting merely of a heavy classical architrave, with a shelf above and a large plate glass mirror over it. one must not lose sight of the fact that the colors of this room, while light and delicate, are all very rich and warm, due to the predominating ivory color of the woodwork, enlivened and strengthened by the richer and heavier color used in the panels and curtains. [illustration: some would consider it bold to combine white walls and white woodwork in the living-room. the rug, pictures and furniture covering, however, are chosen with an eye to bright colors ] the ceiling is sand-finished and tinted to match the walls. the floor is of quartered oak, filled and given two coats of a finish which produces a durable even surface with a dull luster that is not so slippery as a waxed floor. the disposition of the rugs over this floor is a matter of personal taste and the amount one can afford for rugs. the rugs should be oriental and of light uniform coloring. the plans show probably the most economical way of covering the floor--using one large rug as a center and filling with smaller rugs. one large rug might be obtained that would extend from the piano to the pier glass, but it would have to be an odd shape or specially made. two large rugs might be used, one in each end of the room, with a small rug to fill in before the fireplace. the approximate positions and proper design for the various pieces of furniture used in the room are indicated. in order to obtain the real benefit of the fireplace, it is necessary to have a broad comfortable sofa or an upholstered mahogany seat in front of it. in back of this should be a small mahogany table on which an ornamental lamp may stand. on each side of the table can be drawn up large comfortable chairs. this arrangement permits the light of the lamp to fall in the correct position for anyone wishing to read in the chairs or on the seat in front of the fireplace. at one side of the fireplace a large wing-chair would be well placed. the bookcases would, of course, be unnecessary if there were a library in the house, but where the living-room is to answer the general purposes of the family, the book-shelves would be found very useful, and could be movable or built in as part of the finish. between the northern windows a fine position is obtained for the piano, on the right of which is a good place for a davenport. [illustration: where a living-room is long, various parts of it may be devoted to different uses, one end being a library and the other a sitting-room for instance, with a corner for deskwork ] the disposition of the minor pieces of furniture need not be mentioned, except the fact that a pier glass at the opposite end of the room, between the two southern windows is a very decorative treatment, and that the corner at the left affords a place for a tea table or a colonial pie-crust table. [illustration: the low hanging center light is rapidly being superseded by individual fixtures about the room or hung from chains. the three-quarter paneling here is attractive when combined with some conventionalized frieze design ] in addition the electric lights are provided with switches, and in the baseboard around the room are two plugs for attaching portable table lamps. there must also be a bell registering its signal on an annunciator in the kitchen,--one ring for a maid--two rings for tea, or as the housewife may arrange. the cost of the furniture used in this room, covered in cotton, made from the architect's drawings, would be as follows: th century sofa, rolled ends, $ ; and it requires - / yards of -inch goods to cover it. low-boy with drawers, $ --size ft. in. × ft. in. tip-top tea table, in. in diameter, $ . martha washington wing-chair, $ , in cotton; requires yards of -inch goods to cover. martha washington armchair, $ , in cotton; requires yards of -inch goods to cover. the crown ladder-back side chairs would cost about $ each in cotton, and the armchair to match, $ . [illustration: as a general color rule for decoration, red should be used for north rooms and blue for east and west rooms; the warmer tones in living-rooms than in bedrooms. this shows a good use of scrim curtains with a gathered valance ] the beamed ceiling, door and window casings, mantel and wainscot in the room would cost about $ . if the wainscot were omitted about $ would be saved--the mantel and marble facing cost about $ separately. a. raymond ellis [illustration: the use of a single large rug as the basis for the floor covering is often very satisfactory. this house shows an interesting treatment with a molding that acts as cornice] [illustration: there is something in the restraint shown in the fireplace of indiana limestone with no mantel shelf that overdecoration could never have obtained. an interesting feature is the use of candle sconces as an auxiliary to the electric lighting ] [illustration: heavy woodwork requires the use of heavy, substantial furniture. in this room, where the appearance of craftsmanship is prevalent, such furniture is very suitable] [illustration: a very unpretentious room, but one in good taste. the furniture has all been planned for a distinct location and has been built in to it] [illustration: a large living-room demands some such architectural treatment as these pillars. the usual mistake is on the side of overdecoration. here, however, a decided simplicity is employed, leaving the flanking windows in small bays ] [illustration: oftentimes four beams only are used for the ceiling; two as a cornice and two framing in the chimney-piece ] [illustration: a consideration of modern house decoration is to provide comfort for all members. a small den off the living-room affords privacy when others occupy the living-room ] [illustration: in a california bungalow there is an interesting decorative combination where old heirlooms of furniture from the eastern ancestors of the family are carefully preserved and navajo rugs are used as a floor covering. these rugs and the indian baskets are chosen of a color that will not clash with the polished mahogany ] [illustration: another corner of the bungalow living-room on page shows a good type of secretary. the navajo rugs seem to add a tone of vigor that is not found in the rag rugs generally used in this connection ] [illustration: a living-room given a manorial treatment with the use of gothic arches. it is carefully treated, even to the rug, which is rectangular in pattern somewhat like the ceiling beams. although this is in a great house, there is no reason why smaller houses might not be furnished with equal consistency ] [illustration: two living-rooms in an old connecticut colonial house that are decorated with furniture in use during revolutionary times. these flowered papers were considered very rich then and have colors well chosen as a background for the dark mahogany furniture ] [illustration: an antique stone fireplace forms the keynote for this room and gives the suggestion for large commodious chairs and lounges. the table and chair in the foreground show jacobean influences ] [illustration: there is surely a decorative quality in bookcases that is heightened by the color of books when arranged properly. perhaps the results might have been better had all the bookcases been built the same height entirely around the room. the furniture here is of a type that is particularly comfortable and wears well ] [illustration: a living-room decorated along colonial lines, where the fireplace of red brick with wide white mortar joints is particularly effective. french doors open onto a veranda that is used as a living-room annex. the mantel is a reproduction of an old one ] [illustration: a charming, little colonial room is decorated entirely in white woodwork with a baseboard. the prim pattern of the flowered wallpaper is quite appropriate. the only modern furniture appearing is the wicker chair, but it lends no jarring note ] [illustration: this room with its heavy settles and rag rugs, its ornaments and pictures, is furnished with nothing but objects from colonial times. the floor with its original wide boards is stained a dark color and much of it left bare ] [illustration: this room shows the possibility of combining various sorts of furniture. wicker and willow are suitable for the living-room when used with furniture of an informal type. above the fireplace is a plaster reproduction of a section of the parthenon frieze that is well placed ] [illustration: the architects of the west are achieving distinction in the creation of a particular style. this interior is characteristic of their work. horizontal lines are emphasized and colored brickwork enters as a part of the decoration ] [illustration: a bay with three connecting windows of this sort may be curtained as a unit. there is but one valance for the three windows and light silk curtains are used to match the grass cloth of the walls ] [illustration: living-rooms need not always be indoors. in this home a glazed in piazza makes it possible to enjoy the early days of spring and late fall when the weather is too uncomfortable to remain out-of-doors. the porch is furnished with all the conveniences that may be found in an indoor living-room and has connections for reading lights and other lamps. the furniture is of grass cloth, willow and wicker, and there are rugs covering the entire floorspace ] [illustration: much of the colonial carving was extremely simple. here added decorative detail appears in the old-fashioned fireback of modeled iron. the covering of the old rosewood furniture is quite in harmony with the wallpaper ] [illustration: an exemplification of the use of deep colors in the living-room treatment is here shown. a restful green makes a good background for large and variously formed pieces ] [illustration: this studio living-room is a successful exponent of the same principle of color harmony shown in the previous illustration. a heterogeneous collection of various styles of furniture is rendered harmonious by the use of kindred tones of browns, tans and dull reds ] [illustration: built-in furniture is not limited to seats and cupboards. this desk is carpenter built, and although quite inexpensive fits more exactly than many products that could be purchased. the bookcases encircling the room are made part of the desk ] [illustration: the living-room of two stories and with mezzanine floor is receiving more and more favor for its spacious effect. the simple woodwork in this room is well chosen and there is a good suggestion in the lighting fixtures ] [illustration: the cream colored walls and woodwork in this english drawing-room make an especially fine background for mahogany furniture. this fireplace nook is a good example of modern english work ] [illustration: english architects consider that woodwork may be decorative in itself, and finish it so that its natural colors take the place of wall paper. the walls are of unfinished plaster ] [illustration: some straight lines might be introduced by different curtains and by doing away with the fussy table-covers and frilled lounge pillow. the mantel is particularly good dutch colonial but is too much cluttered with bric-à-brac ] [illustration: every house builder should consider that the downstairs living-room may not always be occupied by the entire family at one time. the upstairs sitting-room provides privacy on all occasions. the mantel treatment here is interesting ] [illustration: the living-room in the same house is rendered distinctive by a large inglenook. it is finished in rough plaster and colored in a light tan ] [illustration: green and white is a scheme for this summer living-room. white wicker chairs are combined with green willow ones and the green design of the wall paper is echoed in the green rug with a white pattern ] [illustration: even the most modest bungalow may have personality. the match board wall is finished with a light stain that shows the grain. india prints with their bold colors and striking designs are used for curtains, table and couch covers and for the pillows ] [illustration: the inside curtains in this living-room are of figured madras. although they fade, their price is reasonable enough to permit reduplication every few years with small expense ] [illustration: a more formal room is this with its intricate mahogany paneling. the ceiling has an architectural cornice, below which the wall is decorated with a velour in proper coloring ] [illustration: there is a growing desire to build living-rooms that open into the light and air. this is as completely furnished as any other room in the house, but is given a dark stained lattice background as suitable for plants ] [illustration: an informal living-room, where the plaster walls are divided by vertical strips run from a wide molding to the baseboard. this is a cheap, and if properly handled, effective substitute for paneling ] [illustration: a living-room that was designed to take advantage of the view in many directions from a high situation. a large rug with harmonious colors occupies the center of the floor space ] [illustration: dutch house builders make a feature of the window nook and most of the light is directed toward one part of the room. matting of an ivory color has been selected as a floor covering ] [illustration: an english mantel treatment that is worth copying is shown here. a single-color carpet is used and the brilliant chintzes lend the completing note of cheerfulness ] [illustration: in contrast is this room where deeper tones are emphasized in rugs and wall treatment and it is desired to produce a more serious effect ] [illustration: another example of the two-story living-room is here shown in more elaborate style where the precedent was the manorial hall of england. tapestries and heavy wall papers are used and the chandeliers are large and elaborate ] [illustration: this sun room is an integral part of the house and is fitted with casement windows, but is by no means a porch. the fireplace renders it a comfortable place in the most severe weather ] [illustration: furniture covering and draperies here are of a large figured english chintz. as the ceiling was low, a green paper with a perpendicular stripe was used for heightening effect ] [illustration: the chief feature of this room is the doorway with its fine fan light. the chairs in the foreground are of heppelwhite design ] [illustration: in england a great deal of attention is given to centering the family life about the hearth. this inglenook has almost the value of an additional room. the walls are plain except for the woodwork and the tiling ] [illustration: the inglenook here has a raised floor of ordinary brick and an attractive brick fireplace the mantel of which is a cypress beam supported by projecting bricks. the furniture is made consistent by being stained and then waxed ] [illustration: glazed tile fireplaces are very much the vogue in england. here the colors are selected to go well with the light ash treatment of the woodwork ] [illustration: the heavy beams in this living-room made it a simple matter to place the inglenook. the curved lines of the seat, however, and the grotesque plaster figures might grow tiresome, and are most suitable for the house occupied only in the summer or one with more informal treatment ] [illustration: an architect's suggested treatment of a flemish dining-room. the fireplace is of caen stone and the plaster wall is sand-finished in a dark shade ] [illustration] designing the dining-room we have a habit, generally, of making the dining-room either english or colonial in style, i suppose for the reason that we have so many good types of furniture in these two styles that their use makes it easier to obtain an attractive dining-room. the room of flemish character is probably more unusual and i have, therefore, chosen to offer a design in this style. [illustration: the plan shows an arrangement for a dining-room about fifteen by sixteen feet, showing suggested positions for the rugs and furniture that is consistent with the scheme ] [illustration: a very similar treatment to that described in the article is shown in this room with its high rectangular panel wainscot. instead of a cornice the sand-finished walls are rounded into the ceiling and the ceiling is lower. an interesting candle fixture is hung above the plain oak table. the picture framed in the paneling is an additional possibility ] [illustration: warm tones are appreciated in a dining-room where the woodwork is all white. here they are obtained in an oriental rug of good colors. chairs are of present-day manufacture, suggested by sheraton's work ] the room is × feet in size, opening from a broad hall from which it is shut off with glass doors. the morning sun, a very essential feature in any dining-room, is obtained through the eastern window and through the southern windows in the summer, while the after-glow of the summer sunset comes through the west window, thus insuring a pleasant dining-room at all times. there is nothing so cheerless as a breakfast-room which is cut off from the sun in the winter, by being isolated in the north or northeastern part of the house; it continually exerts a depressing influence on the family at meals. the dining-room is adjoined by the serving-room, which connects with the kitchen, affording a quick and direct line of service. [illustration: most dining-rooms need color, which may be introduced in a frieze, as here, or by the use of tapestry. side fixtures, such as these in duplication of old colonial lamps, may be purchased for six or seven dollars. the center light is of etched glass ] it is suggested that the room be wainscoted in oak to a height of seven feet, with rectangular panels formed by very flat rails and stiles, without any panel moldings. a wide plate-rail forms the cap of the wainscot, affording a place to put bits of china and old pieces of pewter or copper. above the wainscot the plaster is sand-finished, as is also the ceiling, and at the intersection of the ceiling and side walls a cornice is carried around the room. on the north side is a large fireplace, which is a necessity on a rainy day to make breakfast cheerful and the room comfortable. it is built of light gray caen stone, which has almost the appearance of limestone. it is imported in blocks and is soft enough to be worked into a variety of shapes. the hearth has a curb border, raised an inch or two above the level of the stone hearth in order to retain the ashes better. a heavy carved casing is carried around the stonework of the fireplace, surmounted by a carved shelf supported on heavy brackets. [illustration: all the furniture necessary beside the chairs and dining-table is a sideboard and a serving-table. the china closet may be dispensed with if a place for decorative china is made on a plate rail. this china closet matches well and seems part of the room ] french doors are an essential feature in the dining-room because they permit it to be shut off from the hall and kept warm, and they prevent interruptions during the dinner hour. as they are of glass, they afford a view into the hall--a very attractive feature, which does away with that feeling of oppressiveness experienced sometimes from being shut up in a room with solid doors of wood. the floor is of oak, filled and given two coats of a finish which has a dull luster and enough elasticity to make it durable. the floor should be of a shade that is not too light or so dark that it readily shows the dust. [illustration: instead of using the separate pieces of dining-room furniture, two sideboards were built in flanking the fireplace and as an extension of its woodwork. a tapestry paper is used above this wainscot ] opposite the fireplace is a position for the sideboard and there is wall space enough for a china-cupboard although i should prefer to omit this cumbersome piece of furniture, which everybody shuns with the admonition of childhood still ringing in his ears, "mustn't touch." near the door to the serving-room is the proper place for the serving-table, and there remains plenty of wall space for chairs. by referring to the plan the position of these pieces of furniture will be made more clear. [illustration: a possible variation for the seven-foot wainscot suggested, is the room entirely paneled with cypress finished to show the grain. the french doors in this room are desirable in a dining-room, as they allow plenty of light to enter ] the decoration of this room is a simple problem. on the floor there should be a rich-colored rug with deep reds in it, strong enough to afford a foundation for the dark sturdy flemish furniture and the dark finish of the wainscot. above the wainscot, the sand-finished ceiling and side walls should be sized and painted with three coats of oil paint of a dull golden shade which reflects a warm glow over the room when lighted. the rough texture of the sand-finish is well adapted for such use as this. of course a frieze of foliated tapestry paper, or real tapestry, could be used with good effect, or even an oil-painted frieze representing a scene from medieval history is permissible. it is safe to say that all of these schemes would be good, though, of course, there would be a great difference in their cost. the radiator under the east window should be painted to match the color of the wainscot. to obtain the correct shade for this wainscot, the wood should go through several processes of staining. the first coat is a deep penetrating stain of burnt sienna hue to form a mellowing base, similar to the warm colors the old masters used in their paintings. this makes a warm color to reflect through the succeeding coats of darker stain, each coat of which should be rubbed into the wood and any superfluous stain rubbed off, exposing each time the high lights of the wood's grain. the final coat should be a thin coat of wax or a flat-drying oil paint to give the wood a dull luster. [illustration: the woodwork treatment here is much the same as that suggested in the text, but of a colonial or english style and finished white. a good stenciled frieze is used above it. the chairs are of chippendale design ] the furniture should be of the flemish type, preferably a shade lighter or a shade darker than that of the finish of the woodwork, in order to give contrast. the dining-room table should be a modern extension table with heavy, turned legs, which would of course be repeated in the sideboard, serving-table and chairs. this type of furniture depends entirely for its beauty upon its plain sturdy lines and simple turnings. the chairs should have leather seats and backs, studded with copper nails. the brasses of the fireplace should be of odd design, and the electric lights and fixtures should be of old brass to add a touch of color to the dark wood finish. it seems hardly necessary to mention that the lights of this room should be governed by an electric switch, and an electric bell on the table should ring a buzzer in the serving-room. in the serving-room there is a counter shelf two feet eight inches high on each side wall, over which there are glazed cases with sliding doors to contain the china. under the window there is a sink for the washing of fine china, glass, and silver, which should not go into the kitchen with the heavier dishes. under the counter are cupboards and drawers and at one end a plate-warmer and a small refrigerator, in order that one may obtain a bite to eat late at night without having to go through the kitchen to the kitchen pantry--which is sometimes awkward if there is no servant's dining-room and the maid is entertaining. [illustration: still another substitute for the wainscot is the use of wood strips applied in this fashion. the moravian tiles in the fireplace add welcome color ] the finish of the room would cost approximately $ in selected white oak. the mantel alone is worth $ and the wainscot about $ . the furniture for the room, made from detail drawings, would cost about $ in oak and leather. a. raymond ellis [illustration: where the dining-room woodwork shows its natural grain, a specially designed buffet of quartered oak, such as this, proves very attractive and satisfactory ] [illustration: the rough plaster walls here are surmounted by a plaster frieze of grapes in color. this design is echoed in the center drop light ] [illustration: flanking china closets, when in perfect balance, form an admirable feature for the decoration of a colonial room ] [illustration: the ladder back design of chippendale is most attractive. in this room with its white woodwork an attempt has been made to repeat the dominant colors of the rug in the wall paper ] [illustration: in this dining-room there is architectural treatment that could by no means find place in any but a large room. panels at one end of the room are filled with tapestries that give a fine color effect. the scheme is georgian and the furniture hepplewhite ] [illustration: having a large quantity of old blue china, the owner of this room selected a brown figured paper that would harmonize with it. the plates have almost the value of a stenciled frieze ] [illustration: two types of modern furniture are shown here. the china closet is unnatural and is of no decorative value and but little usefulness. the table and chairs are of simple design and good, solid workmanship ] [illustration: this colonial room shows an effective panel treatment that can be secured at low cost by applying a molding directly to the plaster and then painting the plaster and the woodwork alike. good colonial fixtures are shown above the mantel. ] [illustration: faithfulness to colonial tradition does not necessarily make the most comfortable room, but the windsor chairs are serviceable and easy ] [illustration: white woodwork in this dining-room permits such a set design as this with the little green bay trees. a gate-legged table is not always the most comfortable thing for a dining-room ] [illustration: furniture, made of applewood, finished with a plain smooth surface and covered with reeds, is especially applicable to the small house and suggests the original home, the english cottage ] [illustration: white enameled furniture as well as woodwork is a novel suggestion for the summer home and makes a brilliant, cheery dining-room, especially when accompanied by bright reds or blues in the rugs, chair cushions and curtains ] [illustration: in the summer camp little ornamentation is necessary, yet the natural attractiveness of wood finish is both useful and beautiful here ] [illustration: in remodeling an old tavern, the taproom with its smoke-blackened beams and dark wainscot was converted into the dining-room. the use of handmade floor tile is particularly interesting ] [illustration: this dutch interior offers a suggestion for a summer camp in the dining-room alcove placed at one end of the living-room ] [illustration: wilton rugs in a single color with a darker toned border serve well for the dining-room. the curtains repeat the color in a figured pattern ] [illustration: during house cleaning there are various objections to a plate rail. in this dining-room it was done away with and a frieze was set low and secured by the use of a narrow white molding. if the room were irregular, it would have been almost impossible to locate in this position, but in a rectangular room it is not so difficult. it is in neutral colors and the friezes are in delft blue with draperies of a darker blue. the furniture is hepplewhite ] [illustration: the combination of gray and white as used here is an effective background for mahogany. the candle sconce fixtures at either side of the sideboard alcove are in good taste ] [illustration: although the furniture need not be permanently fixed to the room it may be planned to accommodate certain spaces, as here. the chairs are reproductions along colonial lines ] [illustration: in a house where there is an additional room, there is a suggestion from the german boudoir. this is really the modern woman's workroom and place of rest and adjoins the sleeping apartment. it is also a place to receive intimate friends ] [illustration] decorating and furnishing the bedroom [illustration: attractive results are achieved in adopting a central figure or idea and planning the room about it. the main unit of design in the wall paper has been repeated on the ivory white furniture ] in the bedroom the individuality of the occupant is more in evidence than in any other room of the house, as such rooms or suites are complete in themselves and need not necessarily be considered relatively. where the house has the marked characteristics of any period the architectural detail of the wood trim in the bedrooms as well as that in the other apartments will, of course, express this and must in a measure influence the furnishings, but even under these conditions more latitude is permissible in the chambers than in the living-rooms. [illustration: this room, also shown in the two illustrations following, uses the blue bird as a _motif_. cretonne repeats the design that is echoed again in the cut out border. a blue and white rag rug, having a blue bird edging, is suitable for the floor ] a room in which no period idea is dominant may be made very charming, and the individual taste of the occupant may influence the entire scheme of decoration. a very dainty and attractive room is shown in the illustration on page . the floral paper used on the side wall here is beautiful in color and design, and the crown of this has a cut out extension of flowers and leaves that is applied directly to the ceiling proper. the furniture of ivory enamel finish has been painted with clusters of the same flowers as those shown in the wall paper. much of the green of the foliage in this design is repeated in the two-tone rug upon the floor. the curtains and bedspread are made of ivory white linen taffeta and bordered with four-inch bands of cretonne showing the same floral design as the side walls. much of the comfort as well as the attractiveness of a bedroom depends upon the arrangement of the furniture it holds. the space for the bed is usually indicated by the architect in the first drafting of the plans, and should be adhered to unless the room is unusually large. however, the other furniture may be arranged and rearranged until the right position is found for each piece. where a couch is included this may be placed near the window with the bookshelves conveniently at hand, or it may be set directly across the foot of the bed. the reading- or work-tables and easy-chairs should find their permanent place, as their proper grouping adds much to the livableness of any room. [illustration: the wall paper is plain with a satin stripe in what is known as a cerulean blue. the crown effect of the border is a silhouetted pattern cut out and attached separately ] the english idea of placing a dressing-table directly in front of a window is not especially favored here as we are loath to sacrifice so much of direct sun and air as the closed window would necessitate, although by such an arrangement we secure a good overhead light. [illustration: a white bedstead of this style may be had either of wood enameled or of metal] the placing of the lighting fixtures should also be given some careful study. side or drop lights should be near the dressing-mirror, and a convenient stand or drop light, well shaded, should be placed near the head of the bed. and a well-arranged table light for reading and sewing is of great convenience in a large bedroom which is used at all as a sitting-room. however small the room, the light must be well arranged for the dressing-table. a central light for a bedroom is a very objectionable feature. [illustration: in many cases the bedroom serves more purposes than for sleeping quarters. there should be space for a desk, comfortable chairs and books ] light and crisp colors are more acceptable in the decorative scheme of the bedroom than any other room of the house. where plain walls and figured cretonnes or chintzes are used in combination the latter should appear generously, that is, not only in valanced curtains at windows, but as slip covers, or cushion covers for chairs, window-seat, or lounge. the old-time idea of a blue, a pink, a green, and a yellow room is falling into disuse, although any one of these colors may be brought out prominently in the scheme of the room, or, as is even more usual, all may be combined in either wall covering or drapery material. the dominant color should appear again in the plain or two-tone floor covering. plain and embroidered muslins for window draperies and covers for dressing-tables are effective and dainty, and by having two sets for a room it may be kept always delightfully fresh and clean, as these muslins launder well. a small coin-dot of color on a very sheer, though not fine, white ground can be purchased from to cents a yard and gives a dainty charm to a room in which it is freely used that few other fabrics at the same cost will supply. [illustration: there is a preference for bedrooms furnished in light colors. here the paper is figured and the color of the design appears in curtains of a solid color. the closet doors have full length mirror panels ] where the decorative scheme must be very inexpensively carried out, a floral paper on an ivory ground can be purchased for cents a roll of eight yards. in these cheaper papers one finds a better selection in yellow and old rose than in other colors; greens, too, are usually soft and attractive. if plain colored over-draperies are desired for the windows these may be made from cheese-cloth which has been dyed to the desired shade, matching the color of the flower in the wall paper. it is not a difficult matter for the amateur to do. there are now made some very attractive cotton crepes showing a variety of floral and other patterns. some of these are beautiful in color and good in design, and, with plain tinted walls, a room in which the curtains and slip covers for cushions and pillows are made from this fabric is very attractive. [illustration: the lighting fixtures should be planned for the position the dressing table and chiffonier is to occupy. this is an attractive bedroom paper of an old-fashioned design ] old furniture may be revamped and given a fresh coat of ivory white enamel, and a central rug or a number of small rugs made after the old-fashioned rag carpet in one or two colors makes a satisfactory floor covering for use in such rooms. if the woodwork can be painted ivory white the scheme is more successful, as this is an important factor in the completed whole. in fact for bedrooms there is no better finish than the ivory white enamel. it is easy to apply and durable, and harmonizes with almost any scheme of furnishing one may desire to bring out in the room. attractive little shades for electric lights or candles may be made from bits of silk or even tissue paper, and, used in a room in which old rose predominates, the effect is charming, as the light showing through the rose color is very soft and pleasing. margaret greenleaf [illustration: an unusual decorative treatment is the division of walls into colored panels which are held in place by molding strips ] [illustration: the perpendicular stripe in this paper serves to increase the height of a rather low ceiling. the window is fitted with sash curtains and draperies of a figured pattern on the order of the crown border ] [illustration: an interesting feature of this house is the long window seat placed for reading or sewing. beneath it is a quantity of space for many things ] [illustration: a room consistently decorated along colonial lines. some sort of a couch or lounge is a decided boon in the bedroom, as it provides a place for the afternoon nap ] [illustration: the so-called craftsman's house or house with woodwork left in natural condition may well use furniture built to match the trim ] [illustration: the informal bedroom of rough plaster and brick substitutes strength of color and form for the delicacy of colonial white woodwork ] [illustration: many people still delight in the old-fashioned four-poster or in the canopy bed. this should be considered in planning the room, as the architect generally arranges a certain set position for it ] [illustration: this dressing table shows a satisfactory arrangement for lighting--two flanking lights and one overhead light. the striped walls require the color furnished by the hangings ] [illustration: in this little under-the-eaves bedroom a surprising saving of space has been made by fitting part of one side of the room with a series of drawers painted in white enamel. there is room here for the household linen and for storing away clothes ] [illustration: where neutral grays are chosen for the walls there should be some warmth of color elsewhere. here most of the decoration is left to the furniture in its warm mahogany tones and to the brighter colors of the rug ] [illustration: in the small bedroom that must be used as a study there should be a space for living-room comforts. the sash curtains combined with inside ones of sill length are attractive ] [illustration: even a small under-the-eaves bedroom may be well arranged. this is consistent colonial with its rag rugs and windsor chair ] [illustration: a bedroom in which the cream colored chintz with pink and green design is repeated in the upholstery and echoed in the carpet ] [illustration: curtains may be very simple but in good taste. this is a fine cheesecloth with a stencil design, which conventionalizes the flowers in the wall paper ] [illustration: another treatment of cheesecloth, showing a poppy design that is taken from the cut out band pasted at the top of a gray striped wall paper ] [illustration: views of an old-fashioned bedroom that is finished in dull grayish blue. such heavy furniture would appear uncomfortably bulky in any smaller room ] [illustration: the carpet helps to make the room homelike, with bare floors the height and size of the room would be more apparent ] [illustration: a short length of cretonne hanging between two sill length curtains may be used instead of a valance ] [illustration: the cut out paper border goes well with a shaped valance and side curtains. the valance is hung on a projecting frame ] [illustration: the japanese design is repeated on the gathered valance of the curtains, chairs and the table-cover. several original stencils of butterflies are framed as decorations ] [illustration: ivory white is always a satisfactory color for the woodwork of most bedrooms. here it takes the place of wall paper ] [illustration: one article of bedroom furniture that should not be neglected is a bedside cabinet on which an electric light may be placed. these twin beds are of gray ash with a natural finish ] [illustration: an example of several of the uses for stenciled borders is shown here in this desk corner. the room makes good use of wicker furniture and bungalow rugs ] [illustration] the problem of the bathroom only a few years ago, sanitary conveniences, which were very crude when compared with those of to-day, were considered luxuries; to-day they are necessities, demanded for our physical comfort and welfare. the old-fashioned saturday tubbing was a much dreaded and messy event; but with sanitary house plumbing, bathing became a pleasure and a valuable adjunct to good health. it is, therefore, interesting to note the treatments of the present bathroom. the average house to-day contains at least two bathrooms, the simplest equipment being a water-closet, lavatory, and tub, the two latter fixtures supplied with hot and cold water supply pipes. from these three fixtures of the simplest kind, installed in a room not smaller than ft. in. × ft. in., we may enlarge the scheme to contain a shower-bath, with floor receptor to catch the water, a sitz or foot-bath, double lavatories, if for the owner's bath, with marble or porcelain pier slabs for toilet articles. these fixtures may be simple in pattern, of enameled iron or of porcelain or marble, in a room having tile or marble floors and wainscot. there are, happily, inexpensive fixtures of good quality that are just as efficient as the most expensive ones, and the plainer the lines of the fixtures the more beautiful they will appear in the finished bath; heavy ornamentation in color or molded design should be avoided--it is not so easily kept clean, nor is it so beautiful. in many houses having but one servant, a separate bath is provided for her use, and in a house costing $ , it is customary to provide a private bath connecting with the owner's chamber, as well as a general bath for the family and guests, and a servants' bath in the attic. the importance the bath and sanitary plumbing have attained is shown by the fact that seven or eight per cent of the cost of a house is taken for plumbing, and in houses costing from $ , to $ , , three bathrooms are installed. [illustration: two oval lavatories are generally representative of the latest convenience for the modern bathroom ] the model servants' bath should have a floor of small hexagonal white, unglazed tile with hard plastered walls, above a sanitary base, painted with four coats of moisture-resisting paint and equipped with a five-foot enameled iron tub, quiet syphon-jet closet, with oak seat and tank, and a plain pattern enameled iron lavatory. a medicine closet should be built in the wall over it, having a mirror set in the door. the fixtures cannot be properly set in an area less than ft. in. × ft. in., and ft. in. × ft. in. would be much better. the owner's bath is largely a matter of personal taste and cost. usually this has a floor of in. white, unglazed hexagonal tile, with a × in. white glazed tile for walls, with cap and sanitary base, marble thresholds and plinth blocks. the height of the wainscot is optional; but ft. in. is usual, with the walls and ceilings above it oil painted. the room should not be smaller than ft. × ft. and may open from the owner's chamber or dressing-room. its equipment usually comprises two lavatories of vitreous china, placed at least six inches apart, unless a double lavatory is used in one slab, over which may be a medicine closet built into the wall with mirror door set in; the bathroom door should have a full-length mirror. in the illustration that appears on page is shown a silent syphon-jet closet with low-down tank finished in mahogany. the "low-down combinations," as they are called, are made in oak, cherry, mahogany, and white enamel. the tub should be at least ft. long, of enameled iron or porcelain, finished on both sides if enameled, and supported on porcelain block feet, with standing waste and mixing cocks. the tub must be set far enough from the wall to permit cleaning. [illustration: the great problem in planning a bathroom is not to sacrifice all warmth and color to sanitation. at present there are washable and sanitary papers made by the decorators that are very proper for bathroom furnishings. the seagull design in blues and greens and the kingfisher in a brilliant, cool green are both suitable and attractive ] [illustration: the upper left hand plan shows excellent spacing and good arrangement combining all the desirable features and conveniences of a bathroom. the upper right hand plan shows a desirable arrangement for minimum space. the lower left hand plan shows a modern idea of dividing the bathroom into two sections. in the lower right hand plan there is a complete equipment, well arranged, but with few more than the necessary conveniences ] every fitting or exposed pipe in the bathroom should be nickel-plated. the shower may be installed over the tub, as in one of the illustrations, or made a separate fixture with a floor receptor to drain off the water. it may be inclosed with a cotton duck curtain, which is more agreeable to the body than rubber or marble slabs. the merits of each fixture and its equipment i shall leave to the reader, because these things he can readily determine for himself; but the arrangements and number of fixtures required must be considered--the quality is a matter of price. the general bathroom of a house should be similar to the owner's--in some cases it is divided into two compartments, as shown in one plan, with the water-closet by itself--permitting independent use. [illustration: one especial convenience that should not be neglected is the shower with the duck curtain arranged over the top. for bathroom floors the hexagonal tile is very suitable and enduring ] in homes costing from $ , up, the number of bathrooms is in proportion to the number of occupants. every room may have a connecting bath with tile floor and wainscot, completely equipped--in such a case the visit of a guest is not fraught with hasty skirmishes to the nearest bath, perhaps only to retreat, and wait and listen for an opportunity to use it. plumbing fixtures are made in many materials; the most popular of these, on account of durability and cost, is cast iron with an enamel glaze fused on the iron. this ware will stand hard usage, is not easily fractured, does not craze, and therefore holds its color. the vitreous china ware is, i think, more appropriate for bathrooms finished in tile, because the materials, being similar, are in harmony, while the enameled iron is not quite as heavy or substantial looking when used with tile. vitreous china is potter's clay, properly fired, with a vitreous glaze baked on; porcelain is similar and their cost is about the same, except that this increases rapidly with the larger pieces; because fewer perfect fixtures are obtained. fixtures cut from solid marble block are the most expensive and their relative merit with their relation to cost is a question for the owner to determine. [illustration: a sunken bathtub is a form of luxury that is desirable but requires low ceiling in the room below, or that the bathroom be built on the ground floor. this is oftentimes an impossible arrangement ] there is little difference between the enameled iron, vitreous china and porcelain or marble as far as the retention of heat is concerned, or the feeling from bodily contact. there are in every kiln some fixtures that are not quite perfect; they are called "seconds," and catalogued as "class b" goods, with a lower price. the weight of massive plumbing in a frame dwelling is considerable and will cause a settlement of the floors unless carefully supported. the fashions in tubs are many. the usual shape is square at the foot and round at the head-at the foot are the waste and supply pipes which are made in several combinations. the double bath cock, which gives hot or cold water or a mixture of both, is advisable for tubs-the small cup between the faucets is a ring tray and can be replaced with a soap dish if desired. most shower-baths have a shampoo attachment or body spray that can be used instead of the overhead shower, so that the head and hair are kept dry if desired, and if a shower is not to be installed this can be provided in the tub. [illustration: the bathroom to-day finds great need of such built-in conveniences as wall chests and cupboards. these should be arranged for at the time the house is built ] a tub incased in tile is a perfectly sanitary treatment, and in some cases the tub has been sunk into the floor a foot and then incased to avoid the high step necessary to get into the tub. the plunge--sunk in the floor--is an unusual treatment that permits more freedom of movement than the tub; but the tile, when wet, is slippery, and i should expect one might carelessly slip in with fatal results. roman tubs are alike at each end--with fixtures in the middle of one side of the rim. solid porcelain tubs rest on the floor, set into the tile. the ideal position for the tub, if there is available room, is with the foot against a wall and ample room on either side to get in or out of it. tubs are made in lengths ranging from ft. to feet, and about inches in width over rims. [illustration: this room contains the desirable articles and fixtures for the modern bathroom in a very satisfactory arrangement. there is the latest thing in nickel plumbing and modern equipment, but at the same time there is an attractiveness that is so lacking in the cold, hospital type of room ] [illustration: the small hexagonal floor tiles permit sections to be taken up with little difficulty and replaced at small expense. wall tile, however, should be made of the larger rectangular units with a cornice at the top and a rounded surbase that obviates a sharp angle at the junction with the floor ] the lavatory is an important fixture that is made in a great many varieties. the old-fashioned bowl is obsolete--the oval has taken its place, though probably the best is the kidney-shaped bowl, as it permits a free and natural movement of the arms in raising water to lave the face. the bowl should be at least × inches, in a slab × , with a space surrounding the bowl countersunk a little to form a border that tends to confine the splashed water. all the fixtures manufactured by responsible concerns are equipped with nickel-plated faucets, wastes, traps, and supplies that are very satisfactory; but quite often the plumber who installs the work buys the fixtures without the selected trimmings and substitutes a cheaper pattern. some tubs and lavatories are sold in "a" and "b" qualities, and it will be to your advantage to select the fixtures with your architect, who knows the grades and fittings. [illustration: all the wood that is in these bathrooms is heavily enameled in white. both rooms show a good use of colored tile worked in attractive designs. the room on the left has a mosaic pattern in several shades as a decoration, while in the right hand room there is a bright border and vertical strips making panels. the tiles between them are laid in herring-bone fashion. both tubs are without supports and rest flat on the floor ] [illustration: this european treatment is particularly effective for the owner's bath, which opens into his bedroom. the glass doors provide all the lighting necessary and are very decorative with their curved segments ] a particularly pleasing treatment is the bath opening from the owner's chamber, and separated from it by glass partition. this arrangement is good where outside light cannot be afforded or obtained, and a curtain effectively screens it. [illustration: a simple bathroom where waterproof enameled paint was used in several coats instead of a tiled wainscot, and above this an attractive waterproof paper that suggests tiling. such an arrangement is a possibility where tiles may not be purchased ] bath-room accessories should be arranged with care and consist of the following devices: plate glass shelves supported on nickel-plated brackets are the best; towel-racks; toothbrush holders; clothes-brush hangers; clothes hooks; soap dishes; and soiled towel baskets. hardware is usually of nickel-plated tubing screwed into the tile. the accompanying photographs and plans will illustrate the subject further and are self-explanatory. a. raymond ellis [illustration] the proper treatment for the nursery furnishings for the modern child's room, like everything else that belongs to that important personage, are as complete in the smallest detail as skill and ingenuity can make them, and every feature of a well-appointed bedroom may be duplicated in miniature for the youngsters. the wall-papers and draperies especially designed for nurseries and children's rooms are in a way more distinctively juvenile than the actual pieces of furniture, and are a most important consideration in fitting out such apartments. if one does not care to go to the expense of furnishing a nursery completely, paper and curtains that will leave no doubt as to the identity of the room may be had at small cost, and from this simple touch the scheme of decorations and the furniture, to say nothing of the cost, may be indefinitely extended. strictly hygienic parents who scout the idea of wall-paper as being unhealthy and will have nothing but painted walls in a bedroom are confronted by a bare expanse that may be sanitary, but is neither attractive nor interesting for the child. with walls treated in this way a decorative frieze may be used with good effect. the friezes, which come in panels varying in depth from fourteen to nineteen and one-half inches, are printed in gay colors on backgrounds of blue-gray, ivory-white, drab, and other neutral tones that can be matched exactly in the color of the walls. the designs include processions of noah's ark inhabitants, farmyard animals, chickens and ducks, normandy peasants going to market, toy villages with stiff little soldiers and prim-looking trees, hunting scenes, and a row of dutch kiddies indulging in a mad race across the paper. if wall-paper is used it also matches the background of the frieze, the paper being either in a solid color or with a figure so inconspicuous that it gives the impression of a single tone. one of the new papers for children's rooms is a reproduction of the quaint kate greenaway figures that are quite as fascinating to little people in these days as they were years ago. the background is a pale yellow and the figures are printed in rather delicate colors, each group representing one of the calendar months. the effect is particularly dainty and the designs are diverting for the children without becoming tiresome from too great contrast in color. another paper that shows groups quite as charming is printed from designs by boutet de monvel, the famous french illustrator of child life. a new idea, and one that is proving popular, is a decided departure from the conventional wall-paper, with its figures at regularly repeated intervals. this consists in first putting on the walls a paper of solid color to be used as a background for single figures or groups that are cut from friezes and pasted on to suit one's individual taste. the figures, of course, must be quite large, in order to be effective, and in some favorite groups cut from a frieze showing little dutch girls and yellow chicks the latter are even larger than life. for nurseries, when the children are very small, the figures are often arranged in a frieze just above the foot-board, so that they come on a line with the child's eye, and are therefore vastly more entertaining than when placed at the infinite distance of the top of the wall. blue and white seems to be the favorite combination of colors for nursery draperies, and among the all-over patterns are a lot of roly-poly children picking gigantic daisies on a pale blue ground, and also a delft design on a white ground covered with black cross lines that are far enough apart to give a tiled effect. a number of other colors and patterns may be had as well as the gay printed borders that come two strips to a width of the material. when figured wallpaper is used, draperies of solid color with the printed border are rather more satisfactory, as one set of children or animals tumbling over the walls, and another set chasing across the draperies, create a bewildering impression that is anything but restful and quieting for the small occupant. the borders are particularly attractive for curtains made of plain scrim or some soft white material, and are stitched on in strips or cut out and put on in silhouette. [illustration: the playroom in this house was to be made use of by the grown folks occasionally for their handicraft work. special attention was paid to built-in closets convenient for toys and tools ] floor coverings especially suitable for children's rooms are to be found in the more or less recently revived rag carpet rugs, either plain or with figured borders. almost any of these rugs with their decorative strips showing queerly constructed landscapes are suitable, but most appropriate is one that has a solemn procession of geese across either end, or another that is ornamented with a family of black and white bunnies lined up against a red brick wall. they come in various sizes, from the small hearthrug up to the one that is large enough for the center of an average size room. a new rug for nurseries that is rather more practical than pretty is woven in the same way as the rag rugs, but instead of cotton materials, strips of oilcloth are used, rolled so that the glossy side is uppermost. the idea was first employed in making small rugs for bathrooms, as they are waterproof and easy to keep clean, but they are quite as serviceable and sanitary for children's rooms, and are cleaned by wiping off with a damp cloth. they are made in different sizes, and in a mixed design, like the ordinary rag rug, or with white centers and borders of solid color. in the way of furniture, chairs and beds are to be had in a much greater variety than the other pieces, and the miniature morris chair is no doubt the most attractive piece of furniture that is made for the little folks. it comes in almost as many different styles and prices as the grown-up variety, and may be had in light or dark wood, with cushions of velour or leather or figured cotton material, and is a perfect reproduction of the large chair. little sets consisting of table and two chairs, one straight, the other with arms, are decorated with juvenile figures in color, and may be had for prices that are quite reasonable. they are especially useful when no attempt can be made at arranging a regulation nursery. one of the most serviceable of these sets is of dark wood with leather seat chairs and a table of good size, the top of which is hinged and may be raised disclosing a receptacle for toys or books. small willow and wicker tables and chairs are made in attractive shapes, many of them copies of the larger pieces, and are used either in the natural color or stained to harmonize with the color scheme of the room. less substantial than the pieces made of solid wood, they are rather more practical for older children than for small ones who are no respecters of furniture, and, while designed for use all the year round, they are particularly suitable for summer rooms or to be carried outdoors. in spite of the fact that the little white bed is always associated with the child's room in story and song, to say nothing of the popular imagination, there are various kinds of brass and wooden beds made in small sizes that are thoroughly in keeping with one's idea of a typical nursery. the white enamel beds, which may be had as plain or as elaborate as one desires, are always dainty, and have the advantage of harmonizing perfectly with furniture and hangings of almost every description. brass beds have the same characteristic, but they are much more expensive than those of iron, and seem to require rather more elaborate surroundings. the newest brass beds for children are quite low, only about half as high as the ordinary bed, which is a distinct advantage, as it is much easier for the child to climb into, and less dangerous in case he falls out. [illustration: the sense of possession that the child has in its own room produces much satisfaction. substantial furniture may be purchased in small sizes and a variety of wall treatments are suggested with interesting friezes ] a recently designed wooden bed of attractive appearance shows severely plain lines in the head and foot boards, and in the sides long narrow panels are cut out, through which the covering of the box spring is seen. this bed is made only to order, and is intended for elaborately decorated rooms in which a definite color scheme is carried out. it may be had in any desired width and stained any color to match the other furniture, while the box spring and little pillow and mattress are covered with the same material as the draperies of the room. [illustration: japanese prints are being received with increasing favor and thousands of beautiful designs are particularly appropriate for the children's room. the subjects are chiefly natural history figures and they serve as an inspiration to have stories woven about them ] furniture of a special size for children's rooms is made in a design that is substantial and handsome, by the manufacturer of a well-known and widely used type. there is a wardrobe just five feet high, with compartments for hats, clothing, and shoes; a bureau twenty-nine inches high, with a twenty-inch mirror on it; a bed with high sides, the simple decorations of which match those of the bureau; rocking chairs and straight chairs with leather seats, a settle, and tables of different sizes and shapes. nothing could be more attractive or complete than a room furnished in this way for a child of six or seven years who has outgrown the daintier surroundings of the nursery. it has all of the dignity of a well-appointed grown-up room, but with everything in proportion to the size of its owner. even washstand sets, suitable as to shape and decoration, may be had for the child's room in which no detail is to be omitted. they are little if any smaller than the usual sets, but the decorations are in keeping with those of the other appointments, and the pitchers are designed with a view to their being handled easily by small hands. they are not unlike milk jugs in shape, with a substantial handle over the top and another at the back, so that there is small chance of their slipping while in transit, and the mouth is a definitely formed one that will not fail to pour in the direction intended. for a comparatively small amount a room may be fitted up with enough distinctive juvenile furnishings to impart individuality and to give the child a sense of possession that it will never have in grown-up surroundings. even though circumstances are such that it has not had an elaborate nursery, as soon as a child is old enough to have a room of its own there is no reason why the furnishings should not be in keeping, and with the expenditure of a little money a dainty and attractive room may be arranged. high-priced beds and other pieces of furniture are by no means necessary, and, as is often the case, the most reasonably furnished room may be the most satisfactory if a little ingenuity and good taste are brought into service. [illustration: there are various ways that japanese prints may be used in the child's room. this and the opposite illustration show prints put on the wall and held by a molding at top and bottom. this also may contain a glass to protect each picture ] [illustration: there are decorations such as this that have an educational value and that take the place of toys. these little figures on the left are really companions, while the plaster plaque illustrates stevenson's verses ] [illustration: these bas-reliefs make interesting decorations and at the same time serve as object lessons in illustrating good poetry ] thirty to thirty-two dollars can be made to cover the cost of wall-paper, curtains, bed and mattress, a rug and a bureau, all in sizes and designs suitable for children. the wall-papers in juvenile patterns are not expensive, and the cost of papering a room of average size would be about five dollars. a little white iron bed may be had for as low as five dollars, with seven dollars additional for the mattress, and a rug × feet in size with a decorative border is $ . . a bureau of small size, such as comes in an inexpensive grade of the so-called antique oak, costs about $ . . for the very reason that the furnishings of the room are only temporary, and soon to be outgrown and discarded, it is quite satisfactory to buy a cheap grade of furniture whenever possible, if price is a consideration. a small bureau is less expensive than one made especially in a child's size, and is equally practical if not so substantially made. such a bureau can be done over in white enamel to match the bed, or in any dark color that may be preferred in place of the shiny oak finish. for curtains that hang straight from the top of the window to the lower edge of the sash, scrim at twenty-five cents a yard would cost two dollars. allowing four yards for each of two windows, and enough printed cretonne to make a decorative border, it would cost a dollar and a half additional. these figures are of the very lowest for which a child's room can be fitted up, but even with everything of the most inexpensive grade it will give more real pleasure than one on which a much greater amount has been spent if the room is nondescript in its furnishings and fails to impress the child with a sense of ownership. sarah leyburn coe [illustration] characteristic staircase types and hall treatments [illustration: in the right place half-timber work on plaster has many possibilities for hall decoration ] [illustration: japanese grass cloth in golden color is an excellent combination for chestnut stained light brown. wood strips are used instead of paneling ] [illustration: in certain old colonial halls the entrance is fashioned in a semicircular recess up which the stairs curve in a spiral. the effect is exceedingly beautiful but requires much space ] [illustration: the front door in this house opens directly into the living-room, into which stairs come down at one side. the wood has natural treatment and part of the banister forms the wainscot of the room ] [illustration: some of the best colonial detail is to be found in newel posts where careful craftsmen worked a variety of spirals ] [illustration: one method of securing pleasing decorative effects was the use of balusters in three different designs ] [illustration: in the old farmhouses for the sake of warmth the main stairway was made with the smallest possible well and often closed with a door at the main hall ] [illustration: this is a modern example by wilson eyre of the stair well inclosed for the greater part of its length. such arrangement is only possible under certain lighting conditions ] [illustration: the stairs that rise from this living-room are designed to take up as little room as possible. in this they are very successful and little of the banister rail and stair woodwork can be seen ] [illustration: where there is a large room made dignified by architectural decoration the twin stairways curving either side of a main flight are decidedly impressive; but one should not plan to make use of this effect in any but a pretentious house ] [illustration: the hall paper should not be a decided contrast to rooms opening onto it. tapestry paper may often be found successful in this situation ] [illustration: another stairway that divides on the way to the upper flight, but a treatment particularly fit for houses in english style of decoration ] [illustration: this view shows to good advantage the value of an archway between living-room and hall. woodwork, simply carved, frames in delightfully the stairway which is so appropriately treated with a forest frieze. curtains would be objectionable here ] [illustration: this hall is of generous width, and the stairs rise straight with but one landing lighted by a large window. a window is almost a necessity in the hall as it permits a free circulation of air throughout the house ] [illustration: a use of the colonial flat arch which separates this stairway from the living-room and makes a small room of it ] [illustration: simplicity characterizes this colonial stairway that is very similar to the one at the top of page . there is, however, a baseboard treatment which, like the banister rail, is crowned with mahogany ] [illustration: in the recess made by the vestibule the stairway is economically placed. the hall serves the double purpose of entrance and reception room ] [illustration] planning the kitchen there is a growing and altogether proper tendency to treat the kitchen as an integral part of the house, which was almost entirely absent in english and american houses of early times; in fact, until within the last twenty-five years very little thought was attached to it. a century ago it was regarded advisable to have the kitchen occupy a separate building somewhat removed from the main building or located at a great distance from the dining or living rooms, ofttimes the whole length of the house. the principal reason for this was the primitive methods used in cooking and preparing foods which were very objectionable at close range. odors, noises and unsanitary appliances made the kitchen a place to be abhorred and to be kept as far away as possible. the present-day intelligent methods of dealing with the kitchen, particularly in america, have effected a complete transformation in this old idea. our modern successful architect of the home attaches great importance to the planning of the kitchen, with its adjoining pantries, closets, storage rooms, etc.; and rightfully he should, as it goes more towards making for the convenience, help and comfort of the up-to-date household than possibly any other feature of the home. the modern english kitchen with its relation to the dining-room is interesting for comparison with those here in america, chiefly because the early english settlers constitute the original source from which we obtain our start in house-building. the english kitchen's adjuncts practically comprise separate departments, such as the scullery, larder, wood, ashes, knives and boots, fuel, etc. this condition naturally requires the employment of considerable help even in the smaller homes. on the other hand, the compactness so noticeable in american homes--requiring perhaps one-half the space, thus reducing the necessary help to a minimum and obtaining the maximum of convenience--has brought our kitchen to a standard, nearly, if not entirely, approaching the ideal. the american architect has based his idea for this compactness upon the same reasoning as is exercised in fitting up a convenient workshop, for truly a kitchen is the workshop of the house. again, the peculiar custom of medieval times in placing the kitchen a considerable distance from the dining-room still survives in the english homes, while in american homes a marked difference has long prevailed. the kitchen here is usually placed as near as possible to the dining-room, only separated, if at all, by a china-closet, pantry, or butler's room. [illustration: the model kitchen has developed considerably from the higgledy-piggledy arrangement of colonial times. supplies are limited to the most necessary articles, and these stored away in a handy location ] [illustration: such a kitchen _de luxe_ is expensive, but not extravagant. the built-in range, tiled wall and floor, together with the open plumbing, give the highest degree of sanitation ] convenience, cleanliness and ventilation are three essentials that must be paramount in arranging the up-to-date kitchen and its accessories. while there may be differences as to minor details, the principal features to be obtained in establishing a modern kitchen may be found in the various suggestions herein contained: st. the kitchen should be roomy but not excessively large. this applies to any size of house, as too large a kitchen is maintained at the expense of convenience and labor. an ideal size for a kitchen in a house measuring × (containing living-room, reception room, dining-room and pantry on first floor) would be × feet. nd. the general construction of the interior is of the utmost importance. the floor may be of hard georgia pine, oiled, or covered with linoleum or oilcloth. as a covering, linoleum of a good inlaid pattern, while more expensive than oilcloth, proves the best and most economical in length of service. in a house where comfort is demanded regardless of cost, an interlocking rubber tiling is suggested. this flooring absolutely avoids noises and slipping and is comfortable to the feet, as well as being of an exceptional durability. other floors of a well-merited character are unglazed tile, brick, or one of the many patented compositions consisting chiefly of cement, which is also fireproof. the wainscoting, if adopted for the kitchen, can be of tile, enameled brick, or matched and v-jointed boards, varnished or painted; but in any event should be connected with the floor in a manner to avoid cracks for collecting dust or dirt. this is accomplished (when a wooden wainscot is used) by means of a plain rounded molding which is set in the rightangle formed by the junction of the floor with the wainscot. while seldom seen, because of the expense, a kitchen completely tiled or bricked on walls, floor and ceiling is indeed a thing of beauty and necessarily an ideally sanitary room. [illustration: the sink should have a drainboard space and be located where the light may fall directly upon it. the row of hooks for utensils saves much walking ] the doors, window frames, dressers and other necessary woodwork should be plain, made of medium wood and painted some light color or enameled white; or finished in the natural state with a transparent varnish. [illustration: the butler's pantry should have an indirect connection between the kitchen and the dining-room. the two doors here keep out odors, noise and heat from the dining-room. the refrigerator is in the cook's pantry and opens out on the porch ] the walls and ceiling, if not tiled or bricked, should be finished with a hard smooth plaster and painted three or four coats of some light color--light yellow, green, or blue making a very agreeable color to the eye. this manner of treatment permits the walls to be washed and kept free from dust and dirt, which latter is a disagreeable feature in the use of wall papers. rd. the proper installation of the various furnishings of the kitchen is worthy of much thought and consideration. of all these, nothing is of more vital importance nor appeals more strongly to the household than the range. the size of the range is largely governed by the size of the house or the number of persons it is intended to serve. however, it is advisable to have a range not less than three feet square for a seven or eight-room house. it should be of a thoroughly modern style, with a hood over it, either built in or of sheet iron, an excellent provision for drawing away the steam and fumes of cooking. and, by all means, the range should be placed so that direct daylight falls upon it. most present-day houses also have either gas or electric ranges installed in them and these should be near the coal range so as to confine all cooking to one part of the kitchen; and further, especially in winter when large gatherings are entertained, they furnish a combined service. some large establishments, in addition to the range, are especially equipped with "warmers." [illustration: the modern kitchen may be neat and clean if all of wood, with v-matched boards varnished or painted. the space under the drainboard here for a table is a feature worth adopting. the cupboard over the shelf is also an attractive feature ] the sink, being so closely allied in its usefulness to the range, should be placed near the latter and under, between or near windows, but never where the person using it would have his back to the light. it may be of galvanized iron, copper, soapstone or enameled porcelain, and provided with an ample draining-board; two being much preferred. if there is a special sink for vegetables required, it should be immediately adjoining the draining-board to insure compactness and convenience as well as economy in plumbing. the draining-board may be of hard wood or of wood covered with copper or zinc. the best are made of enameled ware similar to the sinks. draining-boards of copper or zinc should be given only a slight slope to prevent the possibility of dishes slipping therefrom. [illustration: a feature of this plan is the sliding door connecting the kitchen and pantry. this may be closed when cooking is in progress and successfully keeps all odors from finding their way into the dining-room. opposite windows provide a cross draft and excellent ventilation ] the refrigerator should be built in or placed against an outside wall in order that the ice can be put in easily from without through either a small opening or window. if it can be avoided, the refrigerator should not be placed immediately in the kitchen, but rather in the entry, pantry or enclosed porch. the kitchen of the small house which sometimes has no communicating pantry should have built therein dressers of such proportions as will accommodate all the necessary dishes, pots, vessels, bins for flour, sugar, etc., cutlery, and other things essential for obtaining the best results under the circumstances. a dresser of commodious size is always a blessing. the top portion, of plain shelves, should be enclosed either with doors or sliding glass fronts; the lower portion, first lined with zinc and enclosed with solid wooden doors so constructed to fit nearly if not airtight. if an exclusive pot closet is desired, it should be handy to the range and at the same time be under cover for sanitary reasons. [illustration: this german kitchen is a model of neatness and cleanliness in its white enamel furnishings. the cupboard provides space for china, the long shelf beneath being a great convenience, while the various bins and drawers provide proper places for everything ] frequently in a small kitchen a counter or drop leaves against the wall are substituted for a table, but in most kitchens a good-sized substantial table, preferably in the center of the room, is found indispensable. the table should have a smooth top that can be easily kept clean. although costly, a heavy plate glass fitted perfectly with rounded edges makes a splendid top for the table. the service part of the house, of which the kitchen is the central room, should fit together just as parts of a machine and form a unit in themselves. the pantries, store rooms, etc., should be placed so as to afford easy access one to the other. in a house, which has two or more servants, a dining-room or alcove should be provided for their use. this may be a part of the kitchen or immediately adjoining, and merely large enough to seat comfortably the servants around a table. [illustration: a kitchen in a large country place that is equipped with every possible convenience, sliding doors, built-in refrigerator, clothes chute, dumbwaiter and a revolving drum between kitchen and butler's pantry. there is also provision made for a servants' dining-room, advisable wherever possible ] the cook's pantry should contain cupboards in which are all the necessary paraphernalia for preparing pastries, puddings, etc., such as bins, bakeboards, crockery, pans and supplies, and should be lighted by at least one window. the butler's pantry, or china-closet as it is often called--generally located and affording direct communication between the kitchen and the dining-room--is essentially a serving-room and should contain a sink with draining-boards, cupboards and shelves to accommodate the fine china, glassware and other requisites for the table. with such a plan the door between the pantry and kitchen may be either sliding or double swinging, but between the pantry and the dining-room, a noiseless double-swinging door. a slide, with small shelves or counters on either side, between the kitchen and pantry, for the passing of food and dishes, saves time and steps. it is well to have the communication rather indirect through the pantry to prevent in a measure the passage of odors or a direct view of the kitchen by those entering the dining-room or seated at the table. this can be partly accomplished by not having the communicating doors directly opposite each other. [illustration: the kitchen need not be large, if it is compact. in the house ´ × ´ the ideal size is about ´ × ´. a work table of this sort does away with many unnecessary steps, the lower shelf being a convenient place to put articles that are in constant use ] the outside entrance to the kitchen should be so placed as to facilitate the delivery of provisions, preferably through an entry or an enclosed porch. the laundry in many houses is combined with the kitchen or immediately adjoining, in which latter case it often serves as an entry and a place to store certain articles, such as brooms, buckets and possibly the refrigerator. the very best plan is to have the laundry in the basement, with separate outside stairs. in such a case, a chute for sending soiled linen, etc., should run from the kitchen or pantry to the laundry. [illustration: the butler's pantry or serving-room should be equipped with a cupboard and sink in order that the finer glass ware can be stored and the more fragile articles be washed without finding their way into the kitchen ] [illustration: a rather unusual plan, in which great economy of space is made by building the service stairs about the chimney. the pantry is exceedingly well arranged in that it takes up no room from the kitchen or the dining-room ] [illustration: plaster walls should be finished with a hard surface and given several coats of a waterproof paint. the shelves beneath the sink here provide a place useful and easily accessible ] the kitchen should above all be well ventilated and have plenty of daylight. the necessary fumes and heat arising from the cooking should be taken care of in such a way that none of it is carried to the dining-room or to other parts of the house. this can partly be accomplished by the hood over the range, but plenty of fresh air is required. generally in country homes, the living-rooms are given the southern exposure, so the kitchen usually faces the north. the best location is either the northern or eastern exposure, as the cooling breezes in the summer generally come from that direction, especially in this part of the country, and combined with the morning sun, make the kitchen cheerful and cool. if possible there should be exposure on at least two sides, opposite, affording cross ventilation as well as an abundance of light. all windows should be well fitted with screens in summer to keep out flies and other insects attracted by the odors of cooking. the best artificial lighting is obtained by a reflector in the center of the kitchen, possibly with side brackets where necessary, as at the sink or at the range. [illustration: a very novel kitchen cupboard is this, with the shelf space in the doors giving almost a double capacity. the bread board slides beneath a shelf and is provided with handles ] in a large house the service portion may be situated in a separate wing and if so the stairs should be in a small hall, centrally located and near the kitchen, especially the stairs to the cellar. this hall may contain a closet for brooms and a lavatory for the use of the servants. it it well not to have the stairway ascending directly from the kitchen, as it lessens the valuable wall space. the rooms directly over the kitchen can best be utilized in most cases for servants' sleeping rooms as they are often objectionable for members of the household, or guests. james earle miller * * * * * transcriber's notes: italic text is denoted by _underscores_, bold text by =equals signs=. transcriber's note: inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved. obvious typographical errors have been corrected. italic text is denoted by _underscores_. the decoration of houses charles scribner's sons new york the decoration of houses by edith wharton and ogden codman jr. copyright, , by charles scribner's sons "_une forme doit être belle en elle-même et on ne doit jamais compter sur le décor appliqué pour en sauver les imperfections._" henri mayeux: _la composition décorative_. table of contents page introduction xix i the historical tradition ii rooms in general iii walls iv doors v windows vi fireplaces vii ceilings and floors viii entrance and vestibule ix hall and stairs x the drawing-room, boudoir, and morning-room xi gala rooms: ball-room, saloon, music-room, gallery xii the library, smoking-room, and "den" xiii the dining-room xiv bedrooms xv the school-room and nurseries xvi bric-À-brac conclusion index list of plates facing page i italian gothic chest ii french arm-chairs, xv and xvi centuries iii french _armoire_, xvi century iv french sofa and arm-chair, louis xiv period v room in the grand trianon, versailles vi french arm-chair, louis xv period vii french _bergère_, louis xvi period viii french _bergère_, louis xvi period ix french sofa, louis xv period x french marquetry table, louis xvi period xi drawing-room, house in berkeley square, london xii room in the villa vertemati xiii drawing-room at easton neston hall xiv doorway, ducal palace, mantua xv sala dei cavalli, palazzo del t xvi door in the sala dello zodiaco, ducal palace, mantua xvii examples of modern french locksmiths' work xviii carved door, palace of versailles xix salon des malachites, grand trianon, versailles xx mantelpiece, ducal palace, urbino xxi mantelpiece, villa giacomelli xxii french fire-screen, louis xiv period xxiii carved wooden ceiling, villa vertemati xxiv ceiling in palais de justice, rennes xxv ceiling of the sala degli sposi, ducal palace, mantua xxvi ceiling in the style of bÉrain xxvii ceiling in the chÂteau of chantilly xxviii antechamber, villa cambiaso, genoa xxix antechamber, durazzo palace, genoa xxx staircase, parodi palace, genoa xxxi staircase, hÔtel de ville, nancy xxxii staircase, palace of fontainebleau xxxiii french _armoire_, louis xiv period xxxiv sala della maddalena, royal palace, genoa xxxv console in petit trianon, versailles xxxvi salon, palace of fontainebleau xxxvii room in the palace of fontainebleau xxxviii _lit de repos_, early louis xv period xxxix _lit de repos_, louis xv period xl painted wall-panel and door, chantilly xli french boudoir, louis xvi period xlii _salon à l'italienne_ xliii ball-room, royal palace, genoa xliv saloon, villa vertemati xlv sala dello zodiaco, ducal palace, mantua xlvi french table, transition between louis xiv and louis xv periods xlvii library of louis xvi, palace of versailles xlviii small library, audley end xlix french writing-chair, louis xv period l dining-room, palace of compiÈgne li dining-room fountain, palace of fontainebleau lii french dining-chair, louis xiv period liii french dining-chair, louis xvi period liv bedroom, palace of fontainebleau lv bath-room, pitti palace, florence lvi bronze andiron, xvi century books consulted french androuet du cerceau, jacques. les plus excellents bâtiments de france. _paris, ._ le muet, pierre. manière de bien bâtir pour toutes sortes de personnes. oppenord, gilles marie. oeuvres. _ ._ mariette, pierre jean. l'architecture françoise. _ ._ briseux, charles Étienne. l'art de bâtir les maisons de campagne. _paris, ._ lalonde, franÇois richard de. recueil de ses oeuvres. aviler, c. a. d'. cours d'architecture. _ ._ blondel, jacques franÇois. architecture françoise. _paris, ._ cours d'architecture. _paris, - 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Édifices de rome moderne. _paris, - ._ ramÉe, daniel. histoire générale de l'architecture. _paris, ._ meubles religieux et civils conservés dans les principaux monuments et musées de l'europe. viollet le duc, eugÈne emmanuel. dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du xie au xvie siècle. _paris, ._ sauvageot, claude. palais, châteaux, hôtels et maisons de france du xve au xviiie siècle. daly, cÉsar. motifs historiques d'architecture et de sculpture d'ornement. rouyer et darcel. l'art architectural en france depuis françois ier jusqu'à louis xiv. havard, henry. dictionnaire de l'ameublement et de la décoration depuis le xiiie siècle jusqu'à nos jours. _paris, n. d._ les arts de l'ameublement. guilmard, d. les maîtres ornemanistes. _paris, ._ bauchal, charles. dictionnaire des architectes français. _paris, ._ rouaix, paul. les styles. _paris, n. d._ bibliothÈque de l'enseignement des beaux arts. maison quantin, _paris_. english ware, isaac. a complete body of architecture. _london, ._ brettingham, matthew. plans, elevations and sections of holkham in norfolk, the seat of the late earl of leicester. _london, ._ campbell, colen. vitruvius britannicus; or, the british architect. _london, ._ adam, robert and james. the works in architecture. _london, - ._ hepplewhite, a. the cabinet-maker and upholsterer's guide. sheraton, thomas. the cabinet-maker's dictionary. _london, ._ pain, william. the british palladio; or the builder's general assistant. _london, ._ soane, sir john. sketches in architecture. _london, ._ hakewill, arthur william. general plan and external details, with picturesque illustrations, of thorpe hall, peterborough. lewis, james. original designs in architecture. pyne, william henry. history of the royal residences of windsor castle, st. james's palace, carlton house, kensington palace, hampton court, buckingham palace, and frogmore. _london, ._ gwilt, joseph. encyclopedia of architecture. new edition. _longman's, ._ fergusson, james. history of architecture. _london, ._ history of the modern styles of architecture. third edition, revised by robert kerr. _london, ._ gotch, john alfred. architecture of the renaissance in england. heaton, john aldam. furniture and decoration in england in the eighteenth century. rosengarten. handbook of architectural styles. _new york, ._ horne, h. p. the binding of books. _london, ._ loftie, w. j. inigo jones and christopher wren. _london, ._ kerr, robert. the english gentleman's house. _london, ._ stevenson, j. j. house architecture. _london, ._ german and italian burckhardt, jacob. architektur der renaissance in italien. _stuttgart, ._ reinhardt. palast architektur von ober italien und toskana. gurlitt, cornelius. geschichte des barockstiles in italien. _stuttgart, ._ ebe, gustav. die spät-renaissance. _berlin, ._ la villa borghese, fuori di porta pinciana, con l'ornamenti che si osservano nel di lei palazzo. _roma, ._ intra, g. b. mantova nei suoi monumenti. luzio e renier. mantova e urbino. _torino-roma, ._ molmenti, pompeo. la storia di venezia nella vita privata. _torino, ._ malamani, vittorio. il settecento a venezia. _milano, ._ la vita italiana nel seicento. conferenze tenute a firenze nel . introduction rooms may be decorated in two ways: by a superficial application of ornament totally independent of structure, or by means of those architectural features which are part of the organism of every house, inside as well as out. in the middle ages, when warfare and brigandage shaped the conditions of life, and men camped in their castles much as they did in their tents, it was natural that decorations should be portable, and that the naked walls of the mediæval chamber should be hung with arras, while a _ciel_, or ceiling, of cloth stretched across the open timbers of its roof. when life became more secure, and when the italian conquests of the valois had acquainted men north of the alps with the spirit of classic tradition, proportion and the relation of voids to masses gradually came to be regarded as the chief decorative values of the interior. portable hangings were in consequence replaced by architectural ornament: in other words, the architecture of the room became its decoration. this architectural treatment held its own through every change of taste until the second quarter of the present century; but since then various influences have combined to sever the natural connection between the outside of the modern house and its interior. in the average house the architect's task seems virtually confined to the elevations and floor-plan. the designing of what are to-day regarded as insignificant details, such as mouldings, architraves, and cornices, has become a perfunctory work, hurried over and unregarded; and when this work is done, the upholsterer is called in to "decorate" and furnish the rooms. as the result of this division of labor, house-decoration has ceased to be a branch of architecture. the upholsterer cannot be expected to have the preliminary training necessary for architectural work, and it is inevitable that in his hands form should be sacrificed to color and composition to detail. in his ignorance of the legitimate means of producing certain effects, he is driven to all manner of expedients, the result of which is a piling up of heterogeneous ornament, a multiplication of incongruous effects; and lacking, as he does, a definite first conception, his work becomes so involved that it seems impossible for him to make an end. the confusion resulting from these unscientific methods has reflected itself in the lay mind, and house-decoration has come to be regarded as a black art by those who have seen their rooms subjected to the manipulations of the modern upholsterer. now, in the hands of decorators who understand the fundamental principles of their art, the surest effects are produced, not at the expense of simplicity and common sense, but by observing the requirements of both. these requirements are identical with those regulating domestic architecture, the chief end in both cases being the suitable accommodation of the inmates of the house. the fact that this end has in a measure been lost sight of is perhaps sufficient warrant for the publication of this elementary sketch. no study of _house-decoration as a branch of architecture_ has for at least fifty years been published in england or america; and though france is always producing admirable monographs on isolated branches of this subject, there is no modern french work corresponding with such comprehensive manuals as d'aviler's _cours d'architecture_ or isaac ware's _complete body of architecture_. the attempt to remedy this deficiency in some slight degree has made it necessary to dwell at length upon the strictly architectural principles which controlled the work of the old decorators. the effects that they aimed at having been based mainly on the due adjustment of parts, it has been impossible to explain their methods without assuming their standpoint--that of _architectural proportion_--in contradistinction to the modern view of house-decoration as _superficial application of ornament_. when house-decoration was a part of architecture all its values were founded on structural modifications; consequently it may seem that ideas to be derived from a study of such methods suggest changes too radical for those who are not building, but are merely decorating. such changes, in fact, lie rather in the direction of alteration than of adornment; but it must be remembered that the results attained will be of greater decorative value than were an equal expenditure devoted to surface-ornament. moreover, the great decorators, if scrupulous in the observance of architectural principles, were ever governed, in the use of ornamental detail, by the [greek: sôphrosynê], the "wise moderation," of the greeks; and the rooms of the past were both simpler in treatment and freer from mere embellishments than those of to-day. besides, if it be granted for the sake of argument that a reform in house-decoration, if not necessary, is at least desirable, it must be admitted that such reform can originate only with those whose means permit of any experiments which their taste may suggest. when the rich man demands good architecture his neighbors will get it too. the vulgarity of current decoration has its source in the indifference of the wealthy to architectural fitness. every good moulding, every carefully studied detail, exacted by those who can afford to indulge their taste, will in time find its way to the carpenter-built cottage. once the right precedent is established, it costs less to follow than to oppose it. in conclusion, it may be well to explain the seeming lack of accord between the arguments used in this book and the illustrations chosen to interpret them. while much is said of simplicity, the illustrations used are chiefly taken from houses of some importance. this has been done in order that only such apartments as are accessible to the traveller might be given as examples. unprofessional readers will probably be more interested in studying rooms that they have seen, or at least heard of, than those in the ordinary private dwelling; and the arguments advanced are indirectly sustained by the most ornate rooms here shown, since their effect is based on such harmony of line that their superficial ornament might be removed without loss to the composition. moreover, as some of the illustrations prove, the most magnificent palaces of europe contain rooms as simple as those in any private house; and to point out that simplicity is at home even in palaces is perhaps not the least service that may be rendered to the modern decorator. [illustration: _plate i._ italian gothic chest. museum of the bargello, florence.] i the historical tradition the last ten years have been marked by a notable development in architecture and decoration, and while france will long retain her present superiority in these arts, our own advance is perhaps more significant than that of any other country. when we measure the work recently done in the united states by the accepted architectural standards of ten years ago, the change is certainly striking, especially in view of the fact that our local architects and decorators are without the countless advantages in the way of schools, museums and libraries which are at the command of their european colleagues. in paris, for instance, it is impossible to take even a short walk without finding inspiration in those admirable buildings, public and private, religious and secular, that bear the stamp of the most refined taste the world has known since the decline of the arts in italy; and probably all american architects will acknowledge that no amount of travel abroad and study at home can compensate for the lack of daily familiarity with such monuments. it is therefore all the more encouraging to note the steady advance in taste and knowledge to which the most recent architecture in america bears witness. this advance is chiefly due to the fact that american architects are beginning to perceive two things that their french colleagues, among all the modern vagaries of taste, have never quite lost sight of: first that architecture and decoration, having wandered since in a labyrinth of dubious eclecticism, can be set right only by a close study of the best models; and secondly that, given the requirements of modern life, these models are chiefly to be found in buildings erected in italy after the beginning of the sixteenth century, and in other european countries after the full assimilation of the italian influence. as the latter of these propositions may perhaps be questioned by those who, in admiring the earlier styles, sometimes lose sight of their relative unfitness for modern use, it must be understood at the outset that it implies no disregard for the inherent beauties of these styles. it would be difficult, assuredly, to find buildings better suited to their original purpose than some of the great feudal castles, such as warwick in england, or langeais in france; and as much might be said of the grim machicolated palaces of republican florence or siena; but our whole mode of life has so entirely changed since the days in which these buildings were erected that they no longer answer to our needs. it is only necessary to picture the lives led in those days to see how far removed from them our present social conditions are. inside and outside the house, all told of the unsettled condition of country or town, the danger of armed attack, the clumsy means of defence, the insecurity of property, the few opportunities of social intercourse as we understand it. a man's house was in very truth his castle in the middle ages, and in france and england especially it remained so until the end of the sixteenth century. thus it was that many needs arose: the tall keep of masonry where the inmates, pent up against attack, awaited the signal of the watchman who, from his platform or _échauguette_, gave warning of assault; the ponderous doors, oak-ribbed and metal-studded, with doorways often narrowed to prevent entrance of two abreast, and so low that the incomer had to bend his head; the windows that were mere openings or slits, narrow and high, far out of the assailants' reach, and piercing the walls without regard to symmetry--not, as ruskin would have us believe, because irregularity was thought artistic, but because the mediæval architect, trained to the uses of necessity, knew that he must design openings that should afford no passage to the besiegers' arrows, no clue to what was going on inside the keep. but to the reader familiar with viollet-le-duc, or with any of the many excellent works on english domestic architecture, further details will seem superfluous. it is necessary, however, to point out that long after the conditions of life in europe had changed, houses retained many features of the feudal period. the survival of obsolete customs which makes the study of sociology so interesting, has its parallel in the history of architecture. in the feudal countries especially, where the conflict between the great nobles and the king was of such long duration that civilization spread very slowly, architecture was proportionately slow to give up many of its feudal characteristics. in italy, on the contrary, where one city after another succumbed to some accomplished condottiere who between his campaigns read virgil and collected antique marbles, the rugged little republics were soon converted into brilliant courts where, life being relatively secure, social intercourse rapidly developed. this change of conditions brought with it the paved street and square, the large-windowed palaces with their great court-yards and stately open staircases, and the market-place with its loggia adorned with statues and marble seats. italy, in short, returned instinctively to the roman ideal of civic life: the life of the street, the forum and the baths. these very conditions, though approaching so much nearer than feudalism to our modern civilization, in some respects make the italian architecture of the renaissance less serviceable as a model than the french and english styles later developed from it. the very dangers and barbarities of feudalism had fostered and preserved the idea of home as of something private, shut off from intrusion; and while the roman ideal flowered in the great palace with its galleries, loggias and saloons, itself a kind of roofed-in forum, the french or english feudal keep became, by the same process of growth, the modern private house. the domestic architecture of the renaissance in italy offers but two distinctively characteristic styles of building: the palace and the villa or hunting-lodge.[ ] there is nothing corresponding in interior arrangements with the french or english town house, or the _manoir_ where the provincial nobles lived all the year round. the villa was a mere perch used for a few weeks of gaiety in spring or autumn; it was never a home as the french or english country-house was. there were, of course, private houses in renaissance italy, but these were occupied rather by shopkeepers, craftsmen, and the _bourgeoisie_ than by the class which in france and england lived in country houses or small private hôtels. the elevations of these small italian houses are often admirable examples of domestic architecture, but their planning is rudimentary, and it may be said that the characteristic tendencies of modern house-planning were developed rather in the mezzanin or low-studded intermediate story of the italian renaissance palace than in the small house of the same period. it is a fact recognized by political economists that changes in manners and customs, no matter under what form of government, usually originate with the wealthy or aristocratic minority, and are thence transmitted to the other classes. thus the _bourgeois_ of one generation lives more like the aristocrat of a previous generation than like his own predecessors. this rule naturally holds good of house-planning, and it is for this reason that the origin of modern house-planning should be sought rather in the prince's mezzanin than in the small middle-class dwelling. the italian mezzanin probably originated in the habit of building certain very high-studded saloons and of lowering the ceiling of the adjoining rooms. this created an intermediate story, or rather scattered intermediate rooms, which bramante was among the first to use in the planning of his palaces; but bramante did not reveal the existence of the mezzanin in his façades, and it was not until the time of peruzzi and his contemporaries that it became, both in plan and elevation, an accepted part of the italian palace. it is for this reason that the year is a convenient point from which to date the beginning of modern house-planning; but it must be borne in mind that this date is purely arbitrary, and represents merely an imaginary line drawn between mediæval and modern ways of living and house-planning, as exemplified respectively, for instance, in the ducal palace of urbino, built by luciano da laurano about , and the palace of the massimi alle colonne in rome, built by baldassare peruzzi during the first half of the sixteenth century. the lives of the great italian nobles were essentially open-air lives: all was organized with a view to public pageants, ceremonies and entertainments. domestic life was subordinated to this spectacular existence, and instead of building private houses in our sense, they built palaces, of which they set aside a portion for the use of the family. every italian palace has its mezzanin or private apartment; but this part of the building is now seldom seen by travellers in italy. not only is it usually inhabited by the owners of the palace but, its decorations being simpler than those of the _piano nobile_, or principal story, it is not thought worthy of inspection. as a matter of fact, the treatment of the mezzanin was generally most beautiful, because most suitable; and while the italian renaissance palace can seldom serve as a model for a modern private house, the decoration of the mezzanin rooms is full of appropriate suggestion. in france and england, on the other hand, private life was gradually, though slowly, developing along the lines it still follows in the present day. it is necessary to bear in mind that what we call modern civilization was a later growth in these two countries than in italy. if this fact is insisted upon, it is only because it explains the relative unsuitability of french renaissance or tudor and elizabethan architecture to modern life. in france, for instance, it was not until the fronde was subdued and louis xiv firmly established on the throne, that the elements which compose what we call modern life really began to combine. in fact, it might be said that the feudalism of which the fronde was the lingering expression had its counterpart in the architecture of the period. while long familiarity with italy was beginning to tell upon the practical side of house-planning, many obsolete details were still preserved. even the most enthusiastic admirer of the french renaissance would hardly maintain that the houses of that period are what we should call in the modern sense "convenient." it would be impossible for a modern family to occupy with any degree of comfort the hôtel voguë at dijon, one of the best examples (as originally planned) of sixteenth-century domestic architecture in france.[ ] the same objection applies to the furniture of the period. this arose from the fact that, owing to the unsettled state of the country, the landed proprietor always carried his furniture with him when he travelled from one estate to another. furniture, in the vocabulary of the middle ages, meant something which may be transported: "meubles sont apelez qu'on peut transporter";--hence the lack of variety in furniture before the seventeenth century, and also its unsuitableness to modern life. chairs and cabinets that had to be carried about on mule-back were necessarily somewhat stiff and angular in design. it is perhaps not too much to say that a comfortable chair, in our self-indulgent modern sense, did not exist before the louis xiv arm-chair (see plate iv); and the cushioned _bergère_, the ancestor of our upholstered easy-chair, cannot be traced back further than the regency. prior to the time of louis xiv, the most luxurious people had to content themselves with hard straight-backed seats. the necessities of transportation permitted little variety of design, and every piece of furniture was constructed with the double purpose of being easily carried about and of being used as a trunk (see plate i). as havard says, "tout meuble se traduisait par un coffre." the unvarying design of the cabinets is explained by the fact that they were made to form two trunks,[ ] and even the chairs and settles had hollow seats which could be packed with the owners' wardrobe (see plate ii). the king himself, when he went from one château to another, carried all his furniture with him, and it is thus not surprising that lesser people contented themselves with a few substantial chairs and cabinets, and enough arras or cloth of douai to cover the draughty walls of their country-houses. one of madame de sévigné's letters gives an amusing instance of the scarceness of furniture even in the time of louis xiv. in describing a fire in a house near her own hôtel in paris, she says that one or two of the persons from the burning house were brought to her for shelter, because it was known in the neighborhood (at that time a rich and fashionable one) that she had _an extra bed_ in the house! [illustration: _plate ii._ french chairs, xv and xvi centuries. from the gavet collection.] it was not until the social influences of the reign of louis xiv were fully established that modern domestic life really began. tradition ascribes to madame de rambouillet a leading share in the advance in practical house-planning; but probably what she did is merely typical of the modifications which the new social conditions were everywhere producing. it is certain that at this time houses and rooms first began to be comfortable. the immense cavernous fireplaces originally meant for the roasting of beeves and the warming of a flock of frozen retainers,--"les grandes antiquailles de cheminées," as madame de sévigné called them,--were replaced by the compact chimney-piece of modern times. cushioned _bergères_ took the place of the throne-like seats of louis xiii, screens kept off unwelcome draughts, savonnerie or moquette carpets covered the stone or marble floors, and grandeur gave way to luxury.[ ] english architecture having followed a line of development so similar that it need not here be traced, it remains only to examine in detail the opening proposition, namely, that modern architecture and decoration, having in many ways deviated from the paths which the experience of the past had marked out for them, can be reclaimed only by a study of the best models. it might of course be said that to attain this end originality is more necessary than imitativeness. to this it may be replied that no lost art can be re-acquired without at least for a time going back to the methods and manner of those who formerly practised it; or the objection may be met by the question, what is originality in art? perhaps it is easier to define what it is _not_; and this may be done by saying that it is never a wilful rejection of what have been accepted as the necessary laws of the various forms of art. thus, in reasoning, originality lies not in discarding the necessary laws of thought, but in using them to express new intellectual conceptions; in poetry, originality consists not in discarding the necessary laws of rhythm, but in finding new rhythms within the limits of those laws. most of the features of architecture that have persisted through various fluctuations of taste owe their preservation to the fact that they have been proved by experience to be necessary; and it will be found that none of them precludes the exercise of individual taste, any more than the acceptance of the syllogism or of the laws of rhythm prevents new thinkers and new poets from saying what has never been said before. once this is clearly understood, it will be seen that the supposed conflict between originality and tradition is no conflict at all.[ ] in citing logic and poetry, those arts have been purposely chosen of which the laws will perhaps best help to explain and illustrate the character of architectural limitations. a building, for whatever purpose erected, must be built in strict accordance with the requirements of that purpose; in other words, it must have a reason for being as it is and must be as it is for that reason. its decoration must harmonize with the structural limitations (which is by no means the same thing as saying that all decoration must be structural), and from this harmony of the general scheme of decoration with the building, and of the details of the decoration with each other, springs the rhythm that distinguishes architecture from mere construction. thus all good architecture and good decoration (which, it must never be forgotten, _is only interior architecture_) must be based on rhythm and logic. a house, or room, must be planned as it is because it could not, in reason, be otherwise; must be decorated as it is because no other decoration would harmonize as well with the plan. [illustration: _plate iii._ french armoire, xvi century.] many of the most popular features in modern house-planning and decoration will not be found to stand this double test. often (as will be shown further on) they are merely survivals of earlier social conditions, and have been preserved in obedience to that instinct that makes people cling to so many customs the meaning of which is lost. in other cases they have been revived by the archæologizing spirit which is so characteristic of the present time, and which so often leads its possessors to think that a thing must be beautiful because it is old and appropriate because it is beautiful. but since the beauty of all such features depends on their appropriateness, they may in every case be replaced by a more suitable form of treatment without loss to the general effect of house or room. it is this which makes it important that each room (or, better still, all the rooms) in a house should receive the same style of decoration. to some people this may seem as meaningless a piece of archaism as the habit of using obsolete fragments of planning or decoration; but such is not the case. it must not be forgotten, in discussing the question of reproducing certain styles, that the essence of a style lies not in its use of ornament, but in its handling of proportion. structure conditions ornament, not ornament structure. that is, a room with unsuitably proportioned openings, wall-spaces and cornice might receive a surface application of louis xv or louis xvi ornament and not represent either of those styles of decoration; whereas a room constructed according to the laws of proportion accepted in one or the other of those periods, in spite of a surface application of decorative detail widely different in character,--say romanesque or gothic,--would yet maintain its distinctive style, because the detail, in conforming with the laws of proportion governing the structure of the room, must necessarily conform with its style. in other words, decoration is always subservient to proportion; and a room, whatever its decoration may be, must represent the style to which its proportions belong. the less cannot include the greater. unfortunately it is usually by ornamental details, rather than by proportion, that people distinguish one style from another. to many persons, garlands, bow-knots, quivers, and a great deal of gilding represent the louis xvi style; if they object to these, they condemn the style. to an architect familiar with the subject the same style means something absolutely different. he knows that a louis xvi room may exist without any of these or similar characteristics; and he often deprecates their use as representing the cheaper and more trivial effects of the period, and those that have most helped to vulgarize it. in fact, in nine cases out of ten his use of them is a concession to the client who, having asked for a louis xvi room, would not know he had got it were these details left out.[ ] another thing which has perhaps contributed to make people distrustful of "styles" is the garbled form in which they are presented by some architects. after a period of eclecticism that has lasted long enough to make architects and decorators lose their traditional habits of design, there has arisen a sudden demand for "style." it necessarily follows that only the most competent are ready to respond to this unexpected summons. much has to be relearned, still more to be unlearned. the essence of the great styles lay in proportion and the science of proportion is not to be acquired in a day. in fact, in such matters the cultivated layman, whether or not he has any special familiarity with the different schools of architecture, is often a better judge than the half-educated architect. it is no wonder that people of taste are disconcerted by the so-called "colonial" houses where stair-rails are used as roof-balustrades and mantel-friezes as exterior entablatures, or by louis xv rooms where the wavy movement which, in the best rococo, was always an ornamental incident and never broke up the main lines of the design, is suffered to run riot through the whole treatment of the walls, so that the bewildered eye seeks in vain for a straight line amid the whirl of incoherent curves. [illustration: _plate iv._ french sofa and armchair, louis xiv period. from the chÂteau de bercy.] to conform to a style, then, is to accept those rules of proportion which the artistic experience of centuries has established as the best, while within those limits allowing free scope to the individual requirements which must inevitably modify every house or room adapted to the use and convenience of its occupants. there is one thing more to be said in defence of conformity to style; and that is, the difficulty of getting rid of style. strive as we may for originality, we are hampered at every turn by an artistic tradition of over two thousand years. does any but the most inexperienced architect really think that he can ever rid himself of such an inheritance? he may mutilate or misapply the component parts of his design, but he cannot originate a whole new architectural alphabet. the chances are that he will not find it easy to invent one wholly new moulding. the styles especially suited to modern life have already been roughly indicated as those prevailing in italy since , in france from the time of louis xiv, and in england since the introduction of the italian manner by inigo jones; and as the french and english styles are perhaps more familiar to the general reader, the examples given will usually be drawn from these. supposing the argument in favor of these styles to have been accepted, at least as a working hypothesis, it must be explained why, in each room, the decoration and furniture should harmonize. most people will admit the necessity of harmonizing the colors in a room, because a feeling for color is more general than a feeling for form; but in reality the latter is the more important in decoration, and it is the feeling for form, and not any archæological affectation, which makes the best decorators insist upon the necessity of keeping to the same style of furniture and decoration. thus the massive dimensions and heavy panelling of a seventeenth-century room would dwarf a set of eighteenth-century furniture; and the wavy, capricious movement of louis xv decoration would make the austere yet delicate lines of adam furniture look stiff and mean. many persons object not only to any attempt at uniformity of style, but to the use of any recognized style in the decoration of a room. they characterize it, according to their individual views, as "servile," "formal," or "pretentious." it has already been suggested that to conform within rational limits to a given style is no more servile than to pay one's taxes or to write according to the rules of grammar. as to the accusations of formality and pretentiousness (which are more often made in america than elsewhere), they may probably be explained by the fact that most americans necessarily form their idea of the great european styles from public buildings and palaces. certainly, if an architect were to propose to his client to decorate a room in a moderate-sized house in the louis xiv style, and if the client had formed his idea of that style from the state apartments in the palace at versailles, he would be justified in rejecting the proposed treatment as absolutely unsuitable to modern private life; whereas the architect who had gone somewhat more deeply into the subject might have singled out the style as eminently suitable, having in mind one of the simple panelled rooms, with tall windows, a dignified fireplace, large tables and comfortable arm-chairs, which were to be found in the private houses of the same period (see plate v). it is the old story of the two knights fighting about the color of the shield. both architect and client would be right, but they would be looking at the different sides of the question. as a matter of fact, the bed-rooms, sitting-rooms, libraries and other private apartments in the smaller dwelling-houses built in europe between and were far simpler, less pretentious and more practical in treatment than those in the average modern house. [illustration: _plate v._ room in the grand trianon, versailles. (example of simple louis xiv decoration.)] it is therefore hoped that the antagonists of "style," when they are shown that to follow a certain style is not to sacrifice either convenience or imagination, but to give more latitude to both, will withdraw an opposition which seems to be based on a misapprehension of facts. hitherto architecture and decoration have been spoken of as one, as in any well-designed house they ought to be. indeed, it is one of the numerous disadvantages of the present use of styles, that unless the architect who has built the house also decorates it, the most hopeless discord is apt to result. this was otherwise before our present desire for variety had thrown architects, decorators, and workmen out of the regular routine of their business. before the decorator called upon to treat the interior of a house invariably found a suitable background prepared for his work, while much in the way of detail was intrusted to the workmen, who were trained in certain traditions instead of being called upon to carry out in each new house the vagaries of a different designer. but it is with the decorator's work alone that these pages are concerned, and the above digression is intended to explain why his task is now so difficult, and why his results are so often unsatisfactory to himself as well as to his clients. the decorator of the present day may be compared to a person who is called upon to write a letter in the english language, but is ordered, in so doing, to conform to the chinese or egyptian rules of grammar, or possibly to both together. by the use of a little common sense and a reasonable conformity to those traditions of design which have been tested by generations of architects, it is possible to produce great variety in the decoration of rooms without losing sight of the purpose for which they are intended. indeed, the more closely this purpose is kept in view, and the more clearly it is expressed in all the details of each room, the more pleasing that room will be, so that it is easy to make a room with tinted walls, deal furniture and dimity curtains more beautiful, because more logical and more harmonious, than a ball-room lined with gold and marbles, in which the laws of rhythm and logic have been ignored. [illustration: _plate vi._ french armchair, louis xv period.] footnotes: [ ] charming as the italian villa is, it can hardly be used in our northern states without certain modifications, unless it is merely occupied for a few weeks in mid-summer; whereas the average french or english country house built after is perfectly suited to our climate and habits. the chief features of the italian villa are the open central _cortile_ and the large saloon two stories high. an adaptation of these better suited to a cold climate is to be found in the english country houses built in the palladian manner after its introduction by inigo jones. see campbell's _vitruvius britannicus_ for numerous examples. [ ] the plan of the hôtel voguë has been greatly modified. [ ] cabinets retained this shape after the transporting of furniture had ceased to be a necessity (see plate iii). [ ] it must be remembered that in describing the decoration of any given period, we refer to the private houses, not the royal palaces, of that period. versailles was more splendid than any previous palace; but private houses at that date were less splendid, though far more luxurious, than during the renaissance. [ ] "si l'on dispose un édifice d'une manière convenable à l'usage auquel on le destine, ne différera-t-il pas sensiblement d'un autre édifice destiné à un autre usage? n'aura-t-il pas naturellement un caractère, et, qui plus est, son caractère propre?" j. l. n. durand. _précis des leçons d'architecture données à l'École royale polytechnique._ paris, . [ ] it must not be forgotten that the so-called "styles" of louis xiv, louis xv and louis xvi were, in fact, only the gradual development of one organic style, and hence differed only in the superficial use of ornament. ii rooms in general before beginning to decorate a room it is essential to consider for what purpose the room is to be used. it is not enough to ticket it with some such general designation as "library," "drawing-room," or "den." the individual tastes and habits of the people who are to occupy it must be taken into account; it must be not "a library," or "a drawing-room," but the library or the drawing-room best suited to the master or mistress of the house which is being decorated. individuality in house-furnishing has seldom been more harped upon than at the present time. that cheap originality which finds expression in putting things to uses for which they were not intended is often confounded with individuality; whereas the latter consists not in an attempt to be different from other people at the cost of comfort, but in the desire to be comfortable in one's own way, even though it be the way of a monotonously large majority. it seems easier to most people to arrange a room like some one else's than to analyze and express their own needs. men, in these matters, are less exacting than women, because their demands, besides being simpler, are uncomplicated by the feminine tendency to want things because other people have them, rather than to have things because they are wanted. but it must never be forgotten that every one is unconsciously tyrannized over by the wants of others,--the wants of dead and gone predecessors, who have an inconvenient way of thrusting their different habits and tastes across the current of later existences. the unsatisfactory relations of some people with their rooms are often to be explained in this way. they have still in their blood the traditional uses to which these rooms were put in times quite different from the present. it is only an unconscious extension of the conscious habit which old-fashioned people have of clinging to their parents' way of living. the difficulty of reconciling these instincts with our own comfort and convenience, and the various compromises to which they lead in the arrangement of our rooms, will be more fully dealt with in the following chapters. to go to the opposite extreme and discard things because they are old-fashioned is equally unreasonable. the golden mean lies in trying to arrange our houses with a view to our own comfort and convenience; and it will be found that the more closely we follow this rule the easier our rooms will be to furnish and the pleasanter to live in. people whose attention has never been specially called to the _raison d'être_ of house-furnishing sometimes conclude that because a thing is unusual it is artistic, or rather that through some occult process the most ordinary things become artistic by being used in an unusual manner; while others, warned by the visible results of this theory of furnishing, infer that everything artistic is unpractical. in the anglo-saxon mind beauty is not spontaneously born of material wants, as it is with the latin races. we have to _make_ things beautiful; they do not grow so of themselves. the necessity of making this effort has caused many people to put aside the whole problem of beauty and fitness in household decoration as something mysterious and incomprehensible to the uninitiated. the architect and decorator are often aware that they are regarded by their clients as the possessors of some strange craft like black magic or astrology. this fatalistic attitude has complicated the simple and intelligible process of house-furnishing, and has produced much of the discomfort which causes so many rooms to be shunned by everybody in the house, in spite (or rather because) of all the money and ingenuity expended on their arrangement. yet to penetrate the mystery of house-furnishing it is only necessary to analyze one satisfactory room and to notice wherein its charm lies. to the fastidious eye it will, of course, be found in fitness of proportion, in the proper use of each moulding and in the harmony of all the decorative processes; and even to those who think themselves indifferent to such detail, much of the sense of restfulness and comfort produced by certain rooms depends on the due adjustment of their fundamental parts. different rooms minister to different wants and while a room may be made very livable without satisfying any but the material requirements of its inmates it is evident that the perfect room should combine these qualities with what corresponds to them in a higher order of needs. at present, however, the subject deals only with the material livableness of a room, and this will generally be found to consist in the position of the doors and fireplace, the accessibility of the windows, the arrangement of the furniture, the privacy of the room and the absence of the superfluous. the position of doors and fireplace, though the subject comes properly under the head of house-planning, may be included in this summary, because in rearranging a room it is often possible to change its openings, or at any rate, in the case of doors, to modify their dimensions. the fireplace must be the focus of every rational scheme of arrangement. nothing is so dreary, so hopeless to deal with, as a room in which the fireplace occupies a narrow space between two doors, so that it is impossible to sit about the hearth.[ ] next in importance come the windows. in town houses especially, where there is so little light that every ray is precious to the reader or worker, window-space is invaluable. yet in few rooms are the windows easy of approach, free from useless draperies and provided with easy-chairs so placed that the light falls properly on the occupant's work. it is no exaggeration to say that many houses are deserted by the men of the family for lack of those simple comforts which they find at their clubs: windows unobscured by layers of muslin, a fireplace surrounded by easy-chairs and protected from draughts, well-appointed writing-tables and files of papers and magazines. who cannot call to mind the dreary drawing-room, in small town houses the only possible point of reunion for the family, but too often, in consequence of its exquisite discomfort, of no more use as a meeting-place than the vestibule or the cellar? the windows in this kind of room are invariably supplied with two sets of muslin curtains, one hanging against the panes, the other fulfilling the supererogatory duty of hanging against the former; then come the heavy stuff curtains, so draped as to cut off the upper light of the windows by day, while it is impossible to drop them at night: curtains that have thus ceased to serve the purpose for which they exist. close to the curtains stands the inevitable lamp or jardinière, and the wall-space between the two windows, where a writing-table might be put, is generally taken up by a cabinet or console, surmounted by a picture made invisible by the dark shadow of the hangings. the writing-table might find place against the side-wall near either window; but these spaces are usually sacred to the piano and to that modern futility, the silver-table. thus of necessity the writing-table is either banished or put in some dark corner, where it is little wonder that the ink dries unused and a vase of flowers grows in the middle of the blotting-pad. [illustration: _plate vii._ french bergÈre, louis xvi period.] the hearth should be the place about which people gather; but the mantelpiece in the average american house, being ugly, is usually covered with inflammable draperies; the fire is, in consequence, rarely lit, and no one cares to sit about a fireless hearth. besides, on the opposite side of the room is a gap in the wall eight or ten feet wide, opening directly upon the hall, and exposing what should be the most private part of the room to the scrutiny of messengers, servants and visitors. this opening is sometimes provided with doors; but these, as a rule, are either slid into the wall or are unhung and replaced by a curtain through which every word spoken in the room must necessarily pass. in such a room it matters very little how the rest of the furniture is arranged, since it is certain that no one will ever sit in it except the luckless visitor who has no other refuge. even the visitor might be thought entitled to the solace of a few books; but as all the tables in the room are littered with knick-knacks, it is difficult for the most philanthropic hostess to provide even this slight alleviation. when the town-house is built on the basement plan, and the drawing-room or parlor is up-stairs, the family, to escape from its discomforts, habitually take refuge in the small room opening off the hall on the ground floor; so that instead of sitting in a room twenty or twenty-five feet wide, they are packed into one less than half that size and exposed to the frequent intrusions from which, in basement houses, the drawing-room is free. but too often even the "little room down-stairs" is arranged less like a sitting-room in a private house than a waiting-room at a fashionable doctor's or dentist's. it has the inevitable yawning gap in the wall, giving on the hall close to the front door, and is either the refuge of the ugliest and most uncomfortable furniture in the house, or, even if furnished with taste, is arranged with so little regard to comfort that one might as well make it part of the hall, as is often done in rearranging old houses. this habit of sacrificing a useful room to the useless widening of the hall is indeed the natural outcome of furnishing rooms of this kind in so unpractical a way that their real usefulness has ceased to be apparent. the science of restoring wasted rooms to their proper uses is one of the most important and least understood branches of house-furnishing. privacy would seem to be one of the first requisites of civilized life, yet it is only necessary to observe the planning and arrangement of the average house to see how little this need is recognized. each room in a house has its individual uses: some are made to sleep in, others are for dressing, eating, study, or conversation; but whatever the uses of a room, they are seriously interfered with if it be not preserved as a small world by itself. if the drawing-room be a part of the hall and the library a part of the drawing-room, all three will be equally unfitted to serve their special purpose. the indifference to privacy which has sprung up in modern times, and which in france, for instance, has given rise to the grotesque conceit of putting sheets of plate-glass between two rooms, and of replacing doorways by openings fifteen feet wide, is of complex origin. it is probably due in part to the fact that many houses are built and decorated by people unfamiliar with the habits of those for whom they are building. it may be that architect and decorator live in a simpler manner than their clients, and are therefore ready to sacrifice a kind of comfort of which they do not feel the need to the "effects" obtainable by vast openings and extended "vistas." to the untrained observer size often appeals more than proportion and costliness than suitability. in a handsome house such an observer is attracted rather by the ornamental detail than by the underlying purpose of planning and decoration. he sees the beauty of the detail, but not its relation to the whole. he therefore regards it as elegant but useless; and his next step is to infer that there is an inherent elegance in what is useless. before beginning to decorate a house it is necessary to make a prolonged and careful study of its plan and elevations, both as a whole and in detail. the component parts of an undecorated room are its floor, ceiling, wall-spaces and openings. the openings consist of the doors, windows and fireplace; and of these, as has already been pointed out, the fireplace is the most important in the general scheme of decoration. no room can be satisfactory unless its openings are properly placed and proportioned, and the decorator's task is much easier if he has also been the architect of the house he is employed to decorate; but as this seldom happens his ingenuity is frequently taxed to produce a good design upon the background of a faulty and illogical structure. much may be done to overcome this difficulty by making slight changes in the proportions of the openings; and the skilful decorator, before applying his scheme of decoration, will do all that he can to correct the fundamental lines of the room. but the result is seldom so successful as if he had built the room, and those who employ different people to build and decorate their houses should at least try to select an architect and a decorator trained in the same school of composition, so that they may come to some understanding with regard to the general harmony of their work. in deciding upon a scheme of decoration, it is necessary to keep in mind the relation of furniture to ornament, and of the room as a whole to other rooms in the house. as in a small house a very large room dwarfs all the others, so a room decorated in a very rich manner will make the simplicity of those about it look mean. every house should be decorated according to a carefully graduated scale of ornamentation culminating in the most important room of the house; but this plan must be carried out with such due sense of the relation of the rooms to each other that there shall be no violent break in the continuity of treatment. if a white-and-gold drawing-room opens on a hall with a brussels carpet and papered walls, the drawing-room will look too fine and the hall mean. in the furnishing of each room the same rule should be as carefully observed. the simplest and most cheaply furnished room (provided the furniture be good of its kind, and the walls and carpet unobjectionable in color) will be more pleasing to the fastidious eye than one in which gilded consoles and cabinets of buhl stand side by side with cheap machine-made furniture, and delicate old marquetry tables are covered with trashy china ornaments. [illustration: _plate viii._ french bergÈre, louis xvi period.] it is, of course, not always possible to refurnish a room when it is redecorated. many people must content themselves with using their old furniture, no matter how ugly and ill-assorted it may be; and it is the decorator's business to see that his background helps the furniture to look its best. it is a mistake to think that because the furniture of a room is inappropriate or ugly a good background will bring out these defects. it will, on the contrary, be a relief to the eye to escape from the bad lines of the furniture to the good lines of the walls; and should the opportunity to purchase new furniture ever come, there will be a suitable background ready to show it to the best advantage. most rooms contain a mixture of good, bad, and indifferent furniture. it is best to adapt the decorative treatment to the best pieces and to discard those which are in bad taste, replacing them, if necessary, by willow chairs and stained deal tables until it is possible to buy something better. when the room is to be refurnished as well as redecorated the client often makes his purchases without regard to the decoration. besides being an injustice to the decorator, inasmuch as it makes it impossible for him to harmonize his decoration with the furniture, this generally produces a result unsatisfactory to the owner of the house. neither decoration nor furniture, however good of its kind, can look its best unless each is chosen with reference to the other. it is therefore necessary that the decorator, before planning his treatment of a room, should be told what it is to contain. if a gilt set is put in a room the walls of which are treated in low relief and painted white, the high lights of the gilding will destroy the delicate values of the mouldings, and the walls, at a little distance, will look like flat expanses of whitewashed plaster. when a room is to be furnished and decorated at the smallest possible cost, it must be remembered that the comfort of its occupants depends more on the nature of the furniture than of the wall-decorations or carpet. in a living-room of this kind it is best to tint the walls and put a cheerful drugget on the floor, keeping as much money as possible for the purchase of comfortable chairs and sofas and substantial tables. if little can be spent in buying furniture, willow arm-chairs[ ] with denim cushions and solid tables with stained legs and covers of denim or corduroy will be more satisfactory than the "parlor suit" turned out in thousands by the manufacturer of cheap furniture, or the pseudo-georgian or pseudo-empire of the dealer in "high-grade goods." plain bookcases may be made of deal, painted or stained; and a room treated in this way, with a uniform color on the wall, and plenty of lamps and books, is sure to be comfortable and can never be vulgar. it is to be regretted that, in this country and in england, it should be almost impossible to buy plain but well-designed and substantial furniture. nothing can exceed the ugliness of the current designs: the bedsteads with towering head-boards fretted by the versatile jig-saw; the "bedroom suits" of "mahoganized" cherry, bird's-eye maple, or some other crude-colored wood; the tables with meaninglessly turned legs; the "empire" chairs and consoles stuck over with ornaments of cast bronze washed in liquid gilding; and, worst of all, the supposed "colonial" furniture, that unworthy travesty of a plain and dignified style. all this showy stuff has been produced in answer to the increasing demand for cheap "effects" in place of unobtrusive merit in material and design; but now that an appreciation of better things in architecture is becoming more general, it is to be hoped that the "artistic" furniture disfiguring so many of our shop-windows will no longer find a market. there is no lack of models for manufacturers to copy, if their customers will but demand what is good. france and england, in the eighteenth century, excelled in the making of plain, inexpensive furniture of walnut, mahogany, or painted beechwood (see plates vii-x). simple in shape and substantial in construction, this kind of furniture was never tricked out with moulded bronzes and machine-made carving, or covered with liquid gilding, but depended for its effect upon the solid qualities of good material, good design and good workmanship. the eighteenth-century cabinet-maker did not attempt cheap copies of costly furniture; the common sense of his patrons would have resented such a perversion of taste. were the modern public as fastidious, it would soon be easy to buy good furniture for a moderate price; but until people recognize the essential vulgarity of the pinchbeck article flooding our shops and overflowing upon our sidewalks, manufacturers will continue to offer such wares in preference to better but less showy designs. the worst defects of the furniture now made in america are due to an athenian thirst for novelty, not always regulated by an athenian sense of fitness. no sooner is it known that beautiful furniture was made in the time of marie-antoinette than an epidemic of supposed "marie-antoinette" rooms breaks out over the whole country. neither purchaser nor manufacturer has stopped to inquire wherein the essentials of the style consist. they know that the rooms of the period were usually painted in light colors, and that the furniture (in palaces) was often gilt and covered with brocade; and it is taken for granted that plenty of white paint, a pale wall-paper with bow-knots, and fragile chairs dipped in liquid gilding and covered with a flowered silk-and-cotton material, must inevitably produce a "marie-antoinette" room. according to the creed of the modern manufacturer, you have only to combine certain "goods" to obtain a certain style. this quest of artistic novelties would be encouraging were it based on the desire for something better, rather than for something merely different. the tendency to dash from one style to another, without stopping to analyze the intrinsic qualities of any, has defeated the efforts of those who have tried to teach the true principles of furniture-designing by a return to the best models. if people will buy the stuff now offered them as empire, sheraton or louis xvi, the manufacturer is not to blame for making it. it is not the maker but the purchaser who sets the standard; and there will never be any general supply of better furniture until people take time to study the subject, and find out wherein lies the radical unfitness of what now contents them. until this golden age arrives the householder who cannot afford to buy old pieces, or to have old models copied by a skilled cabinet-maker, had better restrict himself to the plainest of furniture, relying for the embellishment of his room upon good bookbindings and one or two old porcelain vases for his lamps. concerning the difficult question of color, it is safe to say that the fewer the colors used in a room, the more pleasing and restful the result will be. a multiplicity of colors produces the same effect as a number of voices talking at the same time. the voices may not be discordant, but continuous chatter is fatiguing in the long run. each room should speak with but one voice: it should contain one color, which at once and unmistakably asserts its predominance, in obedience to the rule that where there is a division of parts one part shall visibly prevail over all the others. [illustration: _plate ix._ french sofa, louis xv period. tapestry designed by boucher.] to attain this result, it is best to use the same color and, if possible, the same material, for curtains and chair-coverings. this produces an impression of unity and gives an air of spaciousness to the room. when the walls are simply panelled in oak or walnut, or are painted in some neutral tones, such as gray and white, the carpet may contrast in color with the curtains and chair-coverings. for instance, in an oak-panelled room crimson curtains and chair-coverings may be used with a dull green carpet, or with one of dark blue patterned in subdued tints; or the color-scheme may be reversed, and green hangings and chair-coverings combined with a plain crimson carpet. where the walls are covered with tapestry, or hung with a large number of pictures, or, in short, are so treated that they present a variety of colors, it is best that curtains, chair-coverings and carpet should all be of one color and without pattern. graduated shades of the same color should almost always be avoided; theoretically they seem harmonious, but in reality the light shades look faded in proximity with the darker ones. though it is well, as a rule, that carpet and hangings should match, exception must always be made in favor of a really fine old eastern rug. the tints of such rugs are too subdued, too subtly harmonized by time, to clash with any colors the room may contain; but those who cannot cover their floors in this way will do well to use carpets of uniform tint, rather than the gaudy rugs now made in the east. the modern red and green smyrna or turkey carpet is an exception. where the furniture is dark and substantial, and the predominating color is a strong green or crimson, such a carpet is always suitable. these smyrna carpets are usually well designed; and if their colors be restricted to red and green, with small admixture of dark blue, they harmonize with almost any style of decoration. it is well, as a rule, to shun the decorative schemes concocted by the writers who supply our newspapers with hints for "artistic interiors." the use of such poetic adjectives as jonquil-yellow, willow-green, shell-pink, or ashes-of-roses, gives to these descriptions of the "unique boudoir" or "ideal summer room" a charm which the reality would probably not possess. the arrangements suggested are usually cheap devices based upon the mistaken idea that defects in structure or design may be remedied by an overlaying of color or ornament. this theory often leads to the spending of much more money than would have been required to make one or two changes in the plan of the room, and the result is never satisfactory to the fastidious. there are but two ways of dealing with a room which is fundamentally ugly: one is to accept it, and the other is courageously to correct its ugliness. half-way remedies are a waste of money and serve rather to call attention to the defects of the room than to conceal them. [illustration: _plate x._ french marquetry table, louis xvi period.] footnotes: [ ] there is no objection to putting a fireplace between two doors, provided both doors be at least six feet from the chimney. [ ] not rattan, as the models are too bad. iii walls proportion is the good breeding of architecture. it is that something, indefinable to the unprofessional eye, which gives repose and distinction to a room: in its origin a matter of nice mathematical calculation, of scientific adjustment of voids and masses, but in its effects as intangible as that all-pervading essence which the ancients called the soul. it is not proposed to enter here into a technical discussion of the delicate problem of proportion. the decorator, with whom this book is chiefly concerned, is generally not consulted until the house that he is to decorate has been built--and built, in all probability, quite without reference to the interior treatment it is destined to receive. all he can hope to do is, by slight modifications here and there in the dimensions or position of the openings, to re-establish that harmony of parts so frequently disregarded in modern house-planning. it often happens, however, that the decorator's desire to make these slight changes, upon which the success of his whole scheme depends, is a source of perplexity and distress to his bewildered client, who sees in it merely the inclination to find fault with another's work. nothing can be more natural than this attitude on the part of the client. how is he to decide between the architect, who has possibly disregarded in some measure the claims of symmetry and proportion in planning the interior of the house, and the decorator who insists upon those claims without being able to justify his demands by any explanation comprehensible to the unprofessional? it is inevitable that the decorator, who comes last, should fare worse, especially as he makes his appearance at a time when contractors' bills are pouring in, and the proposition to move a mantelpiece or change the dimensions of a door opens fresh vistas of expense to the client's terrified imagination. undoubtedly these difficulties have diminished in the last few years. architects are turning anew to the lost tradition of symmetry and to a scientific study of the relation between voids and masses, and the decorator's task has become correspondingly easier. still, there are many cases where his work is complicated by some trifling obstacle, the removal of which the client opposes only because he cannot in imagination foresee the improvement which would follow. if the client permits the change to be made, he has no difficulty in appreciating the result: he cannot see it in advance. a few words from isaac ware's admirable chapter on "the origin of proportions in the orders"[ ] may serve to show the importance of proportion in all schemes of decoration, and the necessity of conforming to certain rules that may at first appear both arbitrary and incomprehensible. "an architect of genius," ware writes (alluding to the latitude which the ancients allowed themselves in using the orders), "will think himself happy, in designing a building that is to be enriched with the doric order, that he has all the latitude between two and a half and seventeen for the projecture of its capital; that he can proportion this projecture to the general idea of his building anywhere between these extremes and show his authority. this is an happiness to the person of real genius;... but as all architects are not, nor can be expected to be, of this stamp, it is needful some standard should be established, founded upon what a good taste shall most admire in the antique, and fixed as a model from which to work, or as a test to which we may have recourse in disputes and controversies." if to these words be added his happy definition of the sense of proportion as "fancy under the restraint and conduct of judgment," and his closing caution that "it is mean in the undertaker of a great work to copy strictly, and it is dangerous to give a loose to fancy _without a perfect knowledge how far a variation may be justified_," the unprofessional reader may form some idea of the importance of proportion and of the necessity for observing its rules. if proportion is the good breeding of architecture, symmetry, or the answering of one part to another, may be defined as the sanity of decoration. the desire for symmetry, for balance, for rhythm in form as well as in sound, is one of the most inveterate of human instincts. yet for years anglo-saxons have been taught that to pay any regard to symmetry in architecture or decoration is to truckle to one of the meanest forms of artistic hypocrisy. the master who has taught this strange creed, in words magical enough to win acceptance for any doctrine, has also revealed to his generation so many of the forgotten beauties of early art that it is hard to dispute his principles of æsthetics. as a guide through the byways of art, mr. ruskin is entitled to the reverence and gratitude of all; but as a logical exponent of the causes and effects of the beauty he discovers, his authority is certainly open to question. for years he has spent the full force of his unmatched prose in denouncing the enormity of putting a door or a window in a certain place in order that it may correspond to another; nor has he scrupled to declare to the victims of this practice that it leads to abysses of moral as well as of artistic degradation. time has taken the terror from these threats and architects are beginning to see that a regard for external symmetry, far from interfering with the requirements of house-planning, tends to produce a better, because a more carefully studied, plan, as well as a more convenient distribution of wall-space; but in the lay mind there still lingers not only a vague association between outward symmetry and interior discomfort, between a well-balanced facade and badly distributed rooms, but a still vaguer notion that regard for symmetry indicates poverty of invention, lack of ingenuity and weak subservience to a meaningless form. what the instinct for symmetry means, philosophers may be left to explain; but that it does exist, that it means something, and that it is most strongly developed in those races which have reached the highest artistic civilization, must be acknowledged by all students of sociology. it is, therefore, not superfluous to point out that, in interior decoration as well as in architecture, a regard for symmetry, besides satisfying a legitimate artistic requirement, tends to make the average room not only easier to furnish, but more comfortable to live in. [illustration _plate xi._ drawing-room in berkeley square, london. xviii century.] as the effect produced by a room depends chiefly upon the distribution of its openings, it will be well to begin by considering the treatment of the walls. it has already been said that the decorator can often improve a room, not only from the artistic point of view, but as regards the comfort of its inmates, by making some slight change in the position of its openings. take, for instance, a library in which it is necessary to put the two principal bookcases one on each side of a door or fireplace. if this opening is in the _centre_ of one side of the room, the wall-decorations may be made to balance, and the bookcases may be of the same width,--an arrangement which will give to the room an air of spaciousness and repose. should the wall-spaces on either side of the opening be of unequal extent, both decorations and bookcases must be modified in size and design; and not only does the problem become more difficult, but the result, because necessarily less simple, is certain to be less satisfactory. sometimes, on the other hand, convenience is sacrificed to symmetry; and in such cases it is the decorator's business to remedy this defect, while preserving to the eye the aspect of symmetry. a long narrow room may be taken as an example. if the fireplace is in the centre of one of the long sides of the room, with a door directly opposite, the hearth will be without privacy and the room virtually divided into two parts, since, in a narrow room, no one cares to sit in a line with the doorway. this division of the room makes it more difficult to furnish and less comfortable to live in, besides wasting all the floor-space between the chimney and the door. one way of overcoming the difficulty is to move the door some distance down the long side of the room, so that the space about the fireplace is no longer a thoroughfare, and the privacy of the greater part of the room is preserved, even if the door be left open. the removal of the door from the centre of one side of the room having disturbed the equilibrium of the openings, this equilibrium may be restored by placing in a line with the door, at the other end of the same side-wall, a piece of furniture corresponding as nearly as possible in height and width to the door. this will satisfy the eye, which in matters of symmetry demands, not absolute similarity of detail, but merely correspondence of outline and dimensions. it is idle to multiply examples of the various ways in which such readjustments of the openings may increase the comfort and beauty of a room. every problem in house decoration demands a slightly different application of the same general principles, and the foregoing instances are intended only to show how much depends upon the placing of openings and how reasonable is the decorator's claim to have a share in planning the background upon which his effects are to be produced. it may surprise those whose attention has not been turned to such matters to be told that in all but the most cheaply constructed houses the interior walls are invariably treated as an order. in all houses, even of the poorest kind, the walls of the rooms are finished by a plain projecting board adjoining the floor, surmounted by one or more mouldings. this base, as it is called, is nothing more nor less than the part of an order between shaft and floor, or shaft and pedestal, as the case may be. if it be next remarked that the upper part of the wall, adjoining the ceiling, is invariably finished by a moulded projection corresponding with the crowning member of an order, it will be clear that the shaft, with its capital, has simply been omitted, or that the uniform wall-space between the base and cornice has been regarded as replacing it. in rooms of a certain height and importance the column or pilaster is frequently restored to its proper place between base and cornice; but where such treatment is too monumental for the dimensions of the room, the main lines of the wall-space should none the less be regarded as distinctly architectural, and the decoration applied should be subordinate to the implied existence of an order. (for the application of an order to walls, see plates xlii and l.) where the shafts are omitted, the eye undoubtedly feels a lack of continuity in the treatment: the cornice seems to hang in air and the effect produced is unsatisfactory. this is obviated by the use of panelling, the vertical lines carried up at intervals from base to cornice satisfying the need for some visible connection between the upper and lower members of the order. moreover, if the lines of the openings are carried up to the cornice (as they are in all well-designed schemes of decoration), the openings may be considered as intercolumniations and the intermediate wall-spaces as the shafts or piers supporting the cornice. in well-finished rooms the order is usually imagined as resting, not on the floor, but on pedestals, or rather on a continuous pedestal. this continuous pedestal, or "dado" as it is usually called, is represented by a plinth surmounted by mouldings, by an intermediate member often decorated with tablets or sunk panels with moulded margins, and by a cornice. the use of the dado raises the chief wall-decoration of the room to a level with the eye and prevents its being interrupted or concealed by the furniture which may be placed against the walls. this fact makes it clear that in all well-designed rooms there should be a dado about two and a half feet high. if lower than this, it does not serve its purpose of raising the wall-decoration to a line above the furniture; while the high dado often seen in modern american rooms throws all the rest of the panelling out of scale and loses its own significance as the pedestal supporting an order. in rooms of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when little furniture was used, the dado was often richly ornamented, being sometimes painted with delicate arabesques corresponding with those on the doors and inside shutters. as rooms grew smaller and the quantity of furniture increased so much that the dado was almost concealed, the treatment of the latter was wisely simplified, being reduced, as a rule, to sunk panels and a few strongly marked mouldings. the decorator cannot do better than plan the ornamentation of his dado according to the amount of furniture to be placed against the walls. in corridor or antechamber, or in a ball-room, the dado may receive a more elaborate treatment than is necessary in a library or drawing-room, where probably much less of it will be seen. it was not unusual, in the decoration of lobbies and corridors in old french and italian houses, to omit the dado entirely if an order was used, thus bringing the wall-decoration down to the base-board; but this was done only in rooms or passage-ways not meant to contain any furniture. the three noblest forms of wall-decoration are fresco-painting, panelling, and tapestry hangings. in the best period of decoration all three were regarded as subordinate to the architectural lines of the room. the italian fresco-painters, from giotto to tiepolo, never lost sight of the interrelation between painting and architecture. it matters not if the connection between base and cornice be maintained by actual pilasters or mouldings, or by their painted or woven imitations. the line, and not the substance, is what the eye demands. it is a curious perversion of artistic laws that has led certain critics to denounce painted architecture or woven mouldings. as in imaginative literature the author may present to his reader as possible anything that he has the talent to make the reader accept, so in decorative art the artist is justified in presenting to the eye whatever his skill can devise to satisfy its requirements; nor is there any insincerity in this proceeding. decorative art is not an exact science. the decorator is not a chemist or a physiologist; it is part of his mission, not to explain illusions, but to produce them. subject only to laws established by the limitations of the eye, he is master of the domain of fancy, of that _pays bleu_ of the impossible that it is his privilege to throw open to the charmed imagination. [illustration: _plate xii._ room in the villa vertemati, near chiavenna. xvi or early xvii century. (example of frescoed ceiling.)] of the means of wall-decoration already named, fresco-painting and stucco-panelling were generally preferred by italian decorators, and wood-panelling and tapestries by those of northern europe. the use of arras naturally commended itself to the northern noble, shivering in his draughty castles and obliged to carry from one to another the furniture and hangings that the unsettled state of the country made it impossible to leave behind him. italy, however, long supplied the finest designs to the tapestry-looms of northern europe, as the italian painters provided ready-made backgrounds of peaked hills, winding torrents and pinnacled cities to the german engravers and the flemish painters of their day. tapestry, in the best periods of house-decoration, was always subordinated to the architectural lines of the room (see plate xi). where it was not specially woven for the panels it was intended to fill, the subdivisions of the wall-spaces were adapted to its dimensions. it was carefully fitted into the panelling of the room, and never made to turn an angle, as wall-paper does in modern rooms, nor combined with other odds and ends of decoration. if a room was tapestried, it was tapestried, not decorated in some other way, with bits of tapestry hung here and there at random over the fundamental lines of the decoration. nothing can be more beautiful than tapestry properly used; but hung up without regard to the composition of the room, here turning an angle, there covering a part of the dado or overlapping a pilaster, it not only loses its own value, but destroys the whole scheme of decoration with which it is thus unmeaningly combined. italian panelling was of stone, marble or stucco, while in northern europe it was so generally of wood that (in england especially) the term _panelling_ has become almost synonymous with _wood-panelling_, and in some minds there is a curious impression that any panelling not of wood is a sham. as a matter of fact, wood-panelling was used in northern europe simply because it kept the cold out more successfully than a _revêtement_ of stone or plaster; while south of the alps its use was avoided for the equally good reason that in hot climates it attracts vermin. if priority of use be held as establishing a standard in decoration, wood-panelling should be regarded as a sham and plaster-panelling as its lawful prototype; for the use of stucco in the panelling of walls and ceilings is highly characteristic of roman interior decoration, and wood-panelling as at present used is certainly of later origin. but nothing can be more idle than such comparisons, nor more misleading than the idea that stucco is a sham because it seeks to imitate wood. it does not seek to imitate wood. it is a recognized substance, of incalculable value for decorative effect, and no more owes its place in decoration to a fancied resemblance to some other material than the nave of a cathedral owes its place in architecture to the fancied resemblance to a ship. in the hands of a great race of artistic _virtuosi_ like the italians, stucco has produced effects of beauty which in any other substance would have lost something of their freshness, their plastic spontaneity. from the delicate traceries of the roman baths and the loveliness of agostino da duccio's chapel-front at perugia, to the improvised bravura treatment of the farnese theatre at parma, it has served, through every phase of italian art, to embody the most refined and studied, as well as the most audacious and ephemeral, of decorative conceptions. it must not be supposed that because painting, panelling and tapestry are the noblest forms of wall-decoration, they are necessarily the most unattainable. good tapestry is, of course, very expensive, and even that which is only mediocre is beyond the reach of the average purchaser; while stuff hangings and wall-papers, its modern successors, have less to recommend them than other forms of wall-decoration. with painting and panelling the case is different. when painted walls were in fashion, there existed, below the great creative artists, schools of decorative designers skilled in the art of fresco-decoration, from the simplest kind to the most ornate. the demand for such decoration would now call forth the same order of talent, and many artists who are wasting their energies on the production of indifferent landscapes and unsuccessful portraits might, in the quite different field of decorative painting, find the true expression of their talent. to many minds the mention of a frescoed room suggests the image of a grandiose saloon, with gods and goddesses of heroic size crowding the domed ceiling and lofty walls; but the heroic style of fresco-painting is only one of its many phases. to see how well this form of decoration may be adapted to small modern rooms and to our present way of living, it is only necessary to study the walls of the little pompeian houses, with their delicate arabesques and slender, fanciful figures, or to note the manner in which the italian painters treated the small rooms of the casino or garden-pavilion which formed part of every italian country-seat. examples of this light style of decoration may be found in the casino del grotto in the grounds of the palazzo del t at mantua, in some of the smaller rooms of the hunting-lodge of stupinigi near turin, and in the casino of the villa valmarana near vicenza, where the frescoes are by tiepolo; while in france a pleasing instance of the same style of treatment is seen in the small octagonal pavilion called the belvédère, frescoed by le riche, in the gardens of the petit trianon at versailles. as regards panelling, it has already been said that if the effect produced be satisfactory to the eye, the substance used is a matter of indifference. stone-panelling has the merit of solidity, and the outlines of massive stone mouldings are strong and dignified; but the same effect may be produced in stucco, a material as well suited to the purpose as stone, save for its greater fragility. wood-panelling is adapted to the most delicate carving, greater sharpness of edge and clearness of undercutting being obtainable than in stucco: though this qualification applies only to the moulded stucco ornaments used from economy, not to those modelled by hand. used in the latter way, stucco may be made to produce the same effects as carved wood, and for delicacy of modelling in low relief it is superior to any other material. there is, in short, little to choose between the different substances, except in so far as one or the other may commend itself to the artist as more peculiarly suited to the special requirements of his design, or to the practical conditions regulating his work. [illustration: _plate xiii._ drawing-room at easton neston hall, england. built by nicholas hawkesmoor, . (example of stucco decoration.)] it is to this regard for practical conditions, and not to any fancied superiority over other materials, that the use of wood-panelling in northern europe may most reasonably be attributed. not only was wood easy to obtain, but it had the additional merit of keeping out the cold: two qualities sufficient to recommend it to the common sense of french and english architects. from the decorative point of view it has, when unpainted, one undeniable advantage over stucco--that is, beauty of color and veining. as a background for the dull gilding of old picture-frames, or as a setting for tapestry, nothing can surpass the soft rich tones of oak or walnut panelling, undefaced by the application of a shiny varnish. with the introduction of the orders into domestic architecture and the treatment of interior walls with dado and cornice, the panelling of the wall-space between those two members began to assume definite proportions. in england and france, before that time, wall-panels were often divided into small equal-sized rectangles which, from lack of any central motive, produced a most inadequate impression. frequently, too, in the houses of the renaissance the panelling, instead of being carried up to the ceiling, was terminated two or three feet below it a form of treatment that reduced the height of the room and broke the connection between walls and ceiling. this awkward device of stunted panelling, or, as it might be called, of an unduly heightened dado, has been revived by modern decorators; and it is not unusual to see the walls of a room treated, as regards their base-board and cornice, as part of an order, and then panelled up to within a foot or two of the cornice, without apparent regard to the true _raison d'être_ of the dado (see plate xii). if, then, the design of the wall-panelling is good, it matters little whether stone, stucco, or wood be used. in all three it is possible to obtain effects ranging from the grandeur of the great loggia of the villa madama to the simplicity of any wood-panelled parlor in a new england country-house, and from the greatest costliness to an outlay little larger than that required for the purchase of a good wall-paper. it was well for the future of house-decoration when medical science declared itself against the use of wall-papers. these hangings have, in fact, little to recommend them. besides being objectionable on sanitary grounds, they are inferior as a wall-decoration to any form of treatment, however simple, that maintains, instead of effacing, the architectural lines of a room. it was the use of wall-paper that led to the obliteration of the over-door and over-mantel, and to the gradual submerging under a flood of pattern of all the main lines of the wall-spaces. its merits are that it is cheap, easy to put on and easy to remove. on the other hand, it is readily damaged, soon fades, and cannot be cleaned; while from the decorative point of view there can be no comparison between the flat meanderings of wall-paper pattern and the strong architectural lines of any scheme of panelling, however simple. sometimes, of course, the use of wall-paper is a matter of convenience, since it saves both time and trouble; but a papered room can never, decoratively or otherwise, be as satisfactory as one in which the walls are treated in some other manner. the hanging of walls with chintz or any other material is even more objectionable than the use of wall-paper, since it has not the saving merit of cheapness. the custom is probably a survival of the time when wall-decorations had to be made in movable shape; and this facility of removal points to the one good reason for using stuff hangings. in a hired house, if the wall-decorations are ugly, and it is necessary to hide them, the rooms may be hung with stuff which the departing tenant can take away. in other words, stuff hangings are serviceable if used as a tent; as a permanent mode of decoration they are both unhealthy and inappropriate. there is something unpleasant in the idea of a dust-collecting fabric fixed to the wall, so that it cannot be shaken out at will like a curtain. textile fabrics are meant to be moved, folded, shaken: they have none of the qualities of permanence and solidity which we associate with the walls of a room. the much-derided marble curtains of the jesuit church in venice are no more illogical than stuff wall-hangings. in decorating the walls of a room, the first point to be considered is whether they are to form a background for its contents, or to be in themselves its chief decoration. in many cases the disappointing effects of wall-decoration are due to the fact that this important distinction has been overlooked. in rooms that are to be hung with prints or pictures, the panelling or other treatment of the walls should be carefully designed with a view to the size and number of the pictures. pictures should never be hung against a background of pattern. nothing is more distressing than the sight of a large oil-painting in a ponderous frame seemingly suspended from a spray of wild roses or any of the other naturalistic vegetation of the modern wall-paper. the overlaying of pattern is always a mistake. it produces a confusion of line in which the finest forms lose their individuality and significance. it is also important to avoid hanging pictures or prints too close to each other. not only do the colors clash, but the different designs of the frames, some of which may be heavy, with deeply recessed mouldings, while others are flat and carved in low relief, produce an equally discordant impression. every one recognizes the necessity of selecting the mouldings and other ornamental details of a room with a view to their position in the scheme of decoration; but few stop to consider that in a room hung with pictures, the frames take the place of wall-mouldings, and consequently must be chosen and placed as though they were part of a definite decorative composition. pictures and prints should be fastened to the wall, not hung by a cord or wire, nor allowed to tilt forward at an angle. the latter arrangement is specially disturbing since it throws the picture-frames out of the line of the wall. it must never be forgotten that pictures on a wall, whether set in panels or merely framed and hung, inevitably become a part of the wall-decoration. in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in rooms of any importance, pictures were always treated as a part of the decoration, and frequently as panels sunk in the wall in a setting of carved wood or stucco mouldings (see paintings in plates v and xix). even when not set in panels, they were always fixed to the wall, and their frames, whether of wood or stucco, were made to correspond with the ornamental detail of the rest of the room. beautiful examples of this mode of treatment are seen in many english interiors of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,[ ] and some of the finest carvings of grinling gibbons were designed for this purpose. even where the walls are not to be hung with pictures, it is necessary to consider what kind of background the furniture and objects of art require. if the room is to be crowded with cabinets, bookcases and other tall pieces, and these, as well as the tables and mantel-shelf, are to be covered with porcelain vases, bronze statuettes, ivories, chinese monsters and chelsea groups, a plain background should be provided for this many-colored medley. should the room contain only a few important pieces of furniture, and one or two vases or busts, the walls against which these strongly marked objects are to be placed may receive a more decorative treatment. it is only in rooms used for entertaining, dining, or some special purpose for which little furniture is required, that the walls should receive a more elaborate scheme of decoration. where the walls are treated in an architectural manner, with a well-designed dado and cornice, and an over-mantel and over-doors connecting the openings with the cornice, it will be found that in a room of average size the intervening wall-spaces may be tinted in a uniform color and left unornamented. if the fundamental lines are right, very little decorative detail is needed to complete the effect; whereas, when the lines are wrong, no overlaying of ornamental odds and ends, in the way of pictures, bric-à-brac and other improvised expedients, will conceal the structural deficiencies. footnotes: [ ] _a complete body of architecture_, book ii, chap. iii. [ ] see the saloon at easton neston, built by nicholas hawkesmoor (plate xiii), and various examples given in pyne's _royal residences_. iv doors the fate of the door in america has been a curious one, and had the other chief features of the house--such as windows, fireplaces, and stairs--been pursued with the same relentless animosity by architects and decorators, we should no longer be living in houses at all. first, the door was slid into the wall; then even its concealed presence was resented, and it was unhung and replaced by a portière; while of late it has actually ceased to form a part of house-building, and many recently built houses contain doorways _without doors_. even the front door, which might seem to have too valid a reason for existence to be disturbed by the variations of fashion, has lately had to yield its place, in the more pretentious kind of house, to a wrought-iron gateway lined with plate-glass, against which, as a climax of inconsequence, a thick curtain is usually hung. it is not difficult to explain such architectural vagaries. in general, their origin is to be found in the misapplication of some serviceable feature and its consequent rejection by those who did not understand that it had ceased to be useful only because it was not properly used. [illustration: _plate xiv._ doorway with marble architrave, ducal palace, mantua. xvi century.] in the matter of doors, such an explanation at once presents itself. during the latter half of the eighteenth century it occurred to some ingenious person that when two adjoining rooms were used for entertaining, and it was necessary to open the doors between them, these doors might be in the way; and to avoid this possibility, a recess was formed in the thickness of the wall, and the door was made to slide into it. this idea apparently originated in england, for sliding doors, even in the present day, are virtually unknown on the continent; and isaac ware, in the book already quoted, speaks of the sliding door as having been used "at the house, late mr. de pestre's, near hanover square," and adds that "the manner of it there may serve as an example to other builders," showing it to have been a novelty which he thought worthy of imitation. english taste has never been so sure as that of the latin races; and it has, moreover, been perpetually modified by a passion for contriving all kinds of supposed "conveniences," which instead of simplifying life not unfrequently tend to complicate it. americans have inherited this trait, and in both countries the architect or upholsterer who can present a new and more intricate way of planning a house or of making a piece of furniture, is more sure of a hearing than he who follows the accepted lines. it is doubtful if the devices to which so much is sacrificed in english and american house-planning always offer the practical advantages attributed to them. in the case of the sliding door these advantages are certainly open to question, since there is no reason why a door should not open into a room. under ordinary circumstances, doors should always be kept shut; it is only, as ware points out, when two adjoining rooms are used for entertaining that it is necessary to leave the door between them open. now, between two rooms destined for entertaining, a double door (_à deux battants_) is always preferable to a single one; and as an opening four feet six inches wide is sufficient in such cases, each of the doors will be only two feet three inches wide, and therefore cannot encroach to any serious extent on the floor-space of the room. on the other hand, much has been sacrificed to the supposed "convenience" of the sliding door: first, the decorative effect of a well-panelled door, with hinges, box-locks and handle of finely chiselled bronze; secondly, the privacy of both rooms, since the difficulty of closing a heavy sliding door always leads to its being left open, with the result that two rooms are necessarily used as one. in fact, the absence of privacy in modern houses is doubtless in part due to the difficulty of closing the doors between the rooms. the sliding door has led to another abuse in house-planning: the exaggerated widening of the doorway. while doors were hung on hinges, doorways were of necessity restricted to their proper dimensions; but with the introduction of the sliding door, openings eight or ten feet wide became possible. the planning of a house is often modified by a vague idea on the part of its owners that they may wish to give entertainments on a large scale. as a matter of fact, general entertainments are seldom given in a house of average size; and those who plan their houses with a view to such possibilities sacrifice their daily comfort to an event occurring perhaps once a year. but even where many entertainments are to be given large doorways are of little use. any architect of experience knows that ease of circulation depends far more on the planning of the house and on the position of the openings than on the actual dimensions of the latter. indeed, two moderate-sized doorways leading from one room to another are of much more use in facilitating the movements of a crowd than one opening ten feet wide. sliding doors have been recommended on the ground that their use preserves a greater amount of wall-space; but two doorways of moderate dimensions, properly placed, will preserve as much wall-space as one very large opening and will probably permit a better distribution of panelling and furniture. there was far more wall-space in seventeenth and eighteenth-century rooms than there is in rooms of the same dimensions in the average modern american house; and even where this space was not greater in actual measurement, more furniture could be used, since the openings were always placed with a view to the proper arrangement of what the room was to contain. according to the best authorities, the height of a well-proportioned doorway should be twice its width; and as the height is necessarily regulated by the stud of the room, it follows that the width varies; but it is obvious that no doorway should be less than six feet high nor less than three feet wide. when a doorway is over three feet six inches wide, a pair of doors should always be used; while a single door is preferable in a narrow opening. in rooms twelve feet or less in height, doorways should not be more than nine feet high. the width of openings in such rooms is therefore restricted to four feet six inches; indeed, it is permissible to make the opening lower and thus reduce its width to four feet; six inches of additional wall-space are not to be despised in a room of average dimensions. the treatment of the door forms one of the most interesting chapters in the history of house-decoration. in feudal castles the interior doorway, for purposes of defense, was made so small and narrow that only one person could pass through at a time, and was set in a plain lintel or architrave of stone, the door itself being fortified by bands of steel or iron, and by heavy bolts and bars. even at this early period it seems probable that in the chief apartments the lines of the doorway were carried up to the ceiling by means of an over-door of carved wood, or of some painted decorative composition.[ ] this connection between the doorway and the ceiling, maintained through all the subsequent phases of house-decoration, was in fact never disregarded until the beginning of the present century. it was in italy that the door, in common with the other features of private dwellings, first received a distinctly architectural treatment. in italian palaces of the fifteenth century the doorways were usually framed by architraves of marble, enriched with arabesques, medallions and processional friezes in low relief, combined with disks of colored marble. interesting examples of this treatment are seen in the apartments of isabella of este in the ducal palace at mantua (see plate xiv), in the ducal palace at urbino, and in the certosa of pavia--some of the smaller doorways in this monastery being decorated with medallion portraits of the sforzas, and with other low reliefs of extraordinary beauty. the doors in italian palaces were usually of inlaid wood, elaborate in composition and affording in many cases beautiful instances of that sense of material limitation that preserves one art from infringing upon another. the intarsia doors of the palace at urbino are among the most famous examples of this form of decoration. it should be noted that many of the woods used in italian marquetry were of a light shade, so that the blending of colors in renaissance doors produces a sunny golden-brown tint in perfect harmony with the marble architrave of the doorway. the italian decorator would never have permitted so harsh a contrast as that between the white trim and the mahogany doors of english eighteenth-century houses. this juxtaposition of colors was disapproved by french decorators also, and was seldom seen except in england and in the american houses built under english influence. it should be observed, too, that the polish given to hard-grained wood in england, and imitated in the wood-varnish of the present day, was never in favor in italy and france. shiny surfaces were always disliked by the best decorators. the classic revival in italy necessarily modified the treatment of the doorway. flat arabesques and delicately chiselled medallions gave way to a plain architrave, frequently masked by an order; while the over-door took the form of a pediment, or, in the absence of shafts, of a cornice or entablature resting on brackets. the use of a pediment over interior doorways was characteristic of italian decoration. in studying italian interiors of this period from photographs or modern prints, or even in visiting the partly dilapidated palaces themselves, it may at first appear that the lines of the doorway were not always carried up to the cornice. several causes have combined to produce this impression. in the first place, the architectural treatment of the over-door was frequently painted on the wall, and has consequently disappeared with the rest of the wall-decoration (see plate xv). then, again, italian rooms were often painted with landscapes and out-of-door architectural effects, and when this was done the doorways were combined with these architectural compositions, and were not treated as part of the room, but as part of what the room _pretended to be_. in the suppressed scuola della carità (now the academy of fine arts) at venice, one may see a famous example of this treatment in the doorway under the stairs leading up to the temple, in titian's great painting of the "presentation of the virgin."[ ] again, in the high-studded italian saloons containing a musician's gallery, or a clerestory, a cornice was frequently carried around the walls at suitable height above the lower range of openings, and the decorative treatment above the doors, windows and fireplace extended only to this cornice, not to the actual ceiling of the room. thus it will be seen that the relation between the openings and cornice in italian decoration was in reality always maintained except where the decorator chose to regard them as forming a part, not of the room, but of some other architectural composition. in the sixteenth century the excessive use of marquetry was abandoned, doors being panelled, and either left undecorated or painted with those light animated combinations of figure and arabesque which raphael borrowed from the roman fresco-painters, and which since his day have been peculiarly characteristic of italian decorative painting.[ ] wood-carving in italy was little used in house-decoration, and, as a rule, the panelling of doors was severely architectural in character, with little of the delicate ornamentation marking the french work of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.[ ] [illustration: _plate xv._ sala dei cavalli, palazzo del t, mantua. xvi century. (example of painted architectural decoration.)] in france the application of the orders to interior doorways was never very popular, though it figures in french architectural works of the eighteenth century. the architrave, except in houses of great magnificence, was usually of wood, sometimes very richly carved. it was often surmounted by an entablature with a cornice resting on carved brackets; while the panel between this and the ceiling-cornice was occupied by an over-door consisting either of a painting, of a carved panel or of a stucco or marble bas-relief. these over-doors usually corresponded with the design of the over-mantel. great taste and skill were displayed in the decoration of door-panels and embrasure. in the earlier part of the seventeenth century, doors and embrasures were usually painted, and nothing in the way of decorative painting can exceed in beauty and fitness the french compositions of this period.[ ] during the reign of louis xiv, doors were either carved or painted, and their treatment ranged from the most elaborate decoration to the simplest panelling set in a plain wooden architrave. in some french doors of this period painting and carving were admirably combined; and they were further ornamented by the chiselled locks and hinges for which french locksmiths were famous. so important a part did these locks and hinges play in french decoration that lebrun himself is said to have designed those in the galerie d'apollon, in the louvre, when he composed the decoration of the room. even in the simplest private houses, where chiselled bronze was too expensive a luxury, and wrought-iron locks and hinges, with plain knobs of brass or iron, were used instead, such attention was paid to both design and execution that it is almost impossible to find in france an old lock or hinge, however plain, that is not well designed and well made (see plate xvii). the miserable commercial article that disgraces our modern doors would not have been tolerated in the most unpretentious dwelling. the mortise-lock now in use in england and america first made its appearance toward the end of the eighteenth century in england, where it displaced the brass or iron box-lock; but on the continent it has never been adopted. it is a poor substitute for the box-lock, since it not only weakens but disfigures the door, while a well-designed box-lock is both substantial and ornamental (see plate xvii). in many minds the louis xv period is associated with a general waviness of line and excess of carving. it has already been pointed out that even when the rocaille manner was at its height the main lines of a room were seldom allowed to follow the capricious movement of the ornamental accessories. openings being the leading features of a room, their main lines were almost invariably respected; and while considerable play of movement was allowed in some of the accessory mouldings of the over-doors and over-mantels, the plan of the panel, in general symmetrical, was in many cases a plain rectangle.[ ] during the louis xv period the panelling of doors was frequently enriched with elaborate carving; but such doors are to be found only in palaces, or in princely houses like the hôtels de soubise, de rohan, or de toulouse (see plate xviii). in the most magnificent apartments, moreover, plain panelled doors were as common as those adorned with carving; while in the average private hôtel, even where much ornament was lavished on the panelling of the walls, the doors were left plain. towards the close of this reign, when the influence of gabriel began to simplify and restrain the ornamental details of house-decoration, the panelled door was often made without carving and was sometimes painted with attenuated arabesques and grisaille medallions, relieved against a gold ground. gabriel gave the key-note of what is known as louis xvi decoration, and the treatment of the door in france followed the same general lines until the end of the eighteenth century. as the classic influence became more marked, paintings in the over-door and over-mantel were replaced by low or high reliefs in stucco: and towards the end of the louis xvi period a processional frieze in the classic manner often filled the entablature above the architrave of the door (see plate xvi). doors opening upon a terrace, or leading from an antechamber into a summer-parlor, or _salon frais_, were frequently made of glass; while in gala rooms, doors so situated as to correspond with the windows of the room were sometimes made of looking-glass. in both these instances the glass was divided into small panes, with such strongly marked mouldings that there could not be a moment's doubt of the apparent, as well as the actual, solidity of the door. in good decorative art first impressions are always taken into account, and the immediate satisfaction of the eye is provided for. in england the treatment of doorway and door followed in a general way the italian precedent. the architrave, as a rule, was severely architectural, and in the eighteenth century the application of an order was regarded as almost essential in rooms of a certain importance. the door itself was sometimes inlaid,[ ] but oftener simply panelled (see plate xi). in the panelling of doors, english taste, except when it closely followed italian precedents, was not always good. the use of a pair of doors in one opening was confined to grand houses, and in the average dwelling single doors were almost invariably used, even in openings over three feet wide. the great width of some of these single doors led to a curious treatment of the panels, the door being divided by a central stile, which was sometimes beaded, as though, instead of a single door, it were really a pair held together by some invisible agency. this central stile is almost invariably seen in the doors of modern american houses. towards the middle of the eighteenth century the use of highly polished mahogany doors became general in england. it has already been pointed out that the juxtaposition of a dark-colored door and a white architrave was not approved by french and italian architects. blondel, in fact, expressly states that such contrasts are to be avoided, and that where walls are pale in tint the door should never be dark: thus in vestibules and antechambers panelled with caen stone he recommends painting the doors a pale shade of gray. in italy, when doors were left unpainted they were usually made of walnut, a wood of which the soft, dull tone harmonizes well with almost any color, whether light or dark; while in france it would not be easy to find an unpainted door, except in rooms where the wall-panelling is also of natural wood. [illustration: _plate xvi._ door in the sala dello zodiaco, ducal palace, mantua. xviii century.] in the better type of house lately built in america there is seen a tendency to return to the use of doors hung on hinges. these, however, have been so long out of favor that the rules regulating their dimensions have been lost sight of, and the modern door and architrave are seldom satisfactory in these respects. the principles of proportion have been further disturbed by a return to the confused and hesitating system of panelling prevalent in england during the tudor and elizabethan periods. the old french and italian architects never failed to respect that rule of decorative composition which prescribes that where there is any division of parts, one part shall unmistakably predominate. in conformity with this rule, the principal panel in doors of french or italian design is so much higher than the others that these are at once seen to be merely accessory; whereas many of our modern doors are cut up into so many small panels, and the central one so little exceeds the others in height, that they do not "compose." the architrave of the modern door has been neglected for the same reasons as the window-architrave. the use of the heavy sliding door, which could not be opened or shut without an effort, led to the adoption of the portière; and the architrave, being thus concealed, was no longer regarded as a feature of any importance in the decoration of the room. the portière has always been used, as old prints and pictures show; but, like the curtain, in earlier days it was simply intended to keep out currents of air, and was consequently seldom seen in well-built houses, where double sets of doors served far better to protect the room from draughts. in less luxurious rooms, where there were no double doors, and portières had to be used, these were made as scant and unobtrusive as possible. the device of draping stuffs about the doorway, thus substituting a textile architrave for one of wood or stone, originated with the modern upholsterer; and it is now not unusual to see a wide opening with no door in it, enclosed in yards and yards of draperies which cannot even be lowered at will. the portière, besides causing a break in architectural lines, has become one of the chief expenses in the decoration of the modern room; indeed, the amount spent in buying yards of plush or damask, with the addition of silk cord, tassels, gimp and fringe, often makes it necessary to slight the essential features of the room; so that an ugly mantelpiece or ceiling is preserved because the money required to replace it has been used in the purchase of portières. these superfluous draperies are, in fact, more expensive than a well-made door with hinges and box-lock of chiselled bronze. the general use of the portière has also caused the disappearance of the over-door. the lines of the opening being hidden under a mass of drapery, the need of connecting them with the cornice was no longer felt, and one more feature of the room passed out of the architect's hands into those of the upholsterer, or, as he might more fitly be called, the house-dressmaker. the return to better principles of design will do more than anything else to restore the architectural lines of the room. those who use portières generally do so from an instinctive feeling that a door is an ugly thing that ought to be hidden, and modern doors are in fact ugly; but when architects give to the treatment of openings the same attention they formerly received, it will soon be seen that this ugliness is not a necessity, and portières will disappear with the return of well-designed doors. some general hints concerning the distribution of openings have been given in the chapter on walls. it may be noted in addition that while all doorways in a room should, as a rule, be of one height, there are cases where certain clearly subordinate openings may be lower than those which contain doors _à deux battants_. in such cases the panelling of the door must be carefully modified in accordance with the dimensions of the opening, and the treatment of the over-doors in their relation to each other must be studied with equal attention. examples of such adaptations are to be found in many old french and italian rooms.[ ] [illustration: _plate xvii._ examples of modern french locksmiths' work.] doors should always swing _into_ a room. this facilitates entrance and gives the hospitable impression that everything is made easy to those who are coming in. doors should furthermore be so hung that they screen that part of the room in which the occupants usually sit. in small rooms, especially those in town houses, this detail cannot be too carefully considered. the fact that so many doors open in the wrong way is another excuse for the existence of portières. a word must also be said concerning the actual making of the door. there is a general impression that veneered doors or furniture are cheap substitutes for articles made of solid blocks of wood. as a matter of fact, owing to the high temperature of american houses, all well-made wood-work used in this country is of necessity composed of at least three, and often of five, layers of wood. this method of veneering, in which the layers are so placed that the grain runs in different directions, is the only way of counteracting the shrinking and swelling of the wood under artificial heat. to some minds the concealed door represents one of those architectural deceptions which no necessity can excuse. it is certain that the concealed door is an expedient, and that in a well-planned house there should be no need for expedients, unless the architect is hampered by limitations of space, as is the case in designing the average american town house. architects all know how many principles of beauty and fitness must be sacrificed to the restrictions of a plot of ground twenty-five feet wide by seventy-five or a hundred in length. under such conditions, every device is permissible that helps to produce an effect of spaciousness and symmetry without interfering with convenience: chief among these contrivances being the concealed door. such doors are often useful in altering or adding to a badly planned house. it is sometimes desirable to give increased facilities of communication without adding to the visible number of openings in any one room; while in other cases the limited amount of wall-space may make it difficult to find place for a doorway corresponding in dimensions with the others; or, again, where it is necessary to make a closet under the stairs, the architrave of a visible door may clash awkwardly with the stringboard. under such conditions the concealed door naturally suggests itself. to those who regard its use as an offense against artistic integrity, it must once more be pointed out that architecture addresses itself not to the moral sense, but to the eye. the existing confusion on this point is partly due to the strange analogy drawn by modern critics between artistic sincerity and moral law. analogies are the most dangerous form of reasoning: they connect resemblances, but disguise facts; and in this instance nothing can be more fallacious than to measure the architect's action by an ethical standard. [illustration: _plate xviii._ carved door, palace of versailles. louis xv period. (showing painted over-door.)] "sincerity," in many minds, is chiefly associated with speaking the truth; but architectural sincerity is simply obedience to certain visual requirements, one of which demands that what are at once seen to be the main lines of a room or house shall be acknowledged as such in the application of ornament. the same architectural principles demand that the main lines of a room shall not be unnecessarily interrupted; and in certain cases it would be bad taste to disturb the equilibrium of wall-spaces and decoration by introducing a visible door leading to some unimportant closet or passageway, of which the existence need not be known to any but the inmates of the house. it is in such cases that the concealed door is a useful expedient. it can hardly be necessary to point out that it would be a great mistake to place a concealed door in a main opening. these openings should always be recognized as one of the chief features of the room, and so treated by the decorator; but this point has already been so strongly insisted upon that it is reverted to here only in order to show how different are the requirements which justify concealment. the concealed door has until recently been used so little by american architects that its construction is not well understood, and it is often hung on ordinary visible hinges, instead of being swung on a pivot. there is no reason why, with proper care, a door of this kind should not be so nicely adjusted to the wall-panelling as to be practically invisible; and to fulfil this condition is the first necessity of its construction (see concealed door in plate xlv). footnotes: [ ] see viollet-le-duc, _dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française_, under _porte_. [ ] this painting has now been restored to its proper position in the scuola della carità, and the door which had been _painted in_ under the stairs has been removed to make way for the actual doorway around which the picture was originally painted. [ ] see the doors of the sala dello zodiaco in the ducal palace at mantua (plate xvi). [ ] some rooms of the rocaille period, however, contain doors as elaborately carved as those seen in france (see the doors in the royal palace at genoa, plate xxxiv). [ ] see the doors at vaux-le-vicomte and in the palais de justice at rennes. [ ] only in the most exaggerated german baroque were the vertical lines of the door-panels sometimes irregular. [ ] the inlaid doors of houghton hall, the seat of sir robert walpole, were noted for their beauty and costliness. the price of each was £ . [ ] see a room in the ministère de la marine at paris, where a subordinate door is cleverly treated in connection with one of more importance. v windows in the decorative treatment of a room the importance of openings can hardly be overestimated. not only do they represent the three chief essentials of its comfort,--light, heat and means of access,--but they are the leading features in that combination of voids and masses that forms the basis of architectural harmony. in fact, it is chiefly because the decorative value of openings has ceased to be recognized that modern rooms so seldom produce a satisfactory and harmonious impression. it used to be thought that the effect of a room depended on the treatment of its wall-spaces and openings; now it is supposed to depend on its curtains and furniture. accessory details have crowded out the main decorative features; and, as invariably happens when the relation of parts is disturbed, everything in the modern room has been thrown out of balance by this confusion between the essential and the incidental in decoration.[ ] the return to a more architectural treatment of rooms and to a recognition of the decorative value of openings, besides producing much better results, would undoubtedly reduce the expense of house-decoration. a small quantity of ornament, properly applied, will produce far more effect than ten times its amount used in the wrong way; and it will be found that when decorators rely for their effects on the treatment of openings, the rest of the room will require little ornamentation. the crowding of rooms with furniture and bric-à-brac is doubtless partly due to an unconscious desire to fill up the blanks caused by the lack of architectural composition in the treatment of the walls. the importance of connecting the main lines of the openings with the cornice having been explained in the previous chapter, it is now necessary to study the different openings in turn, and to see in how many ways they serve to increase the dignity and beauty of their surroundings. as light-giving is the main purpose for which windows are made, the top of the window should be as near the ceiling as the cornice will allow. ventilation, the secondary purpose of the window, is also better served by its being so placed, since an opening a foot wide near the ceiling will do more towards airing a room than a space twice as large near the floor. in our northern states, where the dark winter days and the need of artificial heat make light and ventilation so necessary, these considerations are especially important. in italian palaces the windows are generally lower than in more northern countries, since the greater intensity of the sunshine makes a much smaller opening sufficient; moreover, in italy, during the summer, houses are not kept cool by letting in the air, but by shutting it out. windows should not exceed five feet in width, while in small rooms openings three feet wide will be found sufficient. there are practical as well as artistic reasons for observing this rule, since a sash-window containing a sheet of glass more than five feet wide cannot be so hung that it may be raised without effort; while a casement, or french window, though it may be made somewhat wider, is not easy to open if its width exceeds six feet. the next point to consider is the distance between the bottom of the window and the floor. this must be decided by circumstances, such as the nature of the view, the existence of a balcony or veranda, or the wish to have a window-seat. the outlook must also be considered, and the window treated in one way if it looks upon the street, and in another if it gives on the garden or informal side of the house. in the country nothing is more charming than the french window opening to the floor. on the more public side of the house, unless the latter gives on an enclosed court, it is best that the windows should be placed about three feet from the floor, so that persons approaching the house may not be able to look in. windows placed at this height should be provided with a fixed seat, or with one of the little settees with arms, but without a back, formerly used for this purpose. although for practical reasons it may be necessary that the same room should contain some windows opening to the floor and others raised several feet above it, the tops of all the windows should be on a level. to place them at different heights serves no useful end, and interferes with any general scheme of decoration and more specially with the arrangement of curtains. mullions dividing a window in the centre should be avoided whenever possible, since they are an unnecessary obstruction to the view. the chief drawback to a casement window is that its sashes join in the middle; but as this is a structural necessity, it is less objectionable. if mullions are required, they should be so placed as to divide the window into three parts, thus preserving an unobstructed central pane. the window called palladian illustrates this point. now that large plate-glass windows have ceased to be a novelty, it will perhaps be recognized that the old window with subdivided panes had certain artistic and practical merits that have of late been disregarded. where there is a fine prospect, windows made of a single plate of glass are often preferred; but it must be remembered that the subdivisions of a sash, while obstructing the view, serve to establish a relation between the inside of the house and the landscape, making the latter what, _as seen from a room_, it logically ought to be: a part of the wall-decoration, in the sense of being subordinated to the same general lines. a large unbroken sheet of plate-glass interrupts the decorative scheme of the room, just as in verse, if the distances between the rhymes are so great that the ear cannot connect them, the continuity of sound is interrupted. decoration must rhyme to the eye, and to do so must be subject to the limitations of the eye, as verse is subject to the limitations of the ear. success in any art depends on a due regard for the limitations of the sense to which it appeals. the effect of a perpetually open window, produced by a large sheet of plate-glass, while it gives a sense of coolness and the impression of being out of doors, becomes for these very reasons a disadvantage in cold weather. it is sometimes said that the architects of the eighteenth century would have used large plates of glass in their windows had they been able to obtain them; but as such plates were frequently used for mirrors, it is evident that they were not difficult to get, and that there must have been other reasons for not employing them in windows; while the additional expense could hardly have been an obstacle in an age when princes and nobles built with such royal disregard of cost. the french, always logical in such matters, having tried the effect of plate-glass, are now returning to the old fashion of smaller panes; and in many of the new houses in paris, where the windows at first contained large plates of glass, the latter have since been subdivided by a network of narrow mouldings applied to the glass. as to the comparative merits of french, or casement, and sash windows, both arrangements have certain advantages. in houses built in the french or italian style, casement windows are best adapted to the general treatment; while the sash-window is more in keeping in english houses. perhaps the best way of deciding the question is to remember that "les fenêtres sont intimement liées aux grandes lignes de l'architecture," and to conform to the rule suggested by this axiom. the two common objections to french windows--that they are less convenient for ventilation, and that they cannot be opened without letting in cold air near the floor--are both unfounded. all properly made french windows have at the top an impost or stationary part containing small panes, one of which is made to open, thus affording perfect ventilation without draught. another expedient, seen in one of the rooms of mesdames de france at versailles, is a small pane in the main part of the window, opening on hinges of its own. (for examples of well-designed french windows, see plates xxx and xxxi.) [illustration: _plate xix._ salon des malachites, grand trianon, versailles. louis xiv period. (showing well-designed window with solid inside shutter, and pictures forming part of wall-decoration.)] sash-windows have the disadvantage of not opening more than half-way, a serious drawback in our hot summer climate. it is often said that french windows cannot be opened wide without interfering with the curtains; but this difficulty is easily met by the use of curtains made with cords and pulleys, in the sensible old-fashioned manner. the real purpose of the window-curtain is to regulate the amount of light admitted to the room, and a curtain so arranged that it cannot be drawn backward and forward at will is but a meaningless accessory. it was not until the beginning of the present century that curtains were used without regard to their practical purpose. the window-hangings of the middle ages and of the renaissance were simply straight pieces of cloth or tapestry hung across the window without any attempt at drapery, and regarded not as part of the decoration of the room, but as a necessary protection against draughts. it is probably for this reason that in old prints and pictures representing the rooms of wealthy people, curtains are so seldom seen. the better the house, the less need there was for curtains. in the engravings of abraham bosse, which so faithfully represent the interior decoration of every class of french house during the reign of louis xiii, it will be noticed that in the richest apartments there are no window-curtains. in all the finest rooms of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the inside shutters and embrasures of the windows were decorated with a care which proves that they were not meant to be concealed by curtains (see the painted embrasures of the saloon in the villa vertemati, plate xliv). the shutters in the state apartments of fouquet's château of vaux-le-vicomte, near melun, are painted on both sides with exquisite arabesques; while those in the apartments of mesdames de france, on the ground floor of the palace of versailles, are examples of the most beautiful carving. in fact, it would be more difficult to cite a room of any importance in which the windows were not so treated, than to go on enumerating examples of what was really a universal custom until the beginning of the present century. it is known, of course, that curtains were used in former times: prints, pictures and inventories alike prove this fact; but the care expended on the decorative treatment of windows makes it plain that the curtain, like the portière, was regarded as a necessary evil rather than as part of the general scheme of decoration. the meagreness and simplicity of the curtains in old pictures prove that they were used merely as window shades or sun-blinds. the scant straight folds pushed back from the tall windows of the prince de conti's salon, in olivier's charming picture of "le thé à l'anglaise chez le prince de conti," are as obviously utilitarian as the strip of green woollen stuff hanging against the leaded casement of the mediæval bed-chamber in carpaccio's "dream of st. ursula." another way of hanging window-curtains in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was to place them inside the architrave, so that they did not conceal it. the architectural treatment of the trim, and the practice prevalent at that period of carrying the windows up to the cornice, made this a satisfactory way of arranging the curtain; but in the modern american house, where the trim is usually bad, and where there is often a dreary waste of wall-paper between the window and the ceiling, it is better to hang the curtains close under the cornice. it was not until the eighteenth century that the window-curtain was divided in the middle; and this change was intended only to facilitate the drawing of the hangings, which, owing to the increased size of the windows, were necessarily wider and heavier. the curtain continued to hang down in straight folds, pulled back at will to permit the opening of the window, and drawn at night. fixed window-draperies, with festoons and folds so arranged that they cannot be lowered or raised, are an invention of the modern upholsterer. not only have these fixed draperies done away with the true purpose of the curtain, but they have made architects and decorators careless in their treatment of openings. the architrave and embrasure of a window are now regarded as of no more importance in the decorative treatment of a room than the inside of the chimney. the modern use of the lambrequin as an ornamental finish to window-curtains is another instance of misapplied decoration. its history is easy to trace. the mediæval bed was always enclosed in curtains hanging from a wooden framework, and the lambrequin was used as a kind of cornice to conceal it. when the use of gathered window-shades became general in italy, the lambrequin was transferred from the bed to the window, in order to hide the clumsy bunches of folds formed by these shades when drawn up. in old prints, lambrequins over windows are almost always seen in connection with italian shades, and this is the only logical way of using them; though they are often of service in concealing the defects of badly-shaped windows and unarchitectural trim. those who criticize the architects and decorators of the past are sometimes disposed to think that they worked in a certain way because they were too ignorant to devise a better method; whereas they were usually controlled by practical and artistic considerations which their critics are prone to disregard, not only in judging the work of the past, but in the attempt to make good its deficiencies. thus the cabinet-makers of the renaissance did not make straight-backed wooden chairs because they were incapable of imagining anything more comfortable, but because the former were better adapted than cushioned arm-chairs to the _déplacements_ so frequent at that period. in like manner, the decorator who regarded curtains as a necessity rather than as part of the decoration of the room knew (what the modern upholsterer fails to understand) that, the beauty of a room depending chiefly on its openings, to conceal these under draperies is to hide the key of the whole decorative scheme. the muslin window-curtain is a recent innovation. its only purpose is to protect the interior of the room from public view: a need not felt before the use of large sheets of glass, since it is difficult to look through a subdivided sash from the outside. under such circumstances muslin curtains are, of course, useful; but where they may be dispensed with, owing to the situation of the room or the subdivision of panes, they are no loss. lingerie effects do not combine well with architecture, and the more architecturally a window is treated, the less it need be dressed up in ruffles. to put such curtains in a window, and then loop them back so that they form a mere frame to the pane, is to do away with their real purpose, and to substitute a textile for an architectural effect. where muslin curtains are necessary, they should be a mere transparent screen hung against the glass. in town houses especially all outward show of richness should be avoided; the use of elaborate lace-figured curtains, besides obstructing the view, seems an attempt to protrude the luxury of the interior upon the street. it is needless to point out the futility of the second layer of muslin which, in some houses, hangs inside the sash-curtains. the solid inside shutter, now so generally discarded, save in france, formerly served the purposes for which curtains and shades are used, and, combined with outside blinds, afforded all the protection that a window really requires (see plate xix). these shutters should be made with solid panels, not with slats, their purpose being to darken the room and keep out the cold, while the light is regulated by the outside blinds. the best of these is the old-fashioned hand-made blind, with wide fixed slats, still to be seen on old new england houses and always used in france and italy: the frail machine-made substitute now in general use has nothing to recommend it. footnote: [ ] as an example of the extent to which openings have come to be ignored as factors in the decorative composition of a room, it is curious to note that in eastlake's well-known _hints on household taste_ no mention is made of doors, windows or fireplaces. compare this point of view with that of the earlier decorators, from vignola to roubo and ware. vi fireplaces the fireplace was formerly always regarded as the chief feature of the room, and so treated in every well-thought-out scheme of decoration. the practical reasons which make it important that the windows in a room should be carried up to the cornice have already been given, and it has been shown that the lines of the other openings should be extended to the same height. this applies to fireplaces as well as to doors, and, indeed, as an architectural principle concerning all kinds of openings, it has never been questioned until the present day. the hood of the vast gothic fireplace always descended from the springing of the vaulted roof, and the monumental chimney-pieces of the renaissance followed the same lines (see plate xx). the importance of giving an architectural character to the chimney-piece is insisted on by blondel, whose remark, "je voudrais n'appliquer à une cheminée que des ornements convenables à l'architecture," is a valuable axiom for the decorator. it is a mistake to think that this treatment necessitates a large mantel-piece and a monumental style of panelling. the smallest mantel, surmounted by a picture or a mirror set in simple mouldings, may be as architectural as the great chimney-pieces at urbino or cheverny: all depends on the spirit of the treatment and on the proper relation of the different members used. pajou's monument to madame du barry's canary-bird is far more architectural than the albert memorial. [illustration: _plate xx._ mantelpiece in ducal palace, urbino. xv century. (transition between gothic and renaissance.)] when, in the middle ages, the hearth in the centre of the room was replaced by the wall-chimney, the fireplace was invariably constructed with a projecting hood of brick or stone, generally semicircular in shape, designed to carry off the smoke which in earlier times had escaped through a hole in the roof. the opening of the fireplace, at first of moderate dimensions, was gradually enlarged to an enormous size, from the erroneous idea that the larger the fire the greater would be the warmth of the room. by degrees it was discovered that the effect of the volume of heat projected into the room was counteracted by the strong draught and by the mass of cold air admitted through the huge chimney; and to obviate this difficulty iron doors were placed in the opening and kept closed when the fire was not burning (see plate xxi). but this was only a partial remedy, and in time it was found expedient to reduce the size of both chimney and fireplace. in italy the strong feeling for architectural lines and the invariable exercise of common sense in construction soon caused the fireplace to be sunk into the wall, thus ridding the room of the gothic hood, while the wall-space above the opening received a treatment of panelling, sometimes enclosed in pilasters, and usually crowned by an entablature and pediment. when the chimney was not sunk in the wall, the latter was brought forward around the opening, thus forming a flat chimney-breast to which the same style of decoration could be applied. this projection was seldom permitted in italy, where the thickness of the walls made it easy to sink the fireplace, while an unerring feeling for form rejected the advancing chimney-breast as a needless break in the wall-surface of the room. in france, where gothic methods of construction persisted so long after the introduction of classic ornament, the habit of building out the chimney-breast continued until the seventeenth century, and even a hundred years later french decorators described the plan of sinking the fireplace into the thickness of the wall as the "italian manner." the thinness of modern walls has made the projecting chimney-breast a structural necessity; but the composition of the room is improved by "furring out" the wall on each side of the fireplace in such a way as to conceal the projection and obviate a break in the wall-space. where the room is so small that every foot of space is valuable, a niche may be formed in either angle of the chimney-breast, thus preserving the floor-space which would be sacrificed by advancing the wall, and yet avoiding the necessity of a break in the cornice. the italian plan of panelling the space between mantel and cornice continued in favor, with various modifications, until the beginning of the present century. in early italian renaissance over-mantels the central panel was usually filled by a bas-relief; but in the sixteenth century this was frequently replaced by a picture, not hung on the panelling, but forming a part of it.[ ] in france the sculptured over-mantel followed the same general lines of development, though the treatment, until the time of louis xiii, showed traces of the gothic tendency to overload with ornament without regard to unity of design, so that the main lines of the composition were often lost under a mass of ill-combined detail. in italy the early renaissance mantels were usually of marble. french mantels of the same period were of stone; but this material was so unsuited to the elaborate sculpture then in fashion that wood was sometimes used instead. for a season richly carved wooden chimney-pieces, covered with paint and gilding, were in favor; but when the first marble mantels were brought from italy, that sense of fitness in the use of material for which the french have always been distinguished, led them to recognize the superiority of marble, and the wooden mantel-piece was discarded: nor has it since been used in france. with the seventeenth century, french mantel-pieces became more architectural in design and less florid in ornament, and the ponderous hood laden with pinnacles, escutcheons, fortified castles and statues of saints and warriors, was replaced by a more severe decoration. thackeray's gibe at louis xiv and his age has so long been accepted by the english-speaking races as a serious estimate of the period, that few now appreciate the artistic preponderance of france in the seventeenth century. as a matter of fact, it is to the schools of art founded by louis xiv and to his magnificent patronage of the architects and decorators trained in these schools that we owe the preservation, in northern europe, of that sense of form and spirit of moderation which mark the great classic tradition. to disparage the work of men like levau, mansart, de cotte and lebrun, shows an insufficient understanding, not only of what they did, but of the inheritance of confused and turgid ornament from which they freed french art.[ ] whether our individual tastes incline us to the gothic or to the classic style, it is easy to see that a school which tried to combine the structure of the one with the ornament of the other was likely to fall into incoherent modes of expression; and this was precisely what happened to french domestic architecture at the end of the renaissance period. it has been the fashion to describe the art of the louis xiv period as florid and bombastic; but a comparison of the designs of philibert de lorme and androuet ducerceau with those of such men as levau and robert de cotte will show that what the latter did was not to introduce a florid and bombastic manner, but to discard it for what viollet-le-duc, who will certainly not be suspected of undue partiality for this school of architects, calls "une grandeur solide, sans faux ornements." no better illustration of this can be obtained than by comparing the mantel-pieces of the respective periods.[ ] the louis xiv mantel-pieces are much simpler and more coherent in design. the caryatides supporting the entablature above the opening of the earlier mantels, and the full-length statues flanking the central panel of the over-mantel, are replaced by massive and severe mouldings of the kind which the french call _mâle_ (see mantels in plates v and xxxvi). above the entablature there is usually a kind of attic or high concave member of marble, often fluted, and forming a ledge or shelf just wide enough to carry the row of porcelain vases with which it had become the fashion to adorn the mantel. these vases, and the bas-relief or picture occupying the central panel above, form the chief ornament of the chimney-piece, though occasionally the crowning member of the over-mantel is treated with a decoration of garlands, masks, trophies or other strictly architectural ornament, while in italy and england the broken pediment is frequently employed. the use of a mirror over the fireplace is said to have originated with mansart; but according to blondel it was robert de cotte who brought about this innovation, thus producing an immediate change in the general scheme of composition. the french were far too logical not to see the absurdity of placing a mirror too high to be looked into; and the concave louis xiv member, which had raised the mantel-shelf six feet from the floor, was removed[ ] and the shelf placed directly over the entablature. [illustration: _plate xxi._ mantelpiece in the villa giacomelli, at maser, near treviso. xvi century. (showing iron doors in opening.)] somewhat later the introduction of clocks and candelabra as mantel ornaments made it necessary to widen the shelf, and this further modified the general design; while the suites of small rooms which had come into favor under the regent led to a reduction in the size of mantel-pieces, and to the use of less massive and perhaps less architectural ornament. in the eighteenth century, mantel-pieces in italy and france were almost always composed of a marble or stone architrave surmounted by a shelf of the same material, while the over-mantel consisted of a mirror, framed in mouldings varying in design from the simplest style to the most ornate. this over-mantel, which was either of the exact width of the mantel-shelf or some few inches narrower, ended under the cornice, and its upper part was usually decorated in the same way as the over-doors in the room. if these contained paintings, a picture carrying out the same scheme of decoration was often placed in the upper part of the over-mantel; or the ornaments of carved wood or stucco filling the panels over the doors were repeated in the upper part of the mirror-frame. in france, mirrors had by this time replaced pictures in the central panel of the over-mantel; but in italian decoration of the same period oval pictures were often applied to the centre of the mirror, with delicate lines of ornament connecting the picture and mirror frames.[ ] the earliest fireplaces were lined with stone or brick, but in the sixteenth century the more practical custom of using iron fire-backs was introduced. at first this fire-back consisted of a small plaque of iron, shaped like a headstone, and fixed at the back of the fireplace, where the brick or stone was most likely to be calcined by the fire. when chimney-building became more scientific, the size of the fireplace was reduced, and the sides of the opening were brought much nearer the flame, thus making it necessary to extend the fire-back into a lining for the whole fireplace. it was soon seen that besides resisting the heat better than any other substance, the iron lining served to radiate it into the room. the iron back consequently held its own through every subsequent change in the treatment of the fireplace; and the recent return, in england and america, to brick or stone is probably due to the fact that the modern iron lining is seldom well designed. iron backs were adopted because they served their purpose better than any others; and as no new substance offering greater advantages has since been discovered, there is no reason for discarding them, especially as they are not only more practical but more decorative than any other lining. the old fire-backs (of which reproductions are readily obtained) were decorated with charming bas-reliefs, and their dark bosses, in the play of the firelight, form a more expressive background than the dead and unresponsive surface of brick or stone. it was not uncommon in england to treat the mantel as an order crowned by its entablature. where this was done, an intermediate space was left between mantel and over-mantel, an arrangement which somewhat weakened the architectural effect. a better plan was that of surmounting the entablature with an attic, and making the over-mantel spring directly from the latter. fine examples of this are seen at holkham, built by brettingham for the earl of leicester about the middle of the eighteenth century. the english fireplace was modified at the end of the seventeenth century, when coal began to replace wood. chippendale gives many designs for beautiful basket-grates, such as were set in the large fireplaces originally intended for wood; for it was not until later that chimneys with smaller openings were specially constructed to receive the fixed grate and the hob-grate. it was in england that the architectural treatment of the over-mantel was first abandoned. the use of a mirror framed in a panel over the fireplace had never become general in england, and toward the end of the eighteenth century the mantel-piece was frequently surmounted by a blank wall-space, on which a picture or a small round mirror was hung high above the shelf (see plate xlvii). examples are seen in moreland's pictures, and in prints of simple eighteenth-century english interiors; but this treatment is seldom found in rooms of any architectural pretensions. the early american fireplace was merely a cheap provincial copy of english models of the same period. the application of the word "colonial" to pre-revolutionary architecture and decoration has created a vague impression that there existed at that time an american architectural style. as a matter of fact, "colonial" architecture is simply a modest copy of georgian models; and "colonial" mantel-pieces were either imported from england by those who could afford it, or were reproduced in wood from current english designs. wooden mantels were, indeed, not unknown in england, where the use of a wooden architrave led to the practice of facing the fireplace with dutch tiles; but wood was used, both in england and america, only from motives of cheapness, and the architrave was set back from the opening only because it was unsafe to put an inflammable material so near the fire. after all the best american houses contained imported marble mantel-pieces. these usually consisted of an entablature resting on columns or caryatides, with a frieze in low relief representing some classic episode, or simply ornamented with bucranes and garlands. in the general decline of taste which marked the middle of the present century, these dignified and well-designed mantel-pieces were replaced by marble arches containing a fixed grate. the hideousness of this arched opening soon produced a distaste for marble mantels in the minds of a generation unacquainted with the early designs. this distaste led to a reaction in favor of wood, resulting in the displacement of the architrave and the facing of the space between architrave and opening with tiles, iron or marble. people are beginning to see that the ugliness of the marble mantel-pieces of - does not prove that wood is the more suitable material to employ. there is indeed something of unfitness in the use of an inflammable material surrounding a fireplace. everything about the hearth should not only be, but _look_, fire-proof. the chief objection to wood is that its use necessitates the displacement of the architrave, thus leaving a flat intermediate space to be faced with some fire-proof material. this is an architectural fault. a door of which the architrave should be set back eighteen inches or more to admit of a facing of tiles or marble would be pronounced unarchitectural; and it is usually admitted that all classes of openings should be subject to the same general treatment. where the mantel-piece is of wood, the setting back of the architrave is a necessity; but, curiously enough, the practice has become so common in england and america that even where the mantel is made of marble or stone it is set back in the same way; so that it is unusual to see a modern fireplace in which the architrave defines the opening. in france, also, the use of an inner facing (called a _retrécissement_) has become common, probably because such a device makes it possible to use less fuel, while not disturbing the proportions of the mantel as related to the room. the reaction from the bare stiff rooms of the first quarter of the present century--the era of mahogany and horsehair--resulted, some twenty years since, in a general craving for knick-knacks; and the latter soon spread from the tables to the mantel, especially in england and america, where the absence of the architectural over-mantel left a bare expanse of wall above the chimney-piece. the use of the mantel as a bric-à-brac shelf led in time to the lengthening and widening of this shelf, and in consequence to the enlargement of the whole chimney-piece. mantels which in the eighteenth century would have been thought in scale with rooms of certain dimensions would now be considered too small and insignificant. the use of large mantel-pieces, besides throwing everything in the room out of scale, is a structural mistake, since the excessive projection of the mantel has a tendency to make the fire smoke; indeed, the proportions of the old mantels, far from being arbitrary, were based as much on practical as on artistic considerations. moreover, the use of long, wide shelves has brought about the accumulation of superfluous knick-knacks, whereas a smaller mantel, if architecturally designed, would demand only its conventional _garniture_ of clock and candlesticks. the device of concealing an ugly mantel-piece by folds of drapery brings an inflammable substance so close to the fire that there is a suggestion of danger even where there is no actual risk. the lines of a mantel, however bad, represent some kind of solid architrave,--a more suitable setting for an architectural opening than flimsy festoons of brocade or plush. any one who can afford to replace an ugly chimney-piece by one of good design will find that this change does more than any other to improve the appearance of a room. where a badly designed mantel cannot be removed, the best plan is to leave it unfurbelowed, simply placing above it a mirror or panel to connect the lines of the opening with the cornice. the effect of a fireplace depends much upon the good taste and appropriateness of its accessories. little attention is paid at present to the design and workmanship of these and like necessary appliances; yet if good of their kind they add more to the adornment of a room than a multiplicity of useless knick-knacks. andirons should be of wrought-iron, bronze or ormolu. substances which require constant polishing, such as steel or brass, are unfitted to a fireplace. it is no longer easy to buy the old bronze andirons of french or italian design, with pedestals surmounted by statuettes of nymph or faun, to which time has given the iridescence that modern bronze-workers vainly try to reproduce with varnish. these bronzes, and the old ormolu andirons, are now almost _introuvables_; but the french artisan still copies the old models with fair success (see plates v and xxxvi). andirons should not only harmonize with the design of the mantel but also be in scale with its dimensions. in the fireplace of a large drawing-room, boudoir andirons would look insignificant; while the monumental renaissance fire-dogs would dwarf a small mantel and make its ornamentation trivial. if andirons are gilt, they should be of ormolu. the cheaper kinds of gilding are neither durable nor good in tone, and plain iron is preferable to anything but bronze or fire-gilding. the design of shovel and tongs should accord with that of the andirons: in france such details are never disregarded. the shovel and tongs should be placed upright against the mantel-piece, or rest upon hooks inserted in the architrave: the brass or gilt stands now in use are seldom well designed. fenders, being merely meant to protect the floor from sparks, should be as light and easy to handle as possible: the folding fender of wire-netting is for this reason preferable to any other, since it may be shut and put away when not in use. the low guards of solid brass in favor in england and america not only fail to protect the floor, but form a permanent barrier between the fire and those who wish to approach it; and the latter objection applies also to the massive folding fender that is too heavy to be removed. coal-scuttles, like andirons, should be made of bronze, ormolu or iron. the unnecessary use of substances which require constant polishing is one of the mysteries of english and american housekeeping: it is difficult to see why a housemaid should spend hours in polishing brass or steel fenders, andirons, coal-scuttles and door-knobs, when all these articles might be made of some substance that does not need daily cleaning. where wood is burned, no better wood-box can be found than an old carved chest, either one of the italian _cassoni_, with their painted panels and gilded volutes, or a plain box of oak or walnut with well-designed panels and old iron hasps. the best substitute for such a chest is a plain wicker basket, without ornamentation, enamel paint or gilding. if an article of this kind is not really beautiful, it had better be as obviously utilitarian as possible in design and construction. a separate chapter might be devoted to the fire-screen, with its carved frame and its panel of tapestry, needlework, or painted arabesques. of all the furniture of the hearth, it is that upon which most taste and variety of invention have been spent; and any of the numerous french works on furniture and house-decoration will supply designs which the modern decorator might successfully reproduce (see plate xxii). so large is the field from which he may select his models, that it is perhaps more to the purpose to touch upon the styles of fire-screens to be avoided: such as the colossal brass or ormolu fan, the stained-glass screen, the embroidered or painted banner suspended on a gilt rod, or the stuffed bird spread out in a broiled attitude against a plush background. [illustration: _plate xxii._ french fire-screen, louis xiv period. from the chÂteau of anet.] in connection with the movable fire-screen, a word may be said of the fire-boards which, until thirty or forty years ago, were used to close the opening of the fireplace in summer. these fire-boards are now associated with old-fashioned boarding-house parlors, where they are still sometimes seen, covered with a paper like that on the walls, and looking ugly enough to justify their disuse. the old fire-boards were very different: in rooms of any importance they were beautifully decorated, and in italian interiors, where the dado was often painted, the same decoration was continued on the fire-boards. sometimes the latter were papered; but the paper used was designed expressly for the purpose, with a decorative composition of flowers, landscapes, or the ever-amusing _chinoiseries_ on which the eighteenth-century designer played such endless variations. whether the fireplace in summer should be closed by a board, or left open, with the logs laid on the irons, is a question for individual taste; but it is certain that if the painted fire-board were revived, it might form a very pleasing feature in the decoration of modern rooms. the only possible objection to its use is that it interferes with ventilation by closing the chimney-opening; but as fire-boards are used only at a season when all the windows are open, this drawback is hardly worth considering. in spite of the fancied advancement in refinement and luxury of living, the development of the modern heating apparatus seems likely, especially in america, to do away with the open fire. the temperature maintained in most american houses by means of hot-air or hot-water pipes is so high that even the slight additional warmth of a wood fire would be unendurable. still there are a few exceptions to this rule, and in some houses the healthy glow of open fires is preferred to the parching atmosphere of steam. indeed, it might almost be said that the good taste and _savoir-vivre_ of the inmates of a house may be guessed from the means used for heating it. old pictures, old furniture and fine bindings cannot live in a furnace-baked atmosphere; and those who possess such treasures and know their value have an additional motive for keeping their houses cool and well ventilated. no house can be properly aired in winter without the draughts produced by open fires. fortunately, doctors are beginning to call attention to this neglected detail of sanitation; and as dry artificial heat is the main source of throat and lung diseases, it is to be hoped that the growing taste for open-air life and out-door sports will bring about a desire for better ventilation, and a dislike for air-tight stoves, gas-fires and steam-heat. aside from the question of health and personal comfort, nothing can be more cheerless and depressing than a room without fire on a winter day. the more torrid the room, the more abnormal is the contrast between the cold hearth and the incandescent temperature. without a fire, the best-appointed drawing-room is as comfortless as the shut-up "best parlor" of a new england farm-house. the empty fireplace shows that the room is not really lived in and that its appearance of luxury and comfort is but a costly sham prepared for the edification of visitors. footnotes: [ ] in italy, where the walls were frescoed, the architectural composition over the mantel was also frequently painted. examples of this are to be seen at the villa vertemati, near chiavenna, and at the villa giacomelli, at maser, near treviso. this practice accounts for the fact that in many old architectural drawings of italian interiors a blank wall-space is seen over the mantel. [ ] it is to be hoped that the recently published english translation of m. Émile bourgeois's book on louis xiv will do much to remove this prejudice. [ ] it is curious that those who criticize the ornateness of the louis xiv style are often the warmest admirers of the french renaissance, the style of all others most remarkable for its excessive use of ornament, exquisite in itself, but quite unrelated to structure and independent of general design. [ ] it is said to have been put at this height in order that the porcelain vases should be out of reach. see daviler, "cours d'architecture." [ ] examples are to be seen in several rooms of the hunting-lodge of the kings of savoy, at stupinigi, near turin. vii ceilings and floors to attempt even an outline of the history of ceilings in domestic architecture would exceed the scope of this book; nor would it serve any practical purpose to trace the early forms of vaulting and timbering which preceded the general adoption of the modern plastered ceiling. to understand the development of the modern ceiling, however, one must trace the two very different influences by which it has been shaped: that of the timber roof of the north and that of the brick or stone vault of the latin builders. this twofold tradition has curiously affected the details of the modern ceiling. during the renaissance, flat plaster ceilings were not infrequently coffered with stucco panels exactly reproducing the lines of timber framing; and in the villa vertemati, near chiavenna, there is a curious and interesting ceiling of carved wood made in imitation of stucco (see plate xxiii); while one of the rooms in the palais de justice at rennes contains an elaborate vaulted ceiling constructed entirely of wood, with mouldings nailed on (see plate xxiv). in northern countries, where the ceiling was simply the under side of the wooden floor,[ ] it was natural that its decoration should follow the rectangular subdivisions formed by open timber-framing. in the south, however, where the floors were generally of stone, resting on stone vaults, the structural conditions were so different that although the use of caissons based on the divisions of timber-framing was popular both in the roman and renaissance periods, the architect always felt himself free to treat the ceiling as a flat, undivided surface prepared for the application of ornament. the idea that there is anything unarchitectural in this method comes from an imperfect understanding of the construction of roman ceilings. the vault was the typical roman ceiling, and the vault presents a smooth surface, without any structural projections to modify the ornament applied to it. the panelling of a vaulted or flat ceiling was as likely to be agreeable to the eye as a similar treatment of the walls; but the roman coffered ceiling and its renaissance successors were the result of a strong sense of decorative fitness rather than of any desire to adhere to structural limitations. examples of the timbered ceiling are, indeed, to be found in italy as well as in france and england; and in venice the flat wooden ceiling, panelled upon structural lines, persisted throughout the renaissance period; but in rome, where the classic influences were always much stronger, and where the discovery of the stucco ceilings of ancient baths and palaces produced such lasting effects upon the architecture of the early renaissance, the decorative treatment of the stone vault was transferred to the flat or coved renaissance ceiling without a thought of its being inapplicable or "insincere." the fear of insincerity, in the sense of concealing the anatomy of any part of a building, troubled the renaissance architect no more than it did his gothic predecessor, who had never hesitated to stretch a "ciel" of cloth or tapestry over the naked timbers of the mediæval ceiling. the duty of exposing structural forms--an obligation that weighs so heavily upon the conscience of the modern architect--is of very recent origin. mediæval as well as renaissance architects thought first of adapting their buildings to the uses for which they were intended and then of decorating them in such a way as to give pleasure to the eye; and the maintenance of that relation which the eye exacts between main structural lines and their ornamentation was the only form of sincerity which they knew or cared about. [illustration: _plate xxiii._ carved wooden ceiling, villa vertemati. xvi century. (showing influence of stucco decoration.)] if a flat ceiling rested on a well-designed cornice, or if a vaulted or coved ceiling sprang obviously from walls capable of supporting it, the italian architect did not allow himself to be hampered by any pedantic conformity to structural details. the eye once satisfied that the ceiling had adequate support, the fit proportioning of its decoration was considered far more important than mere technical fidelity to the outline of floor-beams and joists. if the italian decorator wished to adorn a ceiling with carved or painted panels he used the lines of the timbering to frame his panels, because they naturally accorded with his decorative scheme; while, were a large central painting to be employed, or the ceiling to be covered with reliefs in stucco, he felt no more hesitation in deviating from the lines of the timbering than he would have felt in planning the pattern of a mosaic or a marble floor without reference to the floor-beams beneath it. in france and england it was natural that timber-construction should long continue to regulate the design of the ceiling. the roman vault lined with stone caissons, or with a delicate tracery of stucco-work, was not an ever-present precedent in northern europe. tradition pointed to the open-timbered roof; and as italy furnished numerous and brilliant examples of decorative treatment adapted to this form of ceiling, it was to be expected that both in france and england the national form should be preserved long after italian influences had established themselves in both countries. in fact, it is interesting to note that in france, where the artistic feeling was much finer, and the sense of fitness and power of adaptation were more fully developed, than in england, the lines of the timbered ceiling persisted throughout the renaissance and louis xiii periods; whereas in england the elizabethan architects, lost in the mazes of italian detail, without a guiding perception of its proper application, abandoned the timbered ceiling, with its eminently architectural subdivisions, for a flat plaster surface over which geometrical flowers in stucco meandered in endless sinuosities, unbroken by a single moulding, and repeating themselves with the maddening persistency of wall-paper pattern. this style of ornamentation was done away with by inigo jones and his successors, who restored the architectural character of the ceiling, whether flat or vaulted; and thereafter panelling persisted in england until the french revolution brought about the general downfall of taste.[ ] in france, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, the liking for _petits appartements_ led to greater lightness in all kinds of decorative treatment; and the ceilings of the louis xv period, while pleasing in detail, are open to the criticism of being somewhat weak in form. still, they are always _compositions_, and their light traceries, though perhaps too dainty and fragile in themselves, are so disposed as to form a clearly marked design, instead of being allowed to wander in a monotonous network over the whole surface of the ceiling, like the ubiquitous tudor rose. isaac ware, trained in the principles of form which the teachings of inigo jones had so deeply impressed upon english architects, ridicules the "petty wildnesses" of the french style; but if the louis xv ceiling lost for a time its architectural character, this was soon to be restored by gabriel and his followers, while at the same period in england the forcible mouldings of inigo jones's school were fading into the ineffectual grace of adam's laurel-wreaths and velaria. [illustration: _plate xxiv._ ceiling in the palais de justice, rennes. louis xiv period. (wooden ceiling imitating masonry vaulting and stucco ornamentation.)] in the general effect of the room, the form of the ceiling is of more importance than its decoration. in rooms of a certain size and height, a flat surface overhead looks monotonous, and the ceiling should be vaulted or coved.[ ] endless modifications of this form of treatment are to be found in the architectural treatises of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as well as in the buildings of that period. a coved ceiling greatly increases the apparent height of a low-studded room; but rooms of this kind should not be treated with an order, since the projection of the cornice below the springing of the cove will lower the walls so much as to defeat the purpose for which the cove has been used. in such rooms the cove should rise directly from the walls; and this treatment suggests the important rule that where the cove is not supported by a cornice the ceiling decoration should be of very light character. a heavy panelled ceiling should not rest on the walls without the intervention of a strongly profiled cornice. the french louis xv decoration, with its fanciful embroidery of stucco ornament, is well suited to coved ceilings springing directly from the walls in a room of low stud; while a ceiling divided into panels with heavy architectural mouldings, whether it be flat or vaulted, looks best when the walls are treated with a complete order. durand, in his lectures on architecture, in speaking of cornices lays down the following excellent rules: "interior cornices must necessarily differ more or less from those belonging to the orders as used externally, though in rooms of reasonable height these differences need be but slight; but if the stud be low, as sometimes is inevitable, the cornice must be correspondingly narrowed, and given an excessive projection, in order to increase the apparent height of the room. moreover, as in the interior of the house the light is much less bright than outside, the cornice should be so profiled that the juncture of the mouldings shall form not right angles, but acute angles, with spaces between the mouldings serving to detach the latter still more clearly from each other." the choice of the substance out of which a ceiling is to be made depends somewhat upon the dimensions of the room, the height of the stud and the decoration of the walls. a heavily panelled wooden ceiling resting upon walls either frescoed or hung with stuff is likely to seem oppressive; but, as in all other kinds of decoration, the effect produced depends far more upon the form and the choice of ornamental detail than upon the material used. wooden ceilings, however, both from the nature of the construction and the kind of ornament which may most suitably be applied to them, are of necessity rather heavy in appearance, and should therefore be used only in large and high-studded rooms the walls of which are panelled in wood.[ ] stucco and fresco-painting are adapted to every variety of decoration, from the light traceries of a boudoir ceiling to the dome of the _salon à l'italienne_; but the design must be chosen with strict regard to the size and height of the room and to the proposed treatment of its walls. the cornice forms the connecting link between walls and ceiling and it is essential to the harmony of any scheme of decoration that this important member should be carefully designed. it is useless to lavish money on the adornment of walls and ceiling connected by an ugly cornice. the same objections extend to the clumsy plaster mouldings which in many houses disfigure the ceiling. to paint or gild a ceiling of this kind only attracts attention to its ugliness. when the expense of removing the mouldings and filling up the holes in the plaster is considered too great, it is better to cover the bulbous rosettes and pendentives with kalsomine than to attempt their embellishment by means of any polychrome decoration. the cost of removing plaster ornaments is not great, however, and a small outlay will replace an ugly cornice by one of architectural design; so that a little economy in buying window-hangings or chair-coverings often makes up for the additional expense of these changes. one need only look at the ceilings in the average modern house to see what a thing of horror plaster may become in the hands of an untrained "designer." the same general principles of composition suggested for the treatment of walls may be applied to ceiling-decoration. thus it is essential that where there is a division of parts, one part shall perceptibly predominate; and this, in a ceiling, should be the central division. the chief defect of the coffered renaissance ceiling is the lack of this predominating part. great as may have been the decorative skill expended on the treatment of beams and panels, the coffered ceiling of equal-sized divisions seems to press down upon the spectator's head; whereas the large central panel gives an idea of height that the great ceiling-painters were quick to enhance by glimpses of cloud and sky, or some aerial effect, as in mantegna's incomparable ceiling of the sala degli sposi in the ducal palace of mantua. [illustration: _plate xxv._ ceiling of the sala degli sposi, ducal palace, mantua. by andrea mantegna, .] ceiling-decoration should never be a literal reproduction of wall-decoration. the different angle and greater distance at which ceilings are viewed demand a quite different treatment and it is to the disregard of this fact that most badly designed ceilings owe their origin. even in the high days of art there was a tendency on the part of some decorators to confound the two plane surfaces of wall and ceiling, and one might cite many wall-designs which have been transferred to the ceiling without being rearranged to fit their new position. instances of this kind have never been so general as in the present day. the reaction from the badly designed mouldings and fungoid growths that characterized the ceilings of forty years ago has led to the use of attenuated laurel-wreaths combined with other puny attributes taken from sheraton cabinets and adam mantel-pieces. these so-called ornaments, always somewhat lacking in character, become absolutely futile when viewed from below. this pressed-flower ornamentation is a direct precedent to the modern ceiling covered with wall-paper. one would think that the inappropriateness of this treatment was obvious; but since it has become popular enough to warrant the manufacture of specially designed ceiling-papers, some protest should be made. the necessity for hiding cracks in the plaster is the reason most often given for papering ceilings; but the cost of mending cracks is small and a plaster ceiling lasts much longer than is generally thought. it need never be taken down unless it is actually falling; and as well-made repairs strengthen and improve the entire surface, a much-mended ceiling is stronger than one that is just beginning to crack. if the cost of repairing must be avoided, a smooth white lining-paper should be chosen in place of one of the showy and vulgar papers which serve only to attract attention. of all forms of ceiling adornment painting is the most beautiful. italy, which contains the three perfect ceilings of the world--those of mantegna in the ducal palace of mantua (see plate xxv), of perugino in the sala del cambio at perugia and of araldi in the convent of st. paul at parma--is the best field for the study of this branch of art. from the semi-classical vaults of the fifteenth century, with their roman arabesques and fruit-garlands framing human figures detached as mere ornament against a background of solid color, to the massive goddesses and broad virgilian landscapes of the carracci and to the piled-up perspectives of giordano's school of prestidigitators, culminating in the great tiepolo, italian art affords examples of every temperament applied to the solution of one of the most interesting problems in decoration. such ceilings as those on which raphael and giovanni da udine worked together, combining painted arabesques and medallions with stucco reliefs, are admirably suited to small low-studded rooms and might well be imitated by painters incapable of higher things. there is but one danger in adapting this decoration to modern use--that is, the temptation to sacrifice scale and general composition to the search after refinement of detail. it cannot be denied that some of the decorations of the school of giovanni da udine are open to this criticism. the ornamentation of the great loggia of the villa madama is unquestionably out of scale with the dimensions of the structure. much exquisite detail is lost in looking up past the great piers and the springing of the massive arches to the lace-work that adorns the vaulting. in this case the composition is less at fault than the scale: the decorations of the semi-domes at the villa madama, if transferred to a small mezzanin room, would be found to "compose" perfectly. charming examples of the use of this style in small apartments may be studied in the rooms of the casino del grotto, near mantua. the tendency of many modern decorators to sacrifice composition to detail, and to neglect the observance of proportion between ornament and structure, makes the adaptation of renaissance stucco designs a somewhat hazardous undertaking; but the very care required to preserve the scale and to accentuate the general lines of the design affords good training in the true principles of composition. equally well suited to modern use are the designs in arabesque with which, in france, bérain and his followers painted the ceilings of small rooms during the louis xiv period (see plate xxvi). with the opening of the eighteenth century the bérain arabesques, animated by the touch of watteau, huet and j.-b. leprince, blossomed into trellis-like designs alive with birds and monkeys, chinese mandarins balancing umbrellas, and nymphs and shepherdesses under slender classical ruins. side by side with the monumental work of such artists as lebrun and lesueur, coypel, vouet and natoire, this light style of composition was always in favor for the decoration of _petits appartements_: the most famous painters of the day did not think it beneath them to furnish designs for such purposes (see plate xxvii). in moderate-sized rooms which are to be decorated in a simple and inexpensive manner, a plain plaster ceiling with well-designed cornice is preferable to any device for producing showy effects at small cost. it may be laid down as a general rule in house-decoration that what must be done cheaply should be done simply. it is better to pay for the best plastering than to use a cheaper quality and then to cover the cracks with lincrusta or ceiling-paper. this is true of all such expedients: let the fundamental work be good in design and quality and the want of ornament will not be felt. in america the return to a more substantial way of building and the tendency to discard wood for brick or stone whenever possible will doubtless lead in time to the use of brick, stone or marble floors. these floors, associated in the minds of most americans with shivering expeditions through damp italian palaces, are in reality perfectly suited to the dry american climate, and even the most anæmic person could hardly object to brick or marble covered by heavy rugs. the inlaid marble floors of the italian palaces, whether composed of square or diamond-shaped blocks, or decorated with a large design in different colors, are unsurpassed in beauty; while in high-studded rooms where there is little pattern on the walls and a small amount of furniture, elaborately designed mosaic floors with sweeping arabesques and geometrical figures are of great decorative value. floors of these substances have the merit of being not only more architectural in character, more solid and durable, but also easier to keep clean. this should especially commend them to the hygienically-minded american housekeeper, since floors that may be washed are better suited to our climate than those which must be covered with a nailed-down carpet. next in merit to brick or marble comes the parquet of oak or other hard wood; but even this looks inadequate in rooms of great architectural importance. in ball-rooms a hard-wood floor is generally regarded as a necessity; but in vestibule, staircase, dining-room or saloon, marble is superior to anything else. the design of the parquet floor should be simple and unobtrusive. the french, who brought this branch of floor-laying to perfection, would never have tolerated the crudely contrasted woods that make the modern parquet so aggressive. like the walls of a room, the floor is a background: it should not furnish pattern, but set off whatever is placed upon it. the perspective effects dear to the modern floor-designer are the climax of extravagance. a floor should not only be, but appear to be, a perfectly level surface, without simulated bosses or concavities. in choosing rugs and carpets the subject of design should be carefully studied. the oriental carpet-designers have always surpassed their european rivals. the patterns of eastern rugs are invariably well composed, with skilfully conventionalized figures in flat unshaded colors. even the oriental rug of the present day is well drawn; but the colors used by eastern manufacturers since the introduction of aniline dyes are so discordant that these rugs are inferior to most modern european carpets. [illustration: _plate xxvi._ ceiling in the style of bÉrain. louis xiv period.] in houses with deal floors, nailed-down carpets are usually considered a necessity, and the designing of such carpets has improved so much in the last ten or fifteen years that a sufficient choice of unobtrusive geometrical patterns may now be found. the composition of european carpets woven in one piece, like rugs, has never been satisfactory. even the splendid _tapis de savonnerie_ made in france at the royal manufactory during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were not so true to the best principles of design as the old oriental rugs. in europe there was always a tendency to transfer wall or ceiling-decoration to floor-coverings. such incongruities as architectural mouldings, highly modelled trophies and human masks appear in most of the european carpets from the time of louis xiv to the present day; and except when copying eastern models the european designers were subject to strange lapses from taste. there is no reason why a painter should not simulate loggia and sky on a flat plaster ceiling, since no one will try to use this sham opening as a means of exit; but the carpet-designer who puts picture-frames and human faces under foot, though he does not actually deceive, produces on the eye a momentary startling sense of obstruction. any _trompe-l'oeil_ is permissible in decorative art if it gives an impression of pleasure; but the inherent sense of fitness is shocked by the act of walking upon upturned faces. recent carpet-designs, though usually free from such obvious incongruities, have seldom more than a negative merit. the unconventionalized flower still shows itself, and even when banished from the centre of the carpet lingers in the border which accompanies it. the vulgarity of these borders is the chief objection to using carpets of european manufacture as rugs, instead of nailing them to the floor. it is difficult to find a border that is not too wide, and of which the design is a simple conventional figure in flat unshaded colors. if used at all, a carpet with a border should always be in the form of a rug, laid in the middle of the room, and not cut to follow all the ins and outs of the floor, as such adaptation not only narrows the room but emphasizes any irregularity in its plan. in houses with deal floors, where nailed-down carpets are used in all the rooms, a restful effect is produced by covering the whole of each story with the same carpet, the door-sills being removed so that the carpet may extend from one room to another. in small town houses, especially, this will be found much less fatiguing to the eye than the usual manner of covering the floor of each room with carpets differing in color and design. where several rooms are carpeted alike, the floor-covering chosen should be quite plain, or patterned with some small geometrical figure in a darker shade of the foundation color; and green, dark blue or red will be found most easy to combine with the different color-schemes of the rooms. pale tints should be avoided in the selection of carpets. it is better that the color-scale should ascend gradually from the dark tone of floor or carpet to the faint half-tints of the ceiling. the opposite combination--that of a pale carpet with a dark ceiling--lowers the stud and produces an impression of top-heaviness and gloom; indeed, in a room where the ceiling is overladen, a dark rich-toned carpet will do much to lighten it, whereas a pale floor-covering will bring it down, as it were, on the inmates' heads. stair-carpets should be of a strong full color and, if possible, without pattern. it is fatiguing to see a design meant for a horizontal surface constrained to follow the ins and outs of a flight of steps; and the use of pattern where not needed is always meaningless, and interferes with a decided color-effect where the latter might have been of special advantage to the general scheme of decoration. [illustration: _plate xxvii._ ceiling in the chÂteau of chantilly. louis xv period. (example of chinoiserie decoration.)] footnotes: [ ] in france, until the sixteenth century, the same word--_plancher_--was used to designate both floor and ceiling. [ ] for a fine example of an english stucco ceiling, see plate xiii. [ ] the flat venetian ceilings, such as those in the ducal palace, with their richly carved wood-work and glorious paintings, beautiful as they have been made by art, are not so fine architecturally as a domed or coved ceiling. [ ] for an example of a wooden ceiling which is too heavy for the wall-decoration below it, see plate xliv. viii entrance and vestibule the decoration of the entrance necessarily depends on the nature of the house and its situation. a country house, where visitors are few and life is simple, demands a less formal treatment than a house in a city or town; while a villa in a watering-place where there is much in common with town life has necessarily many points of resemblance to a town house. it should be borne in mind of entrances in general that, while the main purpose of a door is to admit, its secondary purpose is to exclude. the outer door, which separates the hall or vestibule from the street, should clearly proclaim itself an effectual barrier. it should look strong enough to give a sense of security, and be so plain in design as to offer no chance of injury by weather and give no suggestion of interior decoration. the best ornamentation for an entrance-door is simple panelling, with bold architectural mouldings and as little decorative detail as possible. the necessary ornament should be contributed by the design of locks, hinges and handles. these, like the door itself, should be strong and serviceable, with nothing finikin in their treatment, and made of a substance which does not require cleaning. for the latter reason, bronze and iron are more fitting than brass or steel. in treating the vestibule, careful study is required to establish a harmony between the decorative elements inside and outside the house. the vestibule should form a natural and easy transition from the plain architecture of the street to the privacy of the interior (see plate xxviii). no portion of the inside of the house being more exposed to the weather, great pains should be taken to avoid using in its decoration materials easily damaged by rain or dust, such as carpets or wall-paper. the decoration should at once produce the impression of being weather-proof. marble, stone, scagliola, or painted stucco are for this reason the best materials. if wood is used, it should be painted, as dust and dirt soon soil it, and unless its finish be water-proof it will require continual varnishing. the decorations of the vestibule should be as permanent as possible in character, in order to avoid incessant small repairs. the floor should be of stone, marble, or tiles; even a linoleum or oil-cloth of sober pattern is preferable to a hard-wood floor in so exposed a situation. for the same reason, it is best to treat the walls with a decoration of stone or marble. in simpler houses the same effect may be produced at much less cost by dividing the wall-spaces into panels, with wooden mouldings applied directly to the plaster, the whole being painted in oil, either in one uniform tint or in varying shades of some cold sober color. this subdued color-scheme will produce an agreeable contrast with the hall or staircase, which, being a degree nearer the centre of the house, should receive a gayer and more informal treatment than the vestibule. [illustration: _plate xxviii._ antechamber in the villa cambiaso, genoa. built by alessi, xvi century.] the vestibule usually has two doors: an outer one opening toward the street and an inner one giving into the hall; but when the outer is entirely of wood, without glass, and must therefore be left open during the day, the vestibule is usually subdivided by an inner glass door placed a few feet from the entrance. this arrangement has the merit of keeping the house warm and of affording a shelter to the servants who, during an entertainment, are usually compelled to wait outside. the french architect always provides an antechamber for this purpose. no furniture which is easily soiled or damaged, or difficult to keep clean, is appropriate in a vestibule. in large and imposing houses marble or stone benches and tables should be used, and the ornamentation may consist of statues, vases, or busts on pedestals (see plate xxix). when the decoration is simpler and wooden benches are used, they should resemble those made for french gardens, with seats of one piece of wood, or of broad thick slats; while in small vestibules, benches and chairs with cane seats are appropriate. the excellent reproductions of robbia ware made by cantagalli of florence look well against painted walls; while plaster or terra-cotta bas-reliefs are less expensive and equally decorative, especially against a pale-blue or green background. the lantern, the traditional form of fixture for lighting vestibules, is certainly the best in so exposed a situation; and though where electric light is used draughts need not be considered, the sense of fitness requires that a light in such a position should always have the semblance of being protected. ix hall and stairs what is technically known as the staircase (in german the _treppenhaus_) has, in our lax modern speech, come to be designated as the hall. in gwilt's _encyclopedia of architecture_ the staircase is defined as "that part or subdivision of a building containing the stairs which enable people to ascend or descend from one floor to another"; while the hall is described as follows: "the first large apartment on entering a house.... in magnificent edifices, where the hall is larger and loftier than usual, and is placed in the middle of the house, it is called a saloon; and a royal apartment consists of a hall, or chamber of guards, etc." it is clear that, in the technical acceptance of the term, a hall is something quite different from a staircase; yet the two words were used interchangeably by so early a writer as isaac ware, who, in his _complete body of architecture_, published in , continually speaks of the staircase as the hall. this confusion of terms is difficult to explain, for in early times the staircase was as distinct from the hall as it continued to be in france and italy, and, with rare exceptions, in england also, until the present century. [illustration: _plate xxix._ antechamber in the durazzo palace, genoa. decorated by torrigiani. late xviii century.] in glancing over the plans of the feudal dwellings of northern europe it will be seen that, far from being based on any definite conception, they were made up of successive accretions about the nobleman's keep. the first room to attach itself to the keep was the "hall," a kind of microcosm in which sleeping, eating, entertaining guests and administering justice succeeded each other or went on simultaneously. in the course of time various rooms, such as the parlor, the kitchen, the offices, the muniment-room and the lady's bower, were added to the primitive hall; but these were rather incidental necessities than parts of an organized scheme of planning.[ ] in this agglomeration of apartments the stairs found a place where they could. space being valuable, they were generally carried up spirally in the thickness of the wall, or in an angle-turret. owing to enforced irregularity of plan, and perhaps to the desire to provide numerous separate means of access to the different parts of the dwelling, each castle usually contained several staircases, no one of which was more important than the others. it was in italy that stairs first received attention as a feature in the general composition of the house. there, from the outset, all the conditions had been different. the domestic life of the upper classes having developed from the eleventh century onward in the comparative security of the walled town, it was natural that house-planning should be less irregular,[ ] and that more regard should be given to considerations of comfort and dignity. in early italian palaces the stairs either ascended through the open central _cortile_ to an arcaded gallery on the first floor, as in the gondi palace and the bargello at florence, or were carried up in straight flights between walls.[ ] this was, in fact, the usual way of building stairs in italy until the end of the fifteenth century. these enclosed stairs usually started near the vaulted entranceway leading from the street to the _cortile_. gradually the space at the foot of the stairs, which at first was small, increased in size and in importance of decorative treatment; while the upper landing opened into an antechamber which became the centre of the principal suite of apartments. with the development of the palladian style, the whole staircase (provided the state apartments were not situated on the ground floor) assumed more imposing dimensions; though it was not until a much later date that the monumental staircase so often regarded as one of the chief features of the italian renaissance began to be built. indeed, a detailed examination of the italian palaces shows that even in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries such staircases as were built by fontana in the royal palace at naples, by juvara in the palazzo madama at turin and by vanvitelli at caserta, were seen only in royal palaces. even morelli's staircase in the braschi palace in rome, magnificent as it is, hardly reaches the popular conception of the italian state staircase--a conception probably based rather upon the great open stairs of the genoese _cortili_ than upon any actually existing staircases. it is certain that until late in the seventeenth century (as bernini's vatican staircase shows) inter-mural stairs were thought grand enough for the most splendid palaces of italy (see plate xxx). [illustration: _plate xxx._ staircase in the parodi palace, genoa. xvi century. (showing inter-mural stairs and marble floor.)] the spiral staircase, soon discarded by italian architects save as a means of secret communication or for the use of servants, held its own in france throughout the renaissance. its structural difficulties afforded scope for the exercise of that marvellous, if sometimes superfluous, ingenuity which distinguished the gothic builders. the spiral staircase in the court-yard at blois is an example of this kind of skilful engineering and of the somewhat fatiguing use of ornament not infrequently accompanying it; while such anomalies as the elaborate out-of-door spiral staircase enclosed within the building at chambord are still more in the nature of a _tour de force_,--something perfect in itself, but not essential to the organism of the whole. viollet-le-duc, in his dictionary of architecture, under the heading _château_, has given a sympathetic and ingenious explanation of the tenacity with which the french aristocracy clung to the obsolete complications of gothic house-planning and structure long after frequent expeditions across the alps had made them familiar with the simpler and more rational method of the italian architects. it may be, as he suggests, that centuries of feudal life, with its surface of savagery and violence and its undercurrent treachery, had fostered in the nobles of northern europe a desire for security and isolation that found expression in the intricate planning of their castles long after the advance of civilization had made these precautions unnecessary. it seems more probable, however, that the french architects of the renaissance made the mistake of thinking that the essence of the classic styles lay in the choice and application of ornamental details. this exaggerated estimate of the importance of detail is very characteristic of an imperfect culture; and the french architects who in the fifteenth century were eagerly taking their first lessons from their contemporaries south of the alps, had behind them nothing like the great synthetic tradition of the italian masters. certainly it was not until the northern builders learned that the beauty of the old buildings was, above all, a matter of proportion, that their own style, freed from its earlier incoherencies, set out on the line of unbroken national development which it followed with such harmonious results until the end of the eighteenth century. in italy the staircase often gave directly upon the entranceway; in france it was always preceded by a vestibule, and the upper landing invariably led into an antechamber. in england the relation between vestibule, hall and staircase was never so clearly established as on the continent. the old english hall, so long the centre of feudal life, preserved its somewhat composite character after the _grand'salle_ of france and italy had been broken up into the vestibule, the guard-room and the saloon. in the grandest tudor houses the entrance-door usually opened directly into this hall. to obtain in some measure the privacy which a vestibule would have given, the end of the hall nearest the entrance-door was often cut off by a screen that supported the musicians' gallery. the corridor formed by this screen led to the staircase, usually placed behind the hall, and the gallery opened on the first landing of the stairs. this use of the screen at one end of the hall had so strong a hold upon english habits that it was never quite abandoned. even after french architecture and house-planning had come into fashion in the eighteenth century, a house with a vestibule remained the rarest of exceptions in england; and the relative privacy afforded by the gothic screen was then lost by substituting for the latter an open arcade, of great decorative effect, but ineffectual in shutting off the hall from the front door. the introduction of the palladian style by inigo jones transformed the long and often narrow tudor hall into the many-storied central saloon of the italian villa, with galleries reached by concealed staircases, and lofty domed ceiling; but it was still called the hall, it still served as a vestibule, or means of access to the rest of the house, and, curiously enough, it usually adjoined another apartment, often of the same dimensions, called a saloon. perhaps the best way of defining the english hall of this period is to say that it was really an italian saloon, but that it was used as a vestibule and called a hall. through all these changes the staircase remained shut off from the hall, upon which it usually opened. it was very unusual, except in small middle-class houses or suburban villas, to put the stairs in the hall, or, more correctly speaking, to make the front door open into the staircase. there are, however, several larger houses in which the stairs are built in the hall. inigo jones, in remodelling castle ashby for the earl of northampton, followed this plan; though this is perhaps not a good instance to cite, as it may have been difficult to find place for a separate staircase. at chevening, in kent, built by inigo jones for the earl of sussex, the stairs are also in the hall; and the same arrangement is seen at shobden court, at west wycombe, built by j. donowell for lord le despencer (where the stairs are shut off by a screen) and at hurlingham, built late in the eighteenth century by g. byfield. this digression has been made in order to show the origin of the modern english and american practice of placing the stairs in the hall and doing away with the vestibule. the vestibule never formed part of the english house, but the stairs were usually divided from the hall in houses of any importance; and it is difficult to see whence the modern architect has derived his idea of the combined hall and staircase. the tendency to merge into one any two apartments designed for different uses shows a retrogression in house-planning; and while it is fitting that the vestibule or hall should adjoin the staircase, there is no good reason for uniting them and there are many for keeping them apart. the staircase in a private house is for the use of those who inhabit it; the vestibule or hall is necessarily used by persons in no way concerned with the private life of the inmates. if the stairs, the main artery of the house, be carried up through the vestibule, there is no security from intrusion. even the plan of making the vestibule precede the staircase, though better, is not the best. in a properly planned house the vestibule should open on a hall or antechamber of moderate size, giving access to the rooms on the ground floor, and this antechamber should lead into the staircase. it is only in houses where all the living-rooms are up-stairs that the vestibule may open directly into the staircase without lessening the privacy of the house. in italy, where wood was little employed in domestic architecture, stairs were usually of stone. marble came into general use in the grander houses when, in the seventeenth century, the stairs, instead of being carried up between walls, were often placed in an open staircase. the balustrade was usually of stone or marble, iron being much less used than in france. [illustration: _plate xxxi._ staircase of the hÔtel de ville, nancy. louis xv period. built by hÉrÉ de corny; stair-rail by jean lamour.] in the latter country the mediæval stairs, especially in the houses of the middle class, were often built of wood; but this material was soon abandoned, and from the time of louis xiv stairs of stone with wrought-iron rails are a distinctive feature of french domestic architecture. the use of wrought-iron in french decoration received a strong impulse from the genius of jean lamour, who, when king stanislas of poland remodelled the town of nancy early in the reign of louis xv, adorned its streets and public buildings with specimens of iron-work unmatched in any other part of the world. since then french decorators have expended infinite talent in devising the beautiful stair-rails and balconies which are the chief ornament of innumerable houses throughout france (see plates xxxi and xxxii). stair-rails of course followed the various modifications of taste which marked the architecture of the day. in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries they were noted for severe richness of design. with the development of the rocaille manner their lines grew lighter and more fanciful, while the influence of gabriel, which, toward the end of the reign of louis xv, brought about a return to classic models, manifested itself in a simplified mode of treatment. at this period the outline of a classic baluster formed a favorite motive for the iron rail. toward the close of the eighteenth century the designs for these rails grew thin and poor, with a predominance of upright iron bars divided at long intervals by some meagre medallion or geometrical figure. the exuberant sprays and volutes of the rococo period and the architectural lines of the louis xvi style were alike absent from these later designs, which are chiefly marked by the negative merit of inoffensiveness. in the old french stair-rails steel was sometimes combined with gilded iron. the famous stair-rail of the palais royal, designed by coutant d'ivry, is made of steel and iron, and the duc d'aumale copied this combination in the stair-rail at chantilly. there is little to recommend the substitution of steel for iron in such cases. it is impossible to keep a steel stair-rail clean and free from rust, except by painting it; and since it must be painted, iron is the more suitable material. in france the iron rail is usually painted black, though a very dark blue is sometimes preferred. black is the better color, as it forms a stronger contrast with the staircase walls, which are presumably neutral in tint and severe in treatment. besides, as iron is painted, not to improve its appearance, but to prevent its rusting, the color which most resembles its own is more appropriate. in french houses of a certain importance the iron stair-rail often had a few touches of gilding, but these were sparingly applied. in england wooden stair-rails were in great favor during the tudor and elizabethan period. these rails were marked rather by fanciful elaboration of detail than by intrinsic merit of design, and are doubtless more beautiful now that time has given them its patina, than they were when first made. with the palladian style came the classic balustrade of stone or marble, or sometimes, in simpler houses, of wood. iron rails were seldom used in england, and those to be found in some of the great london houses (as in carlton house, chesterfield house and norfolk house) were probably due to the french influence which made itself felt in english domestic architecture during the eighteenth century. this influence, however, was never more than sporadic; and until the decline of decorative art at the close of the eighteenth century, italian rather than french taste gave the note to english decoration. the interrelation of vestibule, hall and staircase having been explained, the subject of decorative detail must next be considered; but before turning to this, it should be mentioned that hereafter the space at the foot of the stairs, though properly a part of the staircase, will for the sake of convenience be called _the hall_, since in the present day it goes by that name in england and america. in contrasting the vestibule with the hall, it was pointed out that the latter might be treated in a gayer and more informal manner than the former. it must be remembered, however, that as the vestibule is the introduction to the hall, so the hall is the introduction to the living-rooms of the house; and it follows that the hall must be as much more formal than the living-rooms as the vestibule is more formal than the hall. it is necessary to emphasize this because the tendency of recent english and american decoration has been to treat the hall, not as a hall, but as a living-room. whatever superficial attractions this treatment may possess, its inappropriateness will be seen when the purpose of the hall is considered. the hall is a means of access to all the rooms on each floor; on the ground floor it usually leads to the chief living-rooms of the house as well as to the vestibule and street; in addition to this, in modern houses even of some importance it generally contains the principal stairs of the house, so that it is the centre upon which every part of the house directly or indirectly opens. this publicity is increased by the fact that the hall must be crossed by the servant who opens the front door, and by any one admitted to the house. it follows that the hall, in relation to the rooms of the house, is like a public square in relation to the private houses around it. for some reason this obvious fact has been ignored by many recent decorators, who have chosen to treat halls like rooms of the most informal character, with open fireplaces, easy-chairs for lounging and reading, tables with lamps, books and magazines, and all the appointments of a library. this disregard of the purpose of the hall, like most mistakes in household decoration, has a very natural origin. when, in the first reaction from the discomfort and formality of sixty years ago, people began, especially in england, to study the arrangement of the old tudor and elizabethan houses, many of these were found to contain large panelled halls opening directly upon the porch or the terrace. the mellow tones of the wood-work; the bold treatment of the stairs, shut off as they were merely by a screen; the heraldic imagery of the hooded stone chimney-piece and of the carved or stuccoed ceiling, made these halls the chief feature of the house; while the rooms opening from them were so often insufficient for the requirements of modern existence, that the life of the inmates necessarily centred in the hall. visitors to such houses saw only the picturesqueness of the arrangement--the huge logs glowing on the hearth, the books and flowers on the old carved tables, the family portraits on the walls; and, charmed with the impression received, they ordered their architects to reproduce for them a hall which, even in the original tudor houses, was a survival of older social conditions. one might think that the recent return to classic forms of architecture would have done away with the tudor hall; but, except in a few instances, this has not been the case. in fact, in the greater number of large houses, and especially of country houses, built in america since the revival of renaissance and palladian architecture, a large many-storied hall communicating directly with the vestibule, and containing the principal stairs of the house, has been the distinctive feature. if there were any practical advantages in this overgrown hall, it might be regarded as one of those rational modifications in plan which mark the difference between an unreasoning imitation of a past style and the intelligent application of its principles; but the tudor hall, in its composite character as vestibule, parlor and dining-room, is only another instance of the sacrifice of convenience to archaism. [illustration: _plate xxxii._ staircase in the palace of fontainebleau. louis xv period.] the abnormal development of the modern staircase-hall cannot be defended on the plea sometimes advanced that it is a roofed-in adaptation of the great open _cortile_ of the genoese palace, since there is no reason for adapting a plan so useless and so unsuited to our climate and way of living. the beautiful central _cortile_ of the italian palace, with its monumental open stairs, was in no sense part of a "private house" in our interpretation of the term. it was rather a thoroughfare like a public street, since the various stories of the italian palace were used as separate houses by different branches of the family. in most modern houses the hall, in spite of its studied resemblance to a living-room, soon reverts to its original use as a passageway; and this fact should indicate the treatment best suited to it. in rooms where people sit, and where they are consequently at leisure to look about them, delicacy of treatment and refinement of detail are suitable; but in an anteroom or a staircase only the first impression counts, and forcible simple lines, with a vigorous massing of light and shade, are essential. these conditions point to the use of severe strongly-marked panelling, niches for vases or statues, and a stair-rail detaching itself from the background in vigorous decisive lines.[ ] the furniture of the hall should consist of benches or straight-backed chairs, and marble-topped tables and consoles. if a press is used, it should be architectural in design, like the old french and italian _armoires_ painted with arabesques and architectural motives, or the english seventeenth-century presses made of some warm-toned wood like walnut and surmounted by a broken pediment with a vase or bust in the centre (see plate xxxiii). the walls of the staircase in large houses should be of panelled stone or marble, as in the examples given in the plates accompanying this chapter. in small houses, where an expensive decoration is out of the question, a somewhat similar architectural effect may be obtained by the use of a few plain mouldings fixed to the plaster, the whole being painted in one uniform tint, or in two contrasting colors, such as white for the mouldings, and buff, gray, or pale green for the wall. to this scheme may be added plaster medallions, as suggested for the vestibule, or garlands and other architectural motives made of staff, in imitation of the stucco ornaments of the old french and italian decorators. when such ornaments are used, they should invariably be simple and strong in design. the modern decorator is too often tempted by mere prettiness of detail to forget the general effect of his composition. in a staircase, where only the general effect is seized, prettiness does not count, and the effect produced should be strong, clear and telling. for the same reason, a stair-carpet, if used, should be of one color, without pattern. masses of plain color are one of the chief means of producing effect in any scheme of decoration. when the floor of the hall is of marble or mosaic,--as, if possible, it should be,--the design, like that of the walls, should be clear and decided in outline (see plate xxx). on the other hand, if the hall is used as an antechamber and carpeted, the carpet should be of one color, matching that on the stairs. in many large houses the stairs are now built of stone or marble, while the floor of the landings is laid in wood, apparently owing to the idea that stone or marble floors are cold. in the tropically-heated american house not even the most sensitive person could be chilled by passing contact with a stone floor; but if it is thought to "look cold," it is better to lay a rug or a strip of carpet on the landing than to permit the proximity of two such different substances as wood and stone. unless the stairs are of wood, that material should never be used for the rail; nor should wooden stairs be put in a staircase of which the walls are of stone, marble, or scagliola. if the stairs are of wood, it is better to treat the walls with wood or plaster panelling. in simple staircases the best wall-decoration is a wooden dado-moulding nailed on the plaster, the dado thus formed being painted white, and the wall above it in any uniform color. continuous pattern, such as that on paper or stuff hangings, is specially objectionable on the walls of a staircase, since it disturbs the simplicity of composition best fitted to this part of the house. for the lighting of the hall there should be a lantern like that in the vestibule, but more elaborate in design. this mode of lighting harmonizes with the severe treatment of the walls and indicates at once that the hall is not a living-room, but a thoroughfare.[ ] if lights be required on the stairs, they should take the form of fire-gilt bronze sconces, as architectural as possible in design, without any finikin prettiness of detail. (for good examples, see the _appliques_ in plates v and xxxiv). it is almost impossible to obtain well-designed _appliques_ of this kind in america; but the increasing interest shown in house-decoration will in time doubtless cause a demand for a better type of gas and electric fixtures. meantime, unless imported sconces can be obtained, the plainest brass fixtures should be chosen in preference to the more elaborate models now to be found here. where the walls of a hall are hung with pictures, these should be few in number, and decorative in composition and coloring. no subject requiring thought and study is suitable in such a position. the mythological or architectural compositions of the italian and french schools of the last two centuries, with their superficial graces of color and design, are for this reason well suited to the walls of halls and antechambers. the same may be said of prints. these should not be used in a large high-studded hall; but they look well in a small entranceway, if hung on plain-tinted walls. here again such architectural compositions as piranesi's, with their bold contrasts of light and shade, marc antonio's classic designs, or some frieze-like procession, such as mantegna's "triumph of julius caesar," are especially appropriate; whereas the subtle detail of the german little masters, the symbolism of dürer's etchings and the graces of marillier or moreau le jeune would be wasted in a situation where there is small opportunity for more than a passing glance. in most american houses, the warming of hall and stairs is so amply provided for that where there is a hall fireplace it is seldom used. in country houses, where it is sometimes necessary to have special means for heating the hall, the open fireplace is of more service; but it is not really suited to such a situation. the hearth suggests an idea of intimacy and repose that has no place in a thoroughfare like the hall; and, aside from this question of fitness, there is a practical objection to placing an open chimney-piece in a position where it is exposed to continual draughts from the front door and from the rooms giving upon the hall. the best way of heating a hall is by means of a faience stove--not the oblong block composed of shiny white or brown tiles seen in swiss and german _pensions_, but one of the fine old stoves of architectural design still used on the continent for heating the vestibule and dining-room. in europe, increased attention has of late been given to the design and coloring of these stoves; and if better known here, they would form an important feature in the decoration of our halls. admirable models may be studied in many old french and german houses and on the borders of switzerland and italy; while the museum at parma contains several fine examples of the rocaille period. [illustration: _plate xxxiii._ french armoire, louis xiv period. museum of decorative arts, paris.] footnotes: [ ] burckhardt, in his _geschichte der renaissance in italien_, justly points out that the seeming inconsequence of mediæval house-planning in northern europe was probably due in part to the fact that the feudal castle, for purposes of defence, was generally built on an irregular site. see also viollet-le-duc. [ ] "der gothische profanbau in italien ... steht im vollen gegensatz zum norden durch die rationelle anlage." burckhardt, _geschichte der renaissance in italien_, p. . [ ] see the stairs of the riccardi palace in florence, of the piccolomini palace at pienza and of the ducal palace at urbino. [ ] for a fine example of a hall-niche containing a statue, see plate xxx. [ ] in large halls the tall _torchère_ of marble or bronze may be used for additional lights (see plate xxxii). x the drawing-room, boudoir, and morning-room the "with-drawing-room" of mediæval england, to which the lady and her maidens retired from the boisterous festivities of the hall, seems at first to have been merely a part of the bedchamber in which the lord and lady slept. in time it came to be screened off from the sleeping-room; then, in the king's palaces, it became a separate room for the use of the queen and her damsels; and so, in due course, reached the nobleman's castle, and established itself as a permanent part of english house-planning. in france the evolution of the _salon_ seems to have proceeded on somewhat different lines. during the middle ages and the early renaissance period, the more public part of the nobleman's life was enacted in the hall, or _grand'salle_, while the social and domestic side of existence was transferred to the bedroom. this was soon divided into two rooms, as in england. in france, however, both these rooms contained beds; the inner being the real sleeping-chamber, while in the outer room, which was used not only for administering justice and receiving visits of state, but for informal entertainments and the social side of family life, the bedstead represented the lord's _lit de parade_, traditionally associated with state ceremonial and feudal privileges. [illustration: _plate xxxiv._ sala della maddalena, royal palace, genoa. xviii century. (italian drawing-room in rocaille style.)] the custom of having a state bedroom in which no one slept (_chambre de parade_, as it was called) was so firmly established that even in the engravings of abraham bosse, representing french life in the reign of louis xiii, the fashionable apartments in which card-parties, suppers, and other entertainments are taking place, invariably contain a bed. in large establishments the _chambre de parade_ was never used as a sleeping-chamber except by visitors of distinction; but in small houses the lady slept in the room which served as her boudoir and drawing-room. the renaissance, it is true, had introduced from italy the _cabinet_ opening off the lady's chamber, as in the palaces of urbino and mantua; but these rooms were at first seen only in kings' palaces, and were, moreover, too small to serve any social purpose. the _cabinet_ of catherine de' medici at blois is a characteristic example. meanwhile, the gallery had relieved the _grand'salle_ of some of its numerous uses; and these two apartments seem to have satisfied all the requirements of society during the renaissance in france. in the seventeenth century the introduction of the two-storied italian saloon produced a state apartment called a _salon_; and this, towards the beginning of the eighteenth century, was divided into two smaller rooms: one, the _salon de compagnie_, remaining a part of the gala suite used exclusively for entertaining (see plate xxxiv), while the other--the _salon de famille_--became a family apartment like the english drawing-room. the distinction between the _salon de compagnie_ and the _salon de famille_ had by this time also established itself in england, where the state drawing-room retained its italian name of _salone_, or saloon, while the living-apartment preserved, in abbreviated form, the mediæval designation of the lady's with-drawing-room. pains have been taken to trace as clearly as possible the mixed ancestry of the modern drawing-room, in order to show that it is the result of two distinct influences--that of the gala apartment and that of the family sitting-room. this twofold origin has curiously affected the development of the drawing-room. in houses of average size, where there are but two living-rooms--the master's library, or "den," and the lady's drawing-room,--it is obvious that the latter ought to be used as a _salon de famille_, or meeting-place for the whole family; and it is usually regarded as such in england, where common sense generally prevails in matters of material comfort and convenience, and where the drawing-room is often furnished with a simplicity which would astonish those who associate the name with white-and-gold walls and uncomfortable furniture. in modern american houses both traditional influences are seen. sometimes, as in england, the drawing-room is treated as a family apartment, and provided with books, lamps, easy-chairs and writing-tables. in other houses it is still considered sacred to gilding and discomfort, the best room in the house, and the convenience of all its inmates, being sacrificed to a vague feeling that no drawing-room is worthy of the name unless it is uninhabitable. this is an instance of the _salon de compagnie_ having usurped the rightful place of the _salon de famille_; or rather, if the bourgeois descent of the american house be considered, it may be more truly defined as a remnant of the "best parlor" superstition. whatever the genealogy of the american drawing-room, it must be owned that it too often fails to fulfil its purpose as a family apartment. it is curious to note the amount of thought and money frequently spent on the one room in the house used by no one, or occupied at most for an hour after a "company" dinner. [illustration: _plate xxxv._ console in the petit trianon, versailles. late louis xv style. bust of louis xvi, by pajou.] to this drawing-room, from which the inmates of the house instinctively flee as soon as their social duties are discharged, many necessities are often sacrificed. the library, or den, where the members of the family sit, may be furnished with shabby odds and ends; but the drawing-room must have its gilt chairs covered with brocade, its _vitrines_ full of modern saxe, its guipure curtains and velvet carpet. the _salon de compagnie_ is out of place in the average house. such a room is needed only where the dinners or other entertainments given are so large as to make it impossible to use the ordinary living-rooms of the house. in the grandest houses of europe the gala-rooms are never thrown open except for general entertainments, or to receive guests of exalted rank, and the spectacle of a dozen people languishing after dinner in the gilded wilderness of a state saloon is practically unknown. the purpose for which the _salon de compagnie_ is used necessitates its being furnished in the same formal manner as other gala apartments. circulation must not be impeded by a multiplicity of small pieces of furniture holding lamps or other fragile objects, while at least half of the chairs should be so light and easily moved that groups may be formed and broken up at will. the walls should be brilliantly decorated, without needless elaboration of detail, since it is unlikely that the temporary occupants of such a room will have time or inclination to study its treatment closely. the chief requisite is a gay first impression. to produce this, the wall-decoration should be light in color, and the furniture should consist of a few strongly marked pieces, such as handsome cabinets and consoles, bronze or marble statues, and vases and candelabra of imposing proportions. almost all modern furniture is too weak in design and too finikin in detail to look well in a gala drawing-room.[ ] (for examples of drawing-room furniture, see plates vi, ix, xxxiv, and xxxv.) beautiful pictures or rare prints produce little effect on the walls of a gala room, just as an accumulation of small objects of art, such as enamels, ivories and miniatures, are wasted upon its tables and cabinets. such treasures are for rooms in which people spend their days, not for those in which they assemble for an hour's entertainment. but the _salon de compagnie_, being merely a modified form of the great italian saloon, is a part of the gala suite, and any detailed discussion of the decorative treatment most suitable to it would result in a repetition of what is said in the chapter on gala rooms. the lighting of the company drawing-room--to borrow its french designation--should be evenly diffused, without the separate centres of illumination needful in a family living-room. the proper light is that of wax candles. nothing has done more to vulgarize interior decoration than the general use of gas and of electricity in the living-rooms of modern houses. electric light especially, with its harsh white glare, which no expedients have as yet overcome, has taken from our drawing-rooms all air of privacy and distinction. in passageways and offices, electricity is of great service; but were it not that all "modern improvements" are thought equally applicable to every condition of life, it would be difficult to account for the adoption of a mode of lighting which makes the _salon_ look like a railway-station, the dining-room like a restaurant. that such light is not needful in a drawing-room is shown by the fact that electric bulbs are usually covered by shades of some deep color, in order that the glare may be made as inoffensive as possible. [illustration: _plate xxxvi._ salon, palace of fontainebleau.] the light in a gala apartment should be neither vivid nor concentrated: the soft, evenly diffused brightness of wax candles is best fitted to bring out those subtle modellings of light and shade to which old furniture and objects of art owe half their expressiveness. the treatment of the _salon de compagnie_ naturally differs from that of the family drawing-room: the latter is essentially a room in which people should be made comfortable. there must be a well-appointed writing-table; the chairs must be conveniently grouped about various tables, each with its lamp;--in short, the furniture should be so disposed that people are not forced to take refuge in their bedrooms for lack of fitting arrangements in the drawing-room. the old french cabinet-makers excelled in the designing and making of furniture for the _salon de famille_. the term "french furniture" suggests to the anglo-saxon mind the stiff appointments of the gala room--heavy gilt consoles, straight-backed arm-chairs covered with tapestry, and monumental marble-topped tables. admirable furniture of this kind was made in france; but in the grand style the italian cabinet-makers competed successfully with the french; whereas the latter stood alone in the production of the simpler and more comfortable furniture adapted to the family living-room. among those who have not studied the subject there is a general impression that eighteenth-century furniture, however beautiful in design and execution, was not comfortable in the modern sense. this is owing to the fact that the popular idea of "old furniture" is based on the appointments of gala rooms in palaces: visitors to versailles or fontainebleau are more likely to notice the massive gilt consoles and benches in the state saloons than the simple easy-chairs and work-tables of the _petits appartements_. a visit to the garde meuble or to the musée des arts décoratifs of paris, or the inspection of any collection of french eighteenth-century furniture, will show the versatility and common sense of the old french cabinet-makers. they produced an infinite variety of small _meubles_, in which beauty of design and workmanship were joined to simplicity and convenience. the old arm-chair, or _bergère_, is a good example of this combination. the modern upholsterer pads and puffs his seats as though they were to form the furniture of a lunatic's cell; and then, having expanded them to such dimensions that they cannot be moved without effort, perches their dropsical bodies on four little casters. any one who compares such an arm-chair to the eighteenth-century _bergère_, with its strong tapering legs, its snugly-fitting back and cushioned seat, must admit that the latter is more convenient and more beautiful (see plates viii and xxxvii). the same may be said of the old french tables--from desks, card and work-tables, to the small _guéridon_ just large enough to hold a book and candlestick. all these tables were simple and practical in design: even in the louis xv period, when more variety of outline and ornament was permitted, the strong structural lines were carefully maintained, and it is unusual to see an old table that does not stand firmly on its legs and appear capable of supporting as much weight as its size will permit (see louis xv writing-table in plate xlvi). the french tables, cabinets and commodes used in the family apartments were usually of inlaid wood, with little ornamentation save the design of the marquetry--elaborate mounts of chiselled bronze being reserved for the furniture of gala rooms (see plate x). old french marquetry was exquisitely delicate in color and design, while italian inlaying of the same period, though coarser, was admirable in composition. old italian furniture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was always either inlaid or carved and painted in gay colors: chiselled mounts are virtually unknown in italy. [illustration: _plate xxxvii._ room in the palace of fontainebleau. louis xv panelling, louis xvi furniture.] the furniture of the eighteenth century in england, while not comparable in design to the best french models, was well made and dignified; and its angularity of outline is not out of place against the somewhat cold and formal background of an adam room. english marquetry suffered from the poverty of ornament marking the wall-decoration of the period. there was a certain timidity about the decorative compositions of the school of adam and sheraton, and in their scanty repertoire the laurel-wreath, the velarium and the cornucopia reappear with tiresome frequency. the use to which the family drawing-room is put should indicate the character of its decoration. since it is a room in which many hours of the day are spent, and in which people are at leisure, it should contain what is best worth looking at in the way of pictures, prints, and other objects of art; while there should be nothing about its decoration so striking or eccentric as to become tiresome when continually seen. a fanciful style may be pleasing in apartments used only for stated purposes, such as the saloon or gallery; but in a living-room, decoration should be subordinate to the individual, forming merely a harmonious but unobtrusive background (see plates xxxvi and xxxvii). such a setting also brings out the full decorative value of all the drawing-room accessories--screens, andirons, _appliques_, and door and window-fastenings. a study of any old french interior will show how much these details contributed to the general effect of the room. those who really care for books are seldom content to restrict them to the library, for nothing adds more to the charm of a drawing-room than a well-designed bookcase: an expanse of beautiful bindings is as decorative as a fine tapestry. the boudoir is, properly speaking, a part of the bedroom suite, and as such is described in the chapter on the bedroom. sometimes, however, a small sitting-room adjoins the family drawing-room, and this, if given up to the mistress of the house, is virtually the boudoir. the modern boudoir is a very different apartment from its eighteenth-century prototype. though it may preserve the delicate decorations and furniture suggested by its name, such a room is now generally used for the prosaic purpose of interviewing servants, going over accounts and similar occupations. the appointments should therefore comprise a writing-desk, with pigeon-holes, drawers, and cupboards, and a comfortable lounge, or _lit de repos_, for resting and reading. [illustration: _plate xxxviii._ lit de repos, early louis xv period.] the _lit de repos_, which, except in france, has been replaced by the clumsy upholstered lounge, was one of the most useful pieces of eighteenth-century furniture (see plate xxxviii). as its name implies, it is shaped somewhat like a bed, or rather like a cradle that stands on four legs instead of swinging. it is made of carved wood, sometimes upholstered, but often seated with cane (see plate xxxix). in the latter case it is fitted with a mattress and with a pillow-like cushion covered with some material in keeping with the hangings of the room. sometimes the _duchesse_, or upholstered _bergère_ with removable foot-rest in the shape of a square bench, is preferred to the _lit de repos_; but the latter is the more elegant and graceful, and it is strange that it should have been discarded in favor of the modern lounge, which is not only ugly, but far less comfortable. [illustration: _plate xxxix._ lit de repos, louis xv period.] as the boudoir is generally a small room, it is peculiarly suited to the more delicate styles of painting or stucco ornamentation described in the third chapter. a study of boudoir-decoration in the last century, especially in france, will show the admirable sense of proportion regulating the treatment of these little rooms (see plate xl). their adornment was naturally studied with special care by the painters and decorators of an age in which women played so important a part. it is sometimes thought that the eighteenth-century boudoir was always decorated and furnished in a very elaborate manner. this idea originates in the fact, already pointed out, that the rooms usually seen by tourists are those in royal palaces, or in such princely houses as are thrown open to the public on account of their exceptional magnificence. the same type of boudoir is continually reproduced in books on architecture and decoration; and what is really a small private sitting-room for the lady of the house, corresponding with her husband's "den," has thus come to be regarded as one of the luxuries of a great establishment. the prints of eisen, marillier, moreau le jeune, and other book-illustrators of the eighteenth century, show that the boudoir in the average private house was, in fact, a simple room, gay and graceful in decoration, but as a rule neither rich nor elaborate (see plate xli). as it usually adjoined the bedroom, it was decorated in the same manner, and even when its appointments were expensive all appearance of costliness was avoided.[ ] the boudoir is the room in which small objects of art--prints, mezzotints and _gouaches_--show to the best advantage. no detail is wasted, and all manner of delicate effects in wood-carving, marquetry, and other ornamentation, such as would be lost upon the walls and furniture of a larger room, here acquire their full value. one or two well-chosen prints hung on a background of plain color will give more pleasure than a medley of photographs, colored photogravures, and other decorations of the cotillon-favor type. not only do mediocre ornaments become tiresome when seen day after day, but the mere crowding of furniture and gimcracks into a small room intended for work and repose will soon be found fatiguing. many english houses, especially in the country, contain a useful room called the "morning-room," which is well defined by robert kerr, in _the english gentleman's house_, as "the drawing-room in ordinary." it is, in fact, a kind of undress drawing-room, where the family may gather informally at all hours of the day. the out-of-door life led in england makes it specially necessary to provide a sitting-room which people are not afraid to enter in muddy boots and wet clothes. even if the drawing-room be not, as mr. kerr quaintly puts it, "preserved"--that is, used exclusively for company--it is still likely to contain the best furniture in the house; and though that "best" is not too fine for every-day use, yet in a large family an informal, wet-weather room of this kind is almost indispensable. [illustration: _plate xl._ painted wall-panel and door, chÂteau of chantilly. louis xv. (example of chinoiserie decoration.)] no matter how elaborately the rest of the house is furnished, the appointments of the morning-room should be plain, comfortable, and capable of resisting hard usage. it is a good plan to cover the floor with a straw matting, and common sense at once suggests the furniture best suited to such a room: two or three good-sized tables with lamps, a comfortable sofa, and chairs covered with chintz, leather, or one of the bright-colored horsehairs now manufactured in france. [illustration: _plate xli._ sa triste amante abandonnee pleure ses maux et ses plaisirs. french boudoir, louis xvi period. (from a print by le bouteux.)] footnotes: [ ] much of the old furniture which appears to us unnecessarily stiff and monumental was expressly designed to be placed against the walls in rooms used for general entertainments, where smaller and more delicately made pieces would have been easily damaged, and would, moreover, have produced no effect. [ ] the ornate boudoir seen in many xviiith-century prints is that of the _femme galante_. xi gala rooms: ball-room, saloon, music-room, gallery european architects have always considered it essential that those rooms which are used exclusively for entertaining--gala rooms, as they are called--should be quite separate from the family apartments,--either occupying an entire floor (the italian _piano nobile_) or being so situated that it is not necessary to open them except for general entertainments. in many large houses lately built in america, with ball and music rooms and a hall simulating the two-storied italian saloon, this distinction has been disregarded, and living and gala rooms have been confounded in an agglomeration of apartments where the family, for lack of a smaller suite, sit under gilded ceilings and cut-glass chandeliers, in about as much comfort and privacy as are afforded by the public "parlors" of one of our new twenty-story hotels. this confusion of two essentially different types of room, designed for essentially different phases of life, has been caused by the fact that the architect, when called upon to build a grand house, has simply enlarged, instead of altering, the _maison bourgeoise_ that has hitherto been the accepted model of the american gentleman's house; for it must not be forgotten that the modern american dwelling descends from the english middle-class house, not from the aristocratic country-seat or town residence. the english nobleman's town house was like the french _hôtel_, with gates, porter's lodge, and court-yard surrounded by stables and offices; and the planning of the country-seat was even more elaborate. a glance at any collection of old english house-plans, such as campbell's _vitruvius britannicus_, will show the purely middle-class ancestry of the american house, and the consequent futility of attempting, by the mere enlargement of each room, to turn it into a gentleman's seat or town residence. the kind of life which makes gala rooms necessary exacts a different method of planning; and until this is more generally understood the treatment of such rooms in american houses will never be altogether satisfactory. gala rooms are meant for general entertainments, never for any assemblage small or informal enough to be conveniently accommodated in the ordinary living-rooms of the house; therefore to fulfil their purpose they must be large, very high-studded, and not overcrowded with furniture, while the walls and ceiling--the only parts of a crowded room that can be seen--must be decorated with greater elaboration than would be pleasing or appropriate in other rooms. all these conditions unfit the gala room for any use save that for which it is designed. nothing can be more cheerless than the state of a handful of people sitting after dinner in an immense ball-room with gilded ceiling, bare floors, and a few pieces of monumental furniture ranged round the walls; yet in any house which is simply an enlargement of the ordinary private dwelling the hostess is often compelled to use the ball-room or saloon as a drawing-room. a gala room is never meant to be seen except when crowded: the crowd takes the place of furniture. occupied by a small number of people, such a room looks out of proportion, stiff and empty. the hostess feels this, and tries, by setting chairs and tables askew, and introducing palms, screens and knick-knacks, to produce an effect of informality. as a result the room dwarfs the furniture, loses the air of state, and gains little in real comfort; while it becomes necessary, when a party is given, to remove the furniture and disarrange the house, thus undoing the chief _raison d'être_ of such apartments. the italians, inheriting the grandiose traditions of the augustan age, have always excelled in the treatment of rooms demanding the "grand manner." their unfailing sense that house-decoration is interior architecture, and must clearly proclaim its architectural affiliations, has been of special service in this respect. it is rare in italy to see a large room inadequately treated. sometimes the "grand manner"--the mimic _terribilità_--may be carried too far to suit anglo-saxon taste--it is hard to say for what form of entertainment such a room as giulio romano's sala dei giganti in the palazzo del t would form a pleasing or appropriate background--but apart from such occasional aberrations, the italian decorators showed a wonderful sense of fitness in the treatment of state apartments. to small dribbles of ornament they preferred bold forcible mouldings, coarse but clear-cut free-hand ornamentation in stucco, and either a classic severity of treatment or the turbulent bravura style of the saloon of the villa rotonda and of tiepolo's cleopatra frescoes in the palazzo labia at venice. [illustration: _plate xlii._ salon À l'italienne. (from a picture by coypel.)] the saloon and gallery are the two gala rooms borrowed from italy by northern europe. the saloon has already been described in the chapter on hall and stairs. it was a two-storied apartment, usually with clerestory, domed ceiling, and a gallery to which access was obtained by concealed staircases (see plates xlii and xliii). this gallery was often treated as an arcade or loggia, and in many old italian prints and pictures there are representations of these saloons, with groups of gaily dressed people looking down from the gallery upon the throngs crowding the floor. the saloon was used in italy as a ball-room or gambling-room--gaming being the chief social amusement of the eighteenth century. in england and france the saloon was rarely two stories high, though there are some exceptions, as for example the saloon at vaux-le-vicomte. the cooler climate rendered a clerestory less necessary, and there was never the same passion for grandiose effects as in italy. the saloon in northern europe was always a stately and high-studded room, generally vaulted or domed, and often circular in plan; but it seldom reached such imposing dimensions as its italian prototype, and when more than one story high was known by the distinctive designation of _un salon à l'italienne_. the gallery was probably the first feature in domestic house-planning to be borrowed from italy by northern europe. it is seen in almost all the early renaissance châteaux of france; and as soon as the influence of such men as john of padua and john shute asserted itself in england, the gallery became one of the principal apartments of the elizabethan mansion. there are several reasons for the popularity of the gallery. in the cold rainy autumns and winters north of the alps it was invaluable as a sheltered place for exercise and games; it was well adapted to display the pictures, statuary and bric-à-brac which, in emulation of italian collectors, the northern nobles were beginning to acquire; and it showed off to advantage the long line of ancestral portraits and the tapestries representing a succession of episodes from the _Æneid_, the _orlando innamorato_, or some of the interminable epics that formed the light reading of the sixteenth century. then, too, the gallery served for the processions which were a part of the social ceremonial in great houses: the march to the chapel or banquet-hall, the escorting of a royal guest to the state bedroom, and other like pageants. in france and england the gallery seems for a long time to have been used as a saloon and ball-room, whereas in italy it was, as a rule, reserved for the display of the art-treasures of the house, no italian palace worthy of the name being without its gallery of antiquities or of marbles. in modern houses the ball-room and music-room are the two principal gala apartments. a music-room need not be a gala room in the sense of being used only for large entertainments; but since it is outside the circle of every-day use, and more or less associated with entertaining, it seems best to include it in this chapter. many houses of average size have a room large enough for informal entertainments. such a room, especially in country houses, should be decorated in a gay simple manner in harmony with the rest of the house and with the uses to which the room is to be put. rooms of this kind may be treated with a white dado, surmounted by walls painted in a pale tint, with boldly modelled garlands and attributes in stucco, also painted white (see plate xiii). if these stucco decorations are used to frame a series of pictures, such as fruit and flower-pieces or decorative subjects, the effect is especially attractive. large painted panels with eighteenth-century _genre_ subjects or pastoral scenes, set in simple white panelling, are also very decorative. a coved ceiling is best suited to rooms of this comparatively simple character, while in state ball-rooms the dome increases the general appearance of splendor. [illustration: _plate xliii._ ball-room, royal palace, genoa. late xviii century. (example of stucco decoration.)] a panelling of mirrors forms a brilliant ball-room decoration, and charming effects are produced by painting these mirrors with birds, butterflies, and garlands of flowers, in the manner of the famous italian mirror-painter, mario dei fiori--"mario of the flowers"--as he was called in recognition of his special gift. there is a beautiful room by this artist in the borghese palace in rome, and many italian palaces contain examples of this peculiarly brilliant style of decoration, which might be revived to advantage by modern painters. in ball-rooms of great size and importance, where the walls demand a more architectural treatment, the use of an order naturally suggests itself. pilasters of marble, separated by marble niches containing statues, form a severe but splendid decoration; and if white and colored marbles are combined, and the whole is surmounted by a domed ceiling frescoed in bright colors, the effect is extremely brilliant. in italy the architectural decoration of large rooms was often entirely painted (see plate xliv), the plaster walls being covered with a fanciful piling-up of statues, porticoes and balustrades, while figures in oriental costume, or in the masks and parti-colored dress of the _comédie italienne_, leaned from simulated loggias or wandered through marble colonnades. the italian decorator held any audacity permissible in a room used only by a throng of people, whose mood and dress made them ready to accept the fairy-tales on the walls as a fitting background to their own masquerading. modern travellers, walking through these old italian saloons in the harsh light of day, while cobwebs hang from the audacious architecture, and the cracks in the plaster look like wounds in the cheeks of simpering nymphs and shepherdesses, should remember that such apartments were meant to be seen by the soft light of wax candles in crystal chandeliers, with fantastically dressed dancers thronging the marble floor. such a ball-room, if reproduced in the present day, would be far more effective than the conventional white-and-gold room, which, though unobjectionable when well decorated, lacks the imaginative charm, the personal note, given by the painter's touch. under louis xiv many french apartments of state were panelled with colored marbles, with an application of attributes or trophies, and other ornamental motives in fire-gilt bronze: a sumptuous mode of treatment according well with a domed and frescoed ceiling. tapestry was also much used, and forms an admirable decoration, provided the color-scheme is light and the design animated. seventeenth and eighteenth-century tapestries are the most suitable, as the scale of color is brighter and the compositions are gayer than in the earlier hangings. modern dancers prefer a polished wooden floor, and it is perhaps smoother and more elastic than any other surface; but in beauty and decorative value it cannot be compared with a floor of inlaid marble, and as all the dancing in italian palaces is still done on such floors, the preference for wood is probably the result of habit. in a ball-room of any importance, especially where marble is used on the walls, the floor should always be of the same substance (see floors in plates xxix, xxx, and lv). [illustration: _plate xliv._ saloon in the villa vertemati. xvi century. (example of frescoed walls and carved wooden ceiling.)] gala apartments, as distinguished from living-rooms, should be lit from the ceiling, never from the walls. no ball-room or saloon is complete without its chandeliers: they are one of the characteristic features of a gala room (see plates v, xix, xxxiv, xliii, xlv, l). for a ball-room, where all should be light and brilliant, rock-crystal or cut-glass chandeliers are most suitable: reflected in a long line of mirrors, they are an invaluable factor in any scheme of gala decoration. [illustration: _plate xlv._ sala dello zodiaco, royal palace, mantua. xviii century. (example of stucco decoration.)] the old french decorators relied upon the reflection of mirrors for producing an effect of distance in the treatment of gala rooms. above the mantel, there was always a mirror with another of the same shape and size directly opposite; and the glittering perspective thus produced gave to the scene an air of fantastic unreality. the gala suite being so planned that all the rooms adjoined each other, the effect of distance was further enhanced by placing the openings in line, so that on entering the suite it was possible to look down its whole length. the importance of preserving this long vista, or _enfilade_, as the french call it, is dwelt on by all old writers on house-decoration. if a ball-room be properly lit and decorated, it is never necessary to dress it up with any sort of temporary ornamentation: the true mark of the well-decorated ball-room is to look always ready for a ball. the only chair seen in most modern ball-rooms is the folding camp-seat hired by the hundred when entertainments are given; but there is no reason why a ball-room should be even temporarily disfigured by these makeshifts, which look their worst when an effort is made to conceal their cheap construction under a little gilding and satin. in all old ball-rooms, benches and _tabourets_ (small seats without backs) were ranged in a continuous line along the walls. these seats, handsomely designed, and covered with tapestry, velvet, or embroidered silk slips, were a part of the permanent decoration of the room. on ordinary occasions they would be sufficient for a modern ball-room; and when larger entertainments made it needful to provide additional seats, these might be copied from the seventeenth-century _perroquets_, examples of which may be found in the various french works on the history of furniture. these _perroquets_, or folding chairs without arms, made of natural walnut or gilded, with seats of tapestry, velvet or decorated leather, would form an excellent substitute for the modern cotillon seat. the first rule to be observed in the decoration of the music-room is the avoidance of all stuff hangings, draperies, and substances likely to deaden sound. the treatment chosen for the room must of course depend on its size and its relation to the other rooms in the house. while a music-room should be more subdued in color than a ball-room, sombre tints and heavy ornament are obviously inappropriate: the effect aimed at should be one of lightness and serenity in form and color. however small and simple the music-room may be, it should always appear as though there were space overhead for the notes to escape; and some form of vaulting or doming is therefore more suitable than a flat ceiling. while plain panelling, if well designed, is never out of keeping, the walls of a music-room are specially suited to a somewhat fanciful style of decoration. in a ball-room, splendor and brilliancy of effect are more needful than a studied delicacy; but where people are seated, and everything in the room is consequently subjected to close and prolonged scrutiny, sprightliness of composition should be combined with variety of detail, the decoration being neither so confused and intricate as to distract attention, nor so conventional as to be dismissed with a glance on entering the room. [illustration: _plate xlvi._ french table. (transition between louis xiv and louis xv periods.)] the early renaissance compositions in which stucco low-reliefs blossom into painted arabesques and tendrils, are peculiarly adapted to a small music-room; while those who prefer a more architectural treatment may find admirable examples in some of the italian eighteenth-century rooms decorated with free-hand stucco ornament, or in the sculptured wood-panelling of the same period in france. at remiremont in the vosges, formerly the residence of a noble order of canonesses, the abbess's _hôtel_ contains an octagonal music-room of exceptional beauty, the panelled walls being carved with skilfully combined musical instruments and flower-garlands. in larger apartments a fanciful style of fresco-painting might be employed, as in the rooms painted by tiepolo in the villa valmarana, near vicenza, or in the staircase of the palazzo sina, at venice, decorated by longhi with the episodes of an eighteenth-century carnival. whatever the design chosen, it should never resemble the formal treatment suited to ball-room and saloon: the decoration should sound a note distinctly suggestive of the purpose for which the music-room is used. it is difficult to understand why modern music-rooms have so long been disfigured by the clumsy lines of grand and upright pianos, since the cases of both might be modified without affecting the construction of the instrument. of the two, the grand piano would be the easier to remodel: if its elephantine supports were replaced by slender fluted legs, and its case and sounding-board were painted, or inlaid with marquetry, it would resemble the charming old clavecin which preceded the pianoforte. fewer changes are possible in the "upright"; but a marked improvement could be produced by straightening its legs and substituting right angles for the weak curves of the lid. the case itself might be made of plainly panelled mahogany, with a few good ormolu ornaments; or of inlaid wood, with a design of musical instruments and similar "attributes"; or it might be decorated with flower-garlands and arabesques painted either on the natural wood or on a gilt or colored background. designers should also study the lines of those two long-neglected pieces of furniture, the music-stool and music-stand. the latter should be designed to match the piano, and painted or inlaid like its case. the revolving mushroom that now serves as a music-stool is a modern invention: the old stools were substantial circular seats resting on four fluted legs. the manuals of the eighteenth-century cabinet-makers contain countless models of these piano-seats, which might well be reproduced by modern designers: there seems no practical reason why the accessories of the piano should be less decorative than those of the harpsichord. [illustration: _plate xlvii._ library of louis xvi, palace of versailles. (louis xv writing-table with bust.)] xii the library, smoking-room, and "den" in the days when furniture was defined as "that which may be carried about," the natural bookcase was a chest with a strong lock. these chests, packed with precious manuscripts, followed the prince or noble from one castle to another, and were even carried after him into camp. before the invention of printing, when twenty or thirty books formed an exceptionally large library, and many great personages were content with the possession of one volume, such ambulant bookcases were sufficient for the requirements of the most eager bibliophile. occasionally the volumes were kept in a small press or cupboard, and placed in a chest only when their owner travelled; but the bookcase, as now known, did not take shape until much later, for when books multiplied with the introduction of printing, it became customary to fit up for their reception little rooms called _cabinets_. in the famous _cabinet_ of catherine de medici at blois the walls are lined with book-shelves concealed behind sliding panels--a contrivance rendered doubly necessary by the general insecurity of property, and by the fact that the books of that period, whether in manuscript or printed, were made sumptuous as church jewelry by the art of painter and goldsmith. long after the establishment of the printing-press, books, except in the hands of the scholar, continued to be a kind of curiosity, like other objects of art: less an intellectual need than a treasure upon which rich men prided themselves. it was not until the middle of the seventeenth century that the taste for books became a taste for reading. france led the way in this new fashion, which was assiduously cultivated in those parisian _salons_ of which madame de rambouillet's is the recognized type. the possession of a library, hitherto the privilege of kings, of wealthy monasteries, or of some distinguished patron of letters like grolier, maioli, or de thou, now came to be regarded as a necessity of every gentleman's establishment. beautiful bindings were still highly valued, and some of the most wonderful work produced in france belongs to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; but as people began to buy books for the sake of what they contained, less exaggerated importance was attached to their exterior, so that bindings, though perfect as taste and skill could make them, were seldom as extravagantly enriched as in the two preceding centuries. up to a certain point this change was not to be regretted: the mediæval book, with its gold or ivory bas-reliefs bordered with precious stones, and its massive jewelled clasps, was more like a monstrance or reliquary than anything meant for less ceremonious use. it remained for the italian printers and binders of the sixteenth century, and for their french imitators, to adapt the form of the book to its purpose, changing, as it were, a jewelled idol to a human companion. [illustration: _plate xlviii._ small library at audley end, england. xviii century.] the substitution of the octavo for the folio, and certain modifications in binding which made it possible to stand books upright instead of laying one above the other with edges outward, gradually gave to the library a more modern aspect. in france, by the middle of the seventeenth century, the library had come to be a recognized feature in private houses. the renaissance _cabinet_ continued to be the common receptacle for books; but as the shelves were no longer concealed, bindings now contributed to the decoration of the room. movable bookcases were not unknown, but these seem to have been merely presses in which wooden door-panels were replaced by glass or by a lattice-work of brass wire. the typical french bookcase _à deux corps_--that is, made in two separate parts, the lower a cupboard to contain prints and folios, the upper with shelves and glazed or latticed doors--was introduced later, and is still the best model for a movable bookcase. in rooms of any importance, however, the french architect always preferred to build his book-shelves into niches formed in the thickness of the wall, thus utilizing the books as part of his scheme of decoration. there is no doubt that this is not only the most practical, but the most decorative, way of housing any collection of books large enough to be so employed. to adorn the walls of a library, and then conceal their ornamentation by expensive bookcases, is a waste, or rather a misapplication, of effects--always a sin against æsthetic principles. the importance of bookbindings as an element in house-decoration has already been touched upon; but since a taste for good bindings has come to be regarded as a collector's fad, like accumulating snuff-boxes or _baisers-de-paix_, it seems needful to point out how obvious and valuable a means of decoration is lost by disregarding the outward appearance of books. to be decorative, a bookcase need not contain the productions of the master-binders,--old volumes by eve and derôme, or the work of roger payne and sanderson,--unsurpassed as they are in color-value. ordinary bindings of half morocco or vellum form an expanse of warm lustrous color; such bindings are comparatively inexpensive; yet people will often hesitate to pay for a good edition bound in plain levant half the amount they are ready to throw away upon a piece of modern saxe or a silver photograph-frame. the question of binding leads incidentally to that of editions, though the latter is hardly within the scope of this book. people who have begun to notice the outside of their books naturally come to appreciate paper and type; and thus learn that the modern book is too often merely the cheapest possible vehicle for putting words into print. the last few years have brought about some improvement; and it is now not unusual for a publisher, in bringing out a book at the ordinary rates, to produce also a small edition in large-paper copies. these large-paper books, though as yet far from perfect in type and make-up, are superior to the average "commercial article"; and, apart from their artistic merit, are in themselves a good investment, since the value of such editions increases steadily year by year. those who cannot afford both edition and binding will do better to buy large-paper books or current first editions in boards, than "handsomely bound" volumes unworthy in type and paper. the plain paper or buckram covers of a good publisher are, in fact, more decorative, because more artistic, than showy tree-calf or "antique morocco." the same principle applies to the library itself: plain shelves filled with good editions in good bindings are more truly decorative than ornate bookcases lined with tawdry books. it has already been pointed out that the plan of building book-shelves into the walls is the most decorative and the most practical (see plate xlviii). the best examples of this treatment are found in france. the walls of the rooms thus decorated were usually of panelled wood, either in natural oak or walnut, as in the beautiful library of the old university at nancy, or else painted in two contrasting colors, such as gray and white. when not set in recesses, the shelves formed a sort of continuous lining around the walls, as in the library of louis xvi in the palace at versailles (see plate xlvii), or in that of the duc de choiseul at chanteloup, now set up in one of the rooms of the public library at tours. in either case, instead of being detached pieces of furniture, the bookcases formed an organic part of the wall-decoration. any study of old french works on house-decoration and furniture will show how seldom the detached bookcase was used in french libraries: but few models are to be found, and these were probably designed for use in the boudoir or study, rather than in the library proper (see bookcase in plate v). in england, where private libraries were fewer and less extensive, the movable bookcase was much used, and examples of built-in shelves are proportionately rarer. the hand-books of the old english cabinet-makers contain innumerable models of handsome bookcases, with glazed doors set with diamond-shaped panes in wooden mouldings, and the familiar broken pediment surmounted by a bust or an urn. it was natural that where books were few, small bookcases should be preferred to a room lined with shelves; and in the seventeenth century, according to john evelyn, the "three nations of great britain" contained fewer books than paris. almost all the old bookcases had one feature in common: that is, the lower cupboard with solid doors. the bookcase proper rested upon this projecting cupboard, thus raising the books above the level of the furniture. the prevalent fashion of low book-shelves, starting from the floor, and not extending much higher than the dado-moulding, has probably been brought about by the other recent fashion of low-studded rooms. architects are beginning to rediscover the forgotten fact that the stud of a room should be regulated by the dimensions of its floor-space; so that in the newer houses the dwarf bookcase is no longer a necessity. it is certainly less convenient than the tall old-fashioned press; for not only must one kneel to reach the lower shelves, but the books are hidden, and access to them is obstructed, by their being on a level with the furniture. the general decoration of the library should be of such character as to form a background or setting to the books, rather than to distract attention from them. the richly adorned room in which books are but a minor incident is, in fact, no library at all. there is no reason why the decorations of a library should not be splendid; but in that case the books must be splendid too, and sufficient in number to dominate all the accessory decorations of the room. when there are books enough, it is best to use them as part of the decorative treatment of the walls, panelling any intervening spaces in a severe and dignified style; otherwise movable bookcases may be placed against the more important wall-spaces, the walls being decorated with wooden panelling or with mouldings and stucco ornaments; but in this case composition and color-scheme must be so subdued as to throw the bookcases and their contents into marked relief. it does not follow that because books are the chief feature of the library, other ornaments should be excluded; but they should be used with discrimination, and so chosen as to harmonize with the spirit of the room. nowhere is the modern litter of knick-knacks and photographs more inappropriate than in the library. the tables should be large, substantial, and clear of everything but lamps, books and papers--one table at least being given over to the filing of books and newspapers. the library writing-table is seldom large enough, or sufficiently free from odds and ends in the shape of photograph-frames, silver boxes, and flower-vases, to give free play to the elbows. a large solid table of the kind called _bureau-ministre_ (see the table in plate xlvii) is well adapted to the library; and in front of it should stand a comfortable writing-chair such as that represented in plate xlix. [illustration: _plate xlix._ writing-chair, louis xv period.] the housing of a great private library is one of the most interesting problems of interior architecture. such a room, combining monumental dimensions with the rich color-values and impressive effect produced by tiers of fine bindings, affords unequalled opportunity for the exercise of the architect's skill. the two-storied room with gallery and stairs and domed or vaulted ceiling is the finest setting for a great collection. space may of course be gained by means of a series of bookcases projecting into the room and forming deep bays along each of the walls; but this arrangement is seldom necessary save in a public library, and however skilfully handled must necessarily diminish the architectural effect of the room. in america the great private library is still so much a thing of the future that its treatment need not be discussed in detail. few of the large houses lately built in the united states contain a library in the serious meaning of the term; but it is to be hoped that the next generation of architects will have wider opportunities in this direction. the smoking-room proper, with its _mise en scène_ of turkish divans, narghilehs, brass coffee-trays, and other oriental properties, is no longer considered a necessity in the modern house; and the room which would formerly have been used for this special purpose now comes rather under the head of the master's lounging-room, or "den"--since the latter word seems to have attained the dignity of a technical term. whatever extravagances the upholsterer may have committed in other parts of the house, it is usually conceded that common sense should regulate the furnishing of the den. fragile chairs, lace-petticoat lamp-shades and irrelevant bric-à-brac are consequently excluded; and the master's sense of comfort often expresses itself in a set of "office" furniture--a roller-top desk, a revolving chair, and others of the puffy type already described as the accepted model of a luxurious seat. thus freed from the superfluous, the den is likely to be the most comfortable room in the house; and the natural inference is that a room, in order to be comfortable, must be ugly. one can picture the derision of the man who is told that he might, without the smallest sacrifice of comfort or convenience, transact his business at a louis xvi writing-table, seated in a louis xvi chair!--yet the handsomest desks of the last century--the fine old _bureaux à la kaunitz_ or _à cylindre_--were the prototypes of the modern "roller-top"; and the cane or leather-seated writing-chair, with rounded back and five slim strong legs, was far more comfortable than the amorphous revolving seat. convenience was not sacrificed to beauty in either desk or chair; but both the old pieces, being designed by skilled cabinet-makers, were as decorative as they were useful. there seems, in fact, no reason why the modern den should not resemble the financiers' _bureaux_ seen in so many old prints: rooms of dignified plainness, but where each line of wall-panelling and furniture was as carefully studied and intelligently adapted to its ends as though intended for a drawing-room or boudoir. reference has been made to the way in which, even in small houses, a room may be sacrificed to a supposed "effect," or to some inherited tradition as to its former use. thus the family drawing-room is too often made uninhabitable from some vague feeling that a "drawing-room" is not worthy of its name unless too fine to sit in; while the small front room on the ground floor--in the average american house the only corner given over to the master--is thrown into the hall, either that the house may appear larger and handsomer, or from sheer inability to make so small a room habitable. there is no reason why even a ten-by-twelve or an eight-by-fourteen foot room should not be made comfortable; and the following suggestions are intended to indicate the lines on which an appropriate scheme of decoration might be carried out. in most town houses the small room down-stairs is built with an opening in the longitudinal wall, close to the front door, while there is usually another entrance at the back of the room, facing the window; one at least of these openings being, as a rule, of exaggerated width. in such cases the door in the side of the room should be walled up: this gives privacy and provides enough additional wall-space for a good-sized piece of furniture. the best way of obtaining an effect of size is to panel the walls by means of clear-cut architectural mouldings: a few strong vertical lines will give dignity to the room and height to the ceiling. the walls should be free from pattern and light in color, since dark walls necessitate much artificial light, and have the disadvantage of making a room look small. the ceiling, if not plain, must be ornamented with the lightest tracery, and supported by a cornice correspondingly simple in design. heavy ceiling-mouldings are obviously out of place in a small room, and a plain expanse of plaster is always preferable to misapplied ornament. a single curtain made of some flexible material, such as corduroy or thin unlined damask, and so hung that it may be readily drawn back during the day, is sufficient for the window; while in a corner near this window may be placed an easy-chair and a small solidly made table, large enough to hold a lamp and a book or two. these rooms, in some recently built town houses, contain chimneys set in an angle of the wall: a misplaced attempt at quaintness, making it inconvenient to sit near the hearth, and seriously interfering with the general arrangement of the room. when the chimney occupies the centre of the longitudinal wall there is space, even in a very narrow room, for a group of chairs about the fireplace--provided, as we are now supposing, the opening in the parallel wall has been closed. a bookcase or some other high piece of furniture may be placed on each side of the mantel, and there will be space opposite for a sofa and a good-sized writing-table. if the pieces of furniture chosen are in scale with the dimensions of the room, and are placed against the wall, instead of being set sideways, with the usual easel or palm-tree behind them, it is surprising to see how much a small room may contain without appearing to be overcrowded. [illustration: _plate l._ dining-room, palace of compiÈgne. louis xvi period. (over-doors and over-mantel painted in grisaille, by sauvage.)] xiii the dining-room the dining-room, as we know it, is a comparatively recent innovation in house-planning. in the early middle ages the noble and his retainers ate in the hall; then the _grand'salle_, built for ceremonial uses, began to serve as a banqueting-room, while the meals eaten in private were served in the lord's chamber. as house-planning adapted itself to the growing complexity of life, the mediæval bedroom developed into a private suite of living-rooms, preceded by an antechamber; and this antechamber, or one of the small adjoining cabinets, was used as the family dining-room, the banqueting-hall being still reserved for state entertainments. the plan of dining at haphazard in any of the family living-rooms persisted on the continent until the beginning of the eighteenth century: even then it was comparatively rare, in france, to see a room set apart for the purpose of dining. in small _hôtels_ and apartments, people continued to dine in the antechamber; where there were two antechambers, the inner was used for that purpose; and it was only in grand houses, or in the luxurious establishments of the _femmes galantes_, that dining-rooms were to be found. even in such cases the room described as a _salle à manger_ was often only a central antechamber or saloon into which the living-rooms opened; indeed, madame du barry's sumptuous dining-room at luciennes was a vestibule giving directly upon the peristyle of the villa. in england the act of dining seems to have been taken more seriously, while the rambling outgrowths of the elizabethan residence included a greater variety of rooms than could be contained in any but the largest houses built on more symmetrical lines. accordingly, in old english house-plans we find rooms designated as "dining-parlors"; many houses, in fact, contained two or three, each with a different exposure, so that they might be used at different seasons. these rooms can hardly be said to represent our modern dining-room, since they were not planned in connection with kitchen and offices, and were probably used as living-rooms when not needed for dining. still, it was from the elizabethan dining-parlor that the modern dining-room really developed; and so recently has it been specialized into a room used only for eating, that a generation ago old-fashioned people in england and america habitually used their dining-rooms to sit in. on the continent the incongruous uses of the rooms in which people dined made it necessary that the furniture should be easily removed. in the middle ages, people dined at long tables composed of boards resting on trestles, while the seats were narrow wooden benches or stools, so constructed that they could easily be carried away when the meal was over. with the sixteenth century, the _table-à-tréteaux_ gave way to various folding tables with legs, and the wooden stools were later replaced by folding seats without arms called _perroquets_. in the middle ages, when banquets were given in the _grand'salle_, the plate was displayed on movable shelves covered with a velvet slip, or on elaborately carved dressers; but on ordinary occasions little silver was set out in french dining-rooms, and the great english sideboard, with its array of urns, trays and wine-coolers, was unknown in france. in the common antechamber dining-room, whatever was needed for the table was kept in a press or cupboard with solid wooden doors; changes of service being carried on by means of serving-tables, or _servantes_--narrow marble-topped consoles ranged against the walls of the room. [illustration: _plate li._ dining-room fountain, palace of fontainebleau. louis xv period.] for examples of dining-rooms, as we understand the term, one must look to the grand french houses of the eighteenth century (see plate l) and to the same class of dwellings in england. in france such dining-rooms were usually intended for gala entertainments, the family being still served in antechamber or cabinet; but english houses of the same period generally contain a family dining-room and another intended for state. the dining-room of madame du barry at luciennes, already referred to, was a magnificent example of the great dining-saloon. the ceiling was a painted olympus; the white marble walls were subdivided by corinthian pilasters with plinths and capitals of gilt bronze, surmounted by a frieze of bas-reliefs framed in gold; four marble niches contained statues by pajou, lecomte, and moineau; and the general brilliancy of effect was increased by crystal chandeliers, hung in the intercolumniations against a background of looking-glass. such a room, the banqueting-hall of the official mistress, represents the _courtisane's_ ideal of magnificence: decorations as splendid, but more sober and less theatrical, marked the dining-rooms of the aristocracy, as at choisy, gaillon and rambouillet. the state dining-rooms of the eighteenth century were often treated with an order, niches with statues being placed between the pilasters. sometimes one of these niches contained a fountain serving as a wine-cooler--a survival of the stone or metal wall-fountains in which dishes were washed in the mediæval dining-room. many of these earlier fountains had been merely fixed to the wall; but those of the eighteenth century, though varying greatly in design, were almost always an organic part of the wall-decoration (see plate li). sometimes, in apartments of importance, they formed the pedestal of a life-size group or statue, as in the dining-room of madame de pompadour; while in smaller rooms they consisted of a semicircular basin of marble projecting from the wall and surmounted by groups of cupids, dolphins or classic attributes. the banqueting-gallery of trianon-sous-bois contains in one of its longitudinal walls two wide niches with long marble basins; and mariette's edition of d'aviler's _cours d'architecture_ gives the elevation of a recessed buffet flanked by small niches containing fountains. the following description, accompanying d'aviler's plate, is quoted here as an instance of the manner in which elaborate compositions were worked out by the old decorators: "the second antechamber, being sometimes used as a dining-room, is a suitable place for the buffet represented. this buffet, which may be incrusted with marble or stone, or panelled with wood-work, consists in a recess occupying one of the side walls of the room. the recess contains a shelf of marble or stone, supported on brackets and surmounting a small stone basin which serves as a wine-cooler. above the shelf is an attic flanked by volutes, and over this attic may be placed a picture, generally a flower or fruit-piece, or the representation of a concert, or some such agreeable scene; while in the accompanying plate the attic is crowned by a bust of comus, wreathed with vines by two little satyrs--the group detaching itself against a trellised background enlivened with birds. the composition is completed by two lateral niches for fountains, adorned with masks, tritons and dolphins of gilded lead." [illustration: _plate lii._ dining-chair, louis xiv period.] these built-in sideboards and fountains were practically the only feature distinguishing the old dining-rooms from other gala apartments. at a period when all rooms were painted, panelled, or hung with tapestry, no special style of decoration was thought needful for the dining-room; though tapestry was seldom used, for the practical reason that stuff hangings are always objectionable in a room intended for eating. [illustration: _plate liii._ dining-chair, louis xvi period.] towards the end of the seventeenth century, when comfortable seats began to be made, an admirably designed dining-room chair replaced the earlier benches and _perroquets_. the eighteenth century dining-chair is now often confounded with the light _chaise volante_ used in drawing-rooms, and cabinet-makers frequently sell the latter as copies of old dining-chairs. these were in fact much heavier and more comfortable, and whether cane-seated or upholstered, were invariably made with wide deep seats, so that the long banquets of the day might be endured without constraint or fatigue; while the backs were low and narrow, in order not to interfere with the service of the table. (see plates lii and liii. plates xlvi and l also contain good examples of dining-chairs.) in england the state dining-room was decorated much as it was in france: the family dining-room was simply a plain parlor, with wide mahogany sideboards or tall glazed cupboards for the display of plate and china. the solid english dining-chairs of mahogany, if less graceful than those used on the continent, are equally well adapted to their purpose. the foregoing indications may serve to suggest the lines upon which dining-room decoration might be carried out in the present day. the avoidance of all stuff hangings and heavy curtains is of great importance: it will be observed that even window-curtains were seldom used in old dining-rooms, such care being given to the decorative detail of window and embrasure that they needed no additional ornament in the way of drapery. a bare floor of stone or marble is best suited to the dining-room; but where the floor is covered, it should be with a rug, not with a nailed-down carpet. the dining-room should be lit by wax candles in side _appliques_ or in a chandelier; and since anything tending to produce heat and to exhaust air is especially objectionable in a room used for eating, the walls should be sufficiently light in color to make little artificial light necessary. in the dining-rooms of the last century, in england as well as on the continent, the color-scheme was usually regulated by this principle: the dark dining-room panelled with mahogany or hung with sombre leather is an invention of our own times. it has already been said that the old family dining-room was merely a panelled parlor. sometimes the panels were of light unvarnished oak, but oftener they were painted in white or in some pale tint easily lit by wax candles. the walls were often hung with fruit or flower-pieces, or with pictures of fish and game: a somewhat obvious form of adornment which it has long been the fashion to ridicule, but which was not without decorative value and appropriateness. pictures representing life and action often grow tiresome when looked at over and over again, day after day: a fact which the old decorators probably had in mind when they hung what the french call _natures mortes_ in the dining-room. concerning the state dining-room that forms a part of many modern houses little remains to be said beyond the descriptions already given of the various gala apartments. it is obvious that the banqueting-hall should be less brilliant than a ball-room and less fanciful in decoration than a music-room: a severer and more restful treatment naturally suggests itself, but beyond this no special indications are required. the old dining-rooms were usually heated by porcelain stoves. such a stove, of fine architectural design, set in a niche corresponding with that which contains the fountain, is of great decorative value in the composition of the room; and as it has the advantage of giving out less concentrated heat than an open fire, it is specially well suited to a small or narrow dining-room, where some of the guests must necessarily sit close to the hearth. most houses which have banquet-halls contain also a smaller apartment called a breakfast-room; but as this generally corresponds in size and usage with the ordinary family dining-room, the same style of decoration is applicable to both. however ornate the banquet-hall may be, the breakfast-room must of course be simple and free from gilding: the more elaborate the decorations of the larger room, the more restful such a contrast will be found. of the dinner-table, as we now know it, little need be said. the ingenious but ugly extension-table with a central support, now used all over the world, is an english invention. there seems no reason why the general design should not be improved without interfering with the mechanism of this table; but of course it can never be so satisfactory to the eye as one of the old round or square tables, with four or six tapering legs, such as were used in eighteenth-century dining-rooms before the introduction of the "extension." xiv bedrooms the history of the bedroom has been incidentally touched upon in tracing the development of the drawing-room from the mediæval hall. it was shown that early in the middle ages the sleeping-chamber, which had been one of the first outgrowths of the hall, was divided into the _chambre de parade_, or incipient drawing-room, and the _chambre au giste_, or actual sleeping-room. the increasing development of social life in the sixteenth century brought about a further change; the state bedroom being set aside for entertainments of ceremony, while the sleeping-chamber was used as the family living-room and as the scene of suppers, card-parties, and informal receptions--or sometimes actually as the kitchen. indeed, so varied were the uses to which the _chambre au giste_ was put, that in france especially it can hardly be said to have offered a refuge from the promiscuity of the hall. [illustration: _plate liv._ bedroom. palace of fontainebleau. louis xiv period. (louis xvi bed and chair, modern sofa.)] as a rule, the bedrooms of the renaissance and of the seventeenth century were very richly furnished. the fashion of raising the bed on a dais separated from the rest of the room by columns and a balustrade was introduced in france in the time of louis xiv. this innovation gave rise to the habit of dividing the decoration of the room into two parts; the walls being usually panelled or painted, while the "alcove," as it was called, was hung in tapestry, velvet, or some rich stuff in keeping with the heavy curtains that completely enveloped the bedstead. this use of stuff hangings about the bed, so contrary to our ideas of bedroom hygiene, was due to the difficulty of heating the large high-studded rooms of the period, and also, it must be owned, to the prevalent dread of fresh air as of something essentially unwholesome and pernicious. in the early middle ages people usually slept on the floor; though it would seem that occasionally, to avoid cold or dampness, the mattress was laid on cords stretched upon a low wooden framework. in the fourteenth century the use of such frameworks became more general, and the bed was often enclosed in curtains hung from a tester resting on four posts. bed-hangings and coverlet were often magnificently embroidered; but in order that it might not be necessary to transport from place to place the unwieldy bedstead and tester, these were made in the rudest manner, without attempt at carving or adornment. in course of time this primitive framework developed into the sumptuous four-post bedstead of the renaissance, with elaborately carved cornice and _colonnes torses_ enriched with gilding. thenceforward more wealth and skill were expended upon the bedstead than upon any other article of furniture. gilding, carving, and inlaying of silver, ivory or mother-of-pearl, combined to adorn the framework, and embroidery made the coverlet and hangings resplendent as church vestments. this magnificence is explained by the fact that it was customary for the lady of the house to lie in bed while receiving company. in many old prints representing suppers, card-parties, or afternoon visits, the hostess is thus seen, with elaborately dressed head and stiff brocade gown, while her friends are grouped about the bedside in equally rich attire. this curious custom persisted until late in the eighteenth century; and under such conditions it was natural that the old cabinet-makers should vie with each other in producing a variety of ornate and fanciful bedsteads. it would be useless to enumerate here the modifications in design marking the different periods of decoration: those who are interested in the subject will find it treated in detail in the various french works on furniture. it was natural that while the bedroom was used as a _salon_ it should be decorated with more elaboration than would otherwise have been fitting; but two causes combined to simplify its treatment in the eighteenth century. one of these was the new fashion of _petits appartements_. with artists so keenly alive to proportion as the old french designers, it was inevitable that such a change in dimensions should bring about a corresponding change in decoration. the bedrooms of the eighteenth century, though sometimes elaborate in detail, had none of the pompous richness of the great renaissance or louis xiv room (see plate liv). the pretentious dais with its screen of columns was replaced by a niche containing the bed; plain wood-panelling succeeded to tapestry and embroidered hangings; and the heavy carved ceiling with its mythological centre-picture made way for light traceries on plaster. the other change in the decoration of french bedrooms was due to the substitution of linen or cotton bed and window-hangings for the sumptuous velvets and brocades of the seventeenth century. this change has usually been ascribed to the importation of linens and cottons from the east; and no doubt the novelty of these gay _indiennes_ stimulated the taste for simple hangings. the old inventories, however, show that, in addition to the imported india hangings, plain white linen curtains with a colored border were much used; and it is probably the change in the size of rooms that first led to the adoption of thin washable hangings. the curtains and bed-draperies of damask or brocatelle, so well suited to the high-studded rooms of the seventeenth century, would have been out of place in the small apartments of the regency. in studying the history of decoration, it will generally be found that the supposed vagaries of house-furnishing were actually based on some practical requirement; and in this instance the old decorators were doubtless guided rather by common sense than by caprice. the adoption of these washable materials certainly introduced a style of bedroom-furnishing answering to all the requirements of recent hygiene; for not only were windows and bedsteads hung with unlined cotton or linen, but chairs and sofas were covered with removable _housses_, or slip-covers; while the painted wall-panelling and bare brick or parquet floors came far nearer to the modern sanitary ideal than do the papered walls and nailed-down carpets still seen in many bedrooms. this simple form of decoration had the additional charm of variety; for it was not unusual to have several complete sets of curtains and slip-covers, embroidered to match, and changed with the seasons. the hangings and covers of the queen's bedroom at versailles were changed four times a year. although bedrooms are still "done" in chintz, and though of late especially there has been a reaction from the satin-damask bedroom with its dust-collecting upholstery and knick-knacks, the modern habit of lining chintz curtains and of tufting chairs has done away with the chief advantages of the simpler style of treatment. there is something illogical in using washable stuffs in such a way that they cannot be washed, especially in view of the fact that the heavily lined curtains, which might be useful to exclude light and cold, are in nine cases out of ten so hung by the upholsterer that they cannot possibly be drawn at night. besides, the patterns of modern chintzes have so little in common with the _toiles imprimées_ of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that they scarcely serve the same decorative purpose; and it is therefore needful to give some account of the old french bedroom hangings, as well as of the manner in which they were employed. the liking for _cotonnades_ showed itself in france early in the seventeenth century. before this, cotton materials had been imported from the east; but in the seventeenth century a manufactory was established in france, and until about cotton and linen curtains and furniture-coverings remained in fashion. this taste was encouraged by the importation of the _toiles des indes_, printed cottons of gay color and fanciful design, much sought after in france, especially after the government, in order to protect native industry, had restricted the privilege of importing them to the _compagnie des indes_. it was not until oberkampf established his manufactory at jouy in that the french _toiles_ began to replace those of foreign manufacture. hitherto the cottons made in france had been stamped merely in outline, the colors being filled in by hand; but oberkampf invented a method of printing in colors, thereby making france the leading market for such stuffs. the earliest printed cottons having been imported from india and china, it was natural that the style of the oriental designers should influence their european imitators. europe had, in fact, been prompt to recognize the singular beauty of chinese art, and in france the passion for _chinoiseries_, first aroused by mazarin's collection of oriental objects of art, continued unabated until the general decline of taste at the end of the eighteenth century. nowhere, perhaps, was the influence of chinese art more beneficial to european designers than in the composition of stuff-patterns. the fantastic gaiety and variety of chinese designs, in which the human figure so largely predominates, gave fresh animation to european compositions, while the absence of perspective and modelling preserved that conventionalism so essential in pattern-designing. the voluminous acanthus-leaves, the fleur-de-lys, arabesques and massive scroll-work so suitable to the genoese velvets and lyons silks of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, would have been far too magnificent for the cotton stuffs that were beginning to replace those splendid tissues. on a thin material a heavy architectural pattern was obviously inappropriate; besides, it would have been out of scale with the smaller rooms and lighter style of decoration then coming into fashion. the french designer, while influenced by chinese compositions, was too artistic to be satisfied with literal reproductions of his oriental models. absorbing the spirit of the chinese designs, he either blent mandarins and pagodas with italian grottoes, french landscapes, and classical masks and trophies, in one of those delightful inventions which are the fairy-tales of decorative art, or applied the principles of oriental design to purely european subjects. in comparing the printed cottons of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with modern chintzes, it will be seen that the latter are either covered with monotonous repetitions of a geometrical figure, or with realistic reproductions of some natural object. many wall-papers and chintzes of the present day represent loose branches of flowers scattered on a plain surface, with no more relation to each other or to their background than so many real flowers fixed at random against the wall. this literal rendering of natural objects with deceptive accuracy, always condemned by the best artists, is especially inappropriate when brought in close contact with the highly conventionalized forms of architectural composition. in this respect, the endlessly repeated geometrical figure is obviously less objectionable; yet the geometrical design, as produced to-day, has one defect in common with the other--that is, lack of imagination. modern draughtsmen, in eliminating from their work that fanciful element (always strictly subordinated to some general scheme of composition) which marked the designs of the last two centuries, have deprived themselves of the individuality and freshness that might have saved their patterns from monotony. this rejection of the fanciful in composition is probably due to the excessive use of pattern in modern decoration. where much pattern is used, it must be as monotonous as possible, or it will become unbearable. the old decorators used few lines, and permitted themselves more freedom in design; or rather they remembered, what is now too often forgotten, that in the decoration of a room furniture and objects of art help to make design, and in consequence they were chiefly concerned with providing plain spaces of background to throw into relief the contents of the room. of late there has been so marked a return to plain panelled or painted walls that the pattern-designer will soon be encouraged to give freer rein to his fancy. in a room where walls and floor are of uniform tint, there is no reason why the design of curtains and chair-coverings should consist of long straight rows of buttercups or crocuses, endlessly repeated. [illustration: _plate lv._ bath-room, pitti palace, florence. late xviii century. decorated by cacialli.] it must not be thought that the old designs were unconventional. nature, in passing through the medium of the imagination, is necessarily transposed and in a manner conventionalized; and it is this transposition, this deliberate selection of certain characteristics to the exclusion of others, that distinguishes the work of art from a cast or a photograph. but the reduction of natural objects to geometrical forms is only one of the results of artistic selection. the italian fresco-painters--the recognized masters of wall-decoration in the flat--always used the naturalistic method, but subject to certain restrictions in composition or color. this applies also to the chinese designers, and to the humbler european pattern-makers who on more modest lines followed the same sound artistic traditions. in studying the _toiles peintes_ manufactured in europe previous to the present century, it will be seen that where the design included the human figure or landscape naturalistically treated (as in the fables of Æsop and la fontaine, or the history of don quixote), the pattern was either printed entirely in one color, or so fantastically colored that by no possibility could it pass for an attempt at a literal rendering of nature. besides, in all such compositions (and here the chinese influence is seen) perspective was studiously avoided, and the little superimposed groups or scenes were either connected by some decorative arabesque, or so designed that by their outline they formed a recurring pattern. on the other hand, when the design was obviously conventional a variety of colors was freely used. the introduction of the human figure, animals, architecture and landscape into stuff-patterns undoubtedly gave to the old designs an animation lacking in those of the present day; and a return to the _pays bleu_ of the chinese artist would be a gain to modern decoration. of the various ways in which a bedroom may be planned, none is so luxurious and practical as the french method of subdividing it into a suite composed of two or more small rooms. where space is not restricted there should in fact be four rooms, preceded by an antechamber separating the suite from the main corridor of the house. the small sitting-room or boudoir opens into this antechamber; and next comes the bedroom, beyond which are the dressing and bath rooms. in french suites of this kind there are usually but two means of entrance from the main corridor: one for the use of the occupant, leading into the antechamber, the other opening into the bath-room, to give access to the servants. this arrangement, besides giving greater privacy, preserves much valuable wall-space, which would be sacrificed in america to the supposed necessity of making every room in a house open upon one of the main passageways. the plan of the bedroom suite can of course be carried out only in large houses; but even where there is no lack of space, such an arrangement is seldom adopted by american architects, and most of the more important houses recently built contain immense bedrooms, instead of a series of suites. to enumerate the practical advantages of the suite over the single large room hardly comes within the scope of this book; but as the uses to which a bedroom is put fall into certain natural subdivisions, it will be more convenient to consider it as a suite. since bedrooms are no longer used as _salons_, there is no reason for decorating them in an elaborate manner; and, however magnificent the other apartments, it is evident that in this part of the house simplicity is most fitting. now that people have been taught the unhealthiness of sleeping in a room with stuff hangings, heavy window-draperies and tufted furniture, the old fashion of painted walls and bare floors naturally commends itself; and as the bedroom suite is but the subdivision of one large room, it is obviously better that the same style of decoration should be used throughout. for this reason, plain panelled walls and chintz or cotton hangings are more appropriate to the boudoir than silk and gilding. if the walls are without pattern, a figured chintz may be chosen for curtains and furniture; while those who prefer plain tints should use unbleached cotton, trimmed with bands of color, or some colored linen with applications of gimp or embroidery. it is a good plan to cover all the chairs and sofas in the bedroom suite with slips matching the window-curtains; but where this is done, the furniture should, if possible, be designed for the purpose, since the lines of modern upholstered chairs are not suited to slips. the habit of designing furniture for slip-covers originated in the middle ages. at a time when the necessity of transporting furniture was added to the other difficulties of travel, it was usual to have common carpenter-built benches and tables, that might be left behind without risk, and to cover these with richly embroidered slips. the custom persisted long after furniture had ceased to be a part of luggage, and the benches and _tabourets_ now seen in many european palaces are covered merely with embroidered slips. even when a set of furniture was upholstered with silk, it was usual, in the eighteenth century, to provide embroidered cotton covers for use in summer, while curtains of the same stuff were substituted for the heavier hangings used in winter. old inventories frequently mention these _tentures d'été_, which are well adapted to our hot summer climate. the boudoir should contain a writing-table, a lounge or _lit de repos_, and one or two comfortable arm-chairs, while in a bedroom forming part of a suite only the bedstead and its accessories should be placed. the pieces of furniture needed in a well-appointed dressing-room are the toilet-table, wash-stand, clothes-press and cheval-glass, with the addition, if space permits, of one or two commodes or chiffonniers. the designing of modern furniture of this kind is seldom satisfactory; yet many who are careful to choose simple, substantial pieces for the other rooms of the house, submit to the pretentious "bedroom suit" of bird's-eye maple or mahogany, with its wearisome irrelevance of line and its excess of cheap ornament. any study of old bedroom furniture will make clear the inferiority of the modern manufacturer's designs. nowhere is the old sense of proportion and fitness seen to better advantage than in the simple, admirably composed commodes and clothes-presses of the eighteenth-century bedroom. the bath-room walls and floor should, of course, be water-proof. in the average bath-room, a tiled floor and a high wainscoting of tiles are now usually seen; and the detached enamel or porcelain bath has in most cases replaced the built-in metal tub. the bath-rooms in the larger houses recently built are, in general, lined with marble; but though the use of this substance gives opportunity for fine architectural effects, few modern bath-rooms can in this respect be compared with those seen in the great houses of europe. the chief fault of the american bath-room is that, however splendid the materials used, the treatment is seldom architectural. a glance at the beautiful bath-room in the pitti palace at florence (see plate lv) will show how much effect may be produced in a small space by carefully studied composition. a mere closet is here transformed into a stately room, by that regard for harmony of parts which distinguishes interior architecture from mere decoration. a bath-room lined with precious marbles, with bath and wash-stand ranged along the wall, regardless of their relation to the composition of the whole, is no better architecturally than the tiled bath-room seen in ordinary houses: design, not substance, is needed to make the one superior to the other. xv the school-room and nurseries one of the most important and interesting problems in the planning and decoration of a house is that which has to do with the arrangement of the children's rooms. there is, of course, little opportunity for actual decoration in school-room or nursery; and it is only by stretching a point that a book dealing merely with the practical application of æsthetics may be made to include a chapter bordering on pedagogy. it must be remembered, however, that any application of principles presupposes some acquaintance with the principles themselves; and from this standpoint there is a certain relevance in studying the means by which the child's surroundings may be made to develop his sense of beauty. the room where the child's lessons are studied is, in more senses than one, that in which he receives his education. his whole view of what he is set to learn, and of the necessity and advantage of learning anything at all, is tinged, more often than people think, by the appearance of the room in which his studying is done. the æsthetic sensibilities wake early in some children, and these, if able to analyze their emotions, could testify to what suffering they have been subjected by the habit of sending to school-room and nurseries whatever furniture is too ugly or threadbare to be used in any other part of the house. in the minds of such children, curious and lasting associations are early established between the appearance of certain rooms and the daily occupations connected with them; and the aspect of the school-room too often aggravates instead of mitigating the weariness of lesson-learning. there are, of course, many children not naturally sensitive to artistic influences, and the parents of such children often think that no special care need be spent on their surroundings--a curious misconception of the purpose of all æsthetic training. to teach a child to appreciate any form of beauty is to develop his intelligence, and thereby to enlarge his capacity for wholesome enjoyment. it is, therefore, never idle to cultivate a child's taste; and those who have no pronounced natural bent toward the beautiful in any form need more guidance and encouragement than the child born with a sense of beauty. the latter will at most be momentarily offended by the sight of ugly objects; while they may forever blunt the taste and narrow the views of the child whose sluggish imagination needs the constant stimulus of beautiful surroundings. if art is really a factor in civilization, it seems obvious that the feeling for beauty needs as careful cultivation as the other civic virtues. to teach a child to distinguish between a good and a bad painting, a well or an ill-modelled statue, need not hinder his growth in other directions, and will at least develop those habits of observation and comparison that are the base of all sound judgments. it is in this sense that the study of art is of service to those who have no special aptitude for any of its forms: its indirect action in shaping æsthetic criteria constitutes its chief value as an element of culture. the habit of regarding "art" as a thing apart from life is fatal to the development of taste. parents may conscientiously send their children to galleries and museums, but unless the child can find some point of contact between its own surroundings and the contents of the galleries, the interest excited by the pictures and statues will be short-lived and ineffectual. children are not reached by abstract ideas, and a picture hanging on a museum wall is little better than an abstraction to the child's vivid but restricted imagination. besides, if the home surroundings are tasteless, the unawakened sense of form will not be roused by a hurried walk through a museum. the child's mind must be prepared by daily lessons in beauty to understand the masterpieces of art. a child brought up on foolish story-books could hardly be expected to enjoy _the knight's tale_ or the _morte d'arthur_ without some slight initiation into the nature and meaning of good literature; and to pass from a house full of ugly furniture, badly designed wall-papers and worthless knick-knacks to a hurried contemplation of the venus of milo or of a model of the parthenon is not likely to produce the desired results. the daily intercourse with poor pictures, trashy "ornaments," and badly designed furniture may, indeed, be fittingly compared with a mental diet of silly and ungrammatical story-books. most parents nowadays recognize the harmfulness of such a _régime_, and are careful to feed their children on more stimulating fare. skilful compilers have placed mallory and chaucer, cervantes and froissart, within reach of the childish understanding, thus laying the foundations for a lasting appreciation of good literature. no greater service can be rendered to children than in teaching them to know the best and to want it; but while this is now generally conceded with regard to books, the child's eager eyes are left to fare as best they may on chromos from the illustrated papers and on carefully hoarded rubbish from the christmas tree. the mention of the christmas tree suggests another obstacle to the early development of taste. many children, besides being surrounded by ugly furniture and bad pictures, are overwhelmed at christmas, and on every other anniversary, by presents not always selected with a view to the formation of taste. the question of presents is one of the most embarrassing problems in the artistic education of children. as long as they are in the toy age no great harm is done: it is when they are considered old enough to appreciate "something pretty for their rooms" that the season of danger begins. parents themselves are often the worst offenders in this respect, and the sooner they begin to give their children presents which, if not beautiful, are at least useful, the sooner will the example be followed by relatives and friends. the selection of such presents, while it might necessitate a little more trouble, need not lead to greater expense. good things do not always cost more than bad. a good print may often be bought for the same price as a poor one, and the money spent on a china "ornament," in the shape of a yellow leghorn hat with a kitten climbing out of it, would probably purchase a good reproduction of one of the tanagra statuettes, a plaster cast of some french or italian bust, or one of cantagalli's copies of the robbia bas-reliefs--any of which would reveal a world of unsuspected beauty to many a child imprisoned in a circle of _articles de paris_. the children of the rich are usually the worst sufferers in such cases, since the presents received by those whose parents and relations are not "well off" have the saving merit of usefulness. it is the superfluous gimcrack--the "ornament"--which is most objectionable, and the more expensive such articles are the more likely are they to do harm. rich children suffer from the quantity as well as the quality of the presents they receive. appetite is surfeited, curiosity blunted, by the mass of offerings poured in with every anniversary. it would be better if, in such cases, friends and family could unite in giving to each child one thing worth having--a good edition, a first-state etching or engraving, or some like object fitted to give pleasure at the time and lasting enjoyment through life. parents often make the mistake of thinking that such presents are too "serious"--that children do not care for good bindings, fine engravings, or reproductions of sculpture. as a matter of fact, children are quick to appreciate beauty when pointed out and explained to them, and an intelligent child feels peculiar pride in being the owner of some object which grown-up people would be glad to possess. if the selection of such presents is made with a reasonable regard for the child's tastes and understanding--if the book chosen is a good edition, well bound, of the _morte d'arthur_ or of _chaucer_--if the print represents some tuscan nativity, with a joyous dance of angels on the thatched roof, or a group of splendid horsemen and strange animals from the wondrous fairy-tale of the riccardi chapel--the present will give as much immediate pleasure as a "juvenile" book or picture, while its intrinsic beauty and significance may become important factors in the child's æsthetic development. the possession of something valuable, that may not be knocked about, but must be handled with care and restored to its place after being looked at, will also cultivate in the child that habit of carefulness and order which may be defined as good manners toward inanimate objects. children suffer not only from the number of presents they receive, but from that over-crowding of modern rooms that so often makes it necessary to use the school-room and nurseries as an outlet for the overflow of the house. to the children's quarters come one by one the countless objects "too good to throw away" but too ugly to be tolerated by grown-up eyes--the bead-work cushions that have "associations," the mildewed landseer prints of foaming, dying animals, the sheep-faced madonna and apostles in bituminous draperies, commemorating a paternal visit to rome in the days when people bought copies of the "old masters." those who wish to train their children's taste must resolutely clear the school-room of all such stumbling-blocks. ugly furniture cannot always be replaced; but it is at least possible to remove unsuitable pictures and knick-knacks. it is essential that the school-room should be cheerful. dark colors, besides necessitating the use of much artificial light, are depressing to children and consequently out of place in the school-room: white woodwork, and walls tinted in some bright color, form the best background for both work and play. perhaps the most interesting way of decorating the school-room is that which might be described as the rotation system. to carry out this plan--which requires the coöperation of the children's teacher--the walls must be tinted in some light color, such as turquoise-blue or pale green, and cleared of all miscellaneous adornments. these should then be replaced by a few carefully-chosen prints, photographs and plaster casts, representing objects connected with the children's studies. let it, for instance, be supposed that the studies in hand include natural history, botany, and the history of france and england during the sixteenth century. these subjects might be respectively illustrated by some of the clever japanese outline drawings of plants and animals, by holbein's portrait of henry viii, clouet's of charles ix and of elizabeth of austria, dürer's etchings of luther and erasmus, and views of some of the principal buildings erected in france and england during the sixteenth century. the prints and casts shown at one time should be sufficiently inexpensive and few in number to be changed as the child's lessons proceed, thus forming a kind of continuous commentary upon the various branches of study. this plan of course necessitates more trouble and expense than the ordinary one of giving to the walls of the school-room a permanent decoration: an arrangement which may also be made interesting and suggestive, if the child's requirements are considered. when casts and pictures are intended to remain in place, it is a good idea to choose them at the outset with a view to the course of studies likely to be followed. in this way, each object may serve in turn to illustrate some phase of history or art: even this plan will be found to have a vivifying effect upon the dry bones of "lessons." in a room decorated in this fashion, the prints or photographs selected might represent the foremost examples of greek, gothic, renaissance and eighteenth-century architecture, together with several famous paintings of different periods and schools; sculpture being illustrated by casts of the disk-thrower, of one of robbia's friezes of child-musicians, of donatello's saint george, and pigalle's "child with the bird." parents who do not care to plan the adornment of the school-room on such definite lines should at least be careful to choose appropriate casts and pictures. it is generally conceded that nothing painful should be put before a child's eyes; but the deleterious effects of namby-pamby prettiness are too often disregarded. anything "sweet" is considered appropriate for the school-room or nursery; whereas it is essential to the child's artistic training that only the sweetness which proceeds _de forte_ should be held up for admiration. it is easy to find among the world's masterpieces many pictures interesting to children. vandyck's "children of charles i"; bronzino's solemn portraits of medici babies; drouais' picture of the comte d'artois holding his little sister on the back of a goat; the wan little princes of velasquez; the ruddy beggar-boys of murillo--these are but a few of the subjects that at once suggest themselves. then, again, there are the wonder-books of those greatest of all story-tellers, the italian fresco-painters--benozzo gozzoli, pinturicchio, carpaccio--incorrigible gossips every one, lingering over the minor episodes and trivial details of their stories with the desultory slowness dear to childish listeners. in sculpture, the range of choice is no less extended. the choristers of robbia, the lean little st. johns of donatello and his school--verrocchio's fierce young david, and the capitol "boy with the goose"--these may alternate with fragments of the parthenon frieze, busts of great men, and studies of animals, from the assyrian lions to those of canova and barye. above all, the walls should not be overcrowded. the importance of preserving in the school-room bare wall-spaces of uniform tint has hitherto been little considered; but teachers are beginning to understand the value of these spaces in communicating to the child's brain a sense of repose which diminishes mental and physical restlessness. the furniture of the school-room should of course be plain and substantial. well-designed furniture of this kind is seldom made by modern manufacturers, and those who can afford the slight extra expense should commission a good cabinet-maker to reproduce some of the simple models which may be found in the manuals of old french and english designers. it is of special importance to provide a large, solid writing-table: children are too often subjected to the needless constraint and fatigue of writing at narrow unsteady desks, too small to hold even the books in use during the lesson. a well-designed bookcase with glass doors is a valuable factor in the training of children. it teaches a respect for books by showing that they are thought worthy of care; and a child is less likely to knock about and damage a book which must be taken from and restored to such a bookcase, than one which, after being used, is thrust back on an open shelf. children's books, if they have any literary value, should be bound in some bright-colored morocco: dingy backs of calf or black cloth are not likely to attract the youthful eye, and the better a book is bound the more carefully it will be handled. even lesson-books, when they become shabby, should have a covering of some bright-colored cloth stitched over the boards. the general rules laid down for the decoration of the school-room may, with some obvious modifications, be applied to the treatment of nursery and of children's rooms. these, like the school-room, should have painted walls and a floor of hard wood with a removable rug or a square of matting. in a house containing both school-room and nursery, the decoration of the latter room will of course be adapted to the tastes of the younger children. mothers often say, in answer to suggestions as to the decoration of the nursery, that little children "like something bright"--as though this precluded every form of art above the newspaper chromo and the christmas card! it is easy to produce an effect of brightness by means of white wood-work and walls hung with good colored prints, with large photographs of old flemish or italian pictures,--say, for example, bellini's baby-angels playing on musical instruments,--and with a few of the japanese plant and animal drawings already referred to. all these subjects would interest and amuse even very young children; and there is no reason why a gay japanese screen, with boldly drawn birds and flowers, should not afford as much entertainment as one composed of a heterogeneous collection of christmas cards, chromos, and story-book pictures, put together without any attempt at color-harmony or composition. children's rooms should be as free as possible from all superfluous draperies. the windows may be hung with either shades or curtains: it is needless to have both. if curtains are preferred, they should be of chintz, or of some washable cotton or linen. the reproductions of the old _toiles de jouy_, with pictures from Æsop and la fontaine, or from some familiar myth or story, are specially suited to children's rooms; while another source of interest and amusement may be provided by facing the fireplace with blue and white dutch tiles representing the finding of moses, the story of david and goliath, or some such familiar episode. as children grow older, and are allotted separate bedrooms, these should be furnished and decorated on the same principles and with the same care as the school-room. pieces of furniture for these bedrooms would make far more suitable and interesting presents than the costly odds and ends so often given without definite intention. in the arrangement of the child's own room the expression of individual taste should be encouraged and the child allowed to choose the pictures and casts with which the walls are hung. the responsibility of such selection will do much to develop the incipient faculties of observation and comparison. to sum up, then: the child's visible surroundings form the basis of the best, because of the most unconscious, cultivation: and not of æsthetic cultivation only, since, as has been pointed out, the development of any artistic taste, if the child's general training is of the right sort, indirectly broadens the whole view of life. xvi bric-À-brac it is perhaps not uninstructive to note that we have no english word to describe the class of household ornaments which french speech has provided with at least three designations, each indicating a delicate and almost imperceptible gradation of quality. in place of bric-à-brac, bibelots, _objets d'art_, we have only knick-knacks--defined by stormonth as "articles of small value." this definition of the knick-knack fairly indicates the general level of our artistic competence. it has already been said that cheapness is not necessarily synonymous with trashiness; but hitherto this assertion has been made with regard to furniture and to the other necessary appointments of the house. with knick-knacks the case is different. an artistic age will of course produce any number of inexpensive trifles fit to become, like the tanagra figurines, the museum treasures of later centuries; but it is hardly necessary to point out that modern shop-windows are not overflowing with such immortal toys. the few objects of art produced in the present day are the work of distinguished artists. even allowing for what symonds calls the "vicissitudes of taste," it seems improbable that our commercial knick-knack will ever be classed as a work of art. [illustration: _plate lvi._ bronze andiron. venetian school. xvi century.] it is clear that the weary man must have a chair to sit on, the hungry man a table to dine at; nor would the most sensitive judgment condemn him for buying ugly ones, were no others to be had; but objects of art are a counsel of perfection. it is quite possible to go without them; and the proof is that many do go without them who honestly think to possess them in abundance. this is said, not with any intention of turning to ridicule the natural desire to "make a room look pretty," but merely with the purpose of inquiring whether such an object is ever furthered by the indiscriminate amassing of "ornaments." decorators know how much the simplicity and dignity of a good room are diminished by crowding it with useless trifles. their absence improves even bad rooms, or makes them at least less multitudinously bad. it is surprising to note how the removal of an accumulation of knick-knacks will free the architectural lines and restore the furniture to its rightful relation with the walls. though a room must depend for its main beauty on design and furniture, it is obvious that there are many details of luxurious living not included in these essentials. in what, then, shall the ornamentation of rooms consist? supposing walls and furniture to be satisfactory, how put the minor touches that give to a room the charm of completeness? to arrive at an answer, one must first consider the different kinds of minor embellishment. these may be divided into two classes: the object of art _per se_, such as the bust, the picture, or the vase; and, on the other hand, those articles, useful in themselves,--lamps, clocks, fire-screens, bookbindings, candelabra,--which art has only to touch to make them the best ornaments any room can contain. in past times such articles took the place of bibelots. few purely ornamental objects were to be seen, save in the cabinets of collectors; but when botticelli decorated the panels of linen chests, and cellini chiselled book-clasps and drinking-cups, there could be no thought of the vicious distinction between the useful and the beautiful. one of the first obligations of art is to make all useful things beautiful: were this neglected principle applied to the manufacture of household accessories, the modern room would have no need of knick-knacks. before proceeding further, it is necessary to know what constitutes an object of art. it was said at the outset that, though cheapness and trashiness are not always synonymous, they are apt to be so in the case of the modern knick-knack. to buy, and even to make, it may cost a great deal of money; but artistically it is cheap, if not worthless; and too often its artistic value is in inverse ratio to its price. the one-dollar china pug is less harmful than an expensive onyx lamp-stand with moulded bronze mountings dipped in liquid gilding. it is one of the misfortunes of the present time that the most preposterously bad things often possess the powerful allurement of being expensive. one might think it an advantage that they are not within every one's reach; but, as a matter of fact, it is their very unattainableness which, by making them more desirable, leads to the production of that worst curse of modern civilization--cheap copies of costly horrors. an ornament is of course not an object of art because it is expensive--though it must be owned that objects of art are seldom cheap. good workmanship, as distinct from designing, almost always commands a higher price than bad; and good artistic workmanship having become so rare that there is practically no increase in the existing quantity of objects of art, it is evident that these are more likely to grow than to diminish in value. still, as has been said, costliness is no test of merit in an age when large prices are paid for bad things. perhaps the most convenient way of defining the real object of art is to describe it as _any ornamental object which adequately expresses an artistic conception_. this definition at least clears the ground of the mass of showy rubbish forming the stock-in-trade of the average "antiquity" dealer. good objects of art give to a room its crowning touch of distinction. their intrinsic beauty is hardly more valuable than their suggestion of a mellower civilization--of days when rich men were patrons of "the arts of elegance," and when collecting beautiful objects was one of the obligations of a noble leisure. the qualities implied in the ownership of such bibelots are the mark of their unattainableness. the man who wishes to possess objects of art must have not only the means to acquire them, but the skill to choose them--a skill made up of cultivation and judgment, combined with that feeling for beauty that no amount of study can give, but that study alone can quicken and render profitable. only time and experience can acquaint one with those minor peculiarities marking the successive "manners" of a master, or even with the technical _nuances_ which at once enable the collector to affix a date to his sèvres or to his maiolica. such knowledge is acquired at the cost of great pains and of frequent mistakes; but no one should venture to buy works of art who cannot at least draw such obvious distinctions as those between old and new saxe, between an old italian and a modern french bronze, or between chinese peach-bloom porcelain of the khang-hi period and the japanese imitations to be found in every "oriental emporium." supposing the amateur to have acquired this proficiency, he is still apt to buy too many things, or things out of proportion with the rooms for which they are intended. the scoffers at style--those who assume that to conform to any known laws of decoration is to sink one's individuality--often justify their view by the assertion that it is ridiculous to be tied down, in the choice of bibelots, to any given period or manner--as though mazarin's great collection had comprised only seventeenth-century works of art, or the colonnas, the gonzagas, and the malatestas had drawn all their treasures from contemporary sources! as a matter of fact, the great amateurs of the past were never fettered by such absurd restrictions. all famous patrons of art have encouraged the talent of their day; but the passion for collecting antiquities is at least as old as the roman empire, and græco-roman sculptors had to make archaistic statues to please the popular fancy, just as our artists paint pre-raphaelite pictures to attract the disciples of ruskin and william morris. since the roman empire, there has probably been no period when a taste for the best of all ages did not exist.[ ] julius ii, while michel angelo and raphael worked under his orders, was gathering antiques for the belvedere _cortile_; under louis xiv, greek marbles, roman bronzes, cabinets of chinese lacquer and tables of florentine mosaic were mingled without thought of discord against lebrun's tapestries or bérain's arabesques; and marie-antoinette's collection united oriental porcelains with goldsmiths' work of the italian renaissance. taste attaches but two conditions to the use of objects of art: that they shall be in scale with the room, and that the room shall not be overcrowded with them. there are two ways of being in scale: there is the scale of proportion, and what might be called the scale of appropriateness. the former is a matter of actual measurement, while the latter is regulated solely by the nicer standard of good taste. even in the matter of actual measurement, the niceties of proportion are not always clear to an unpractised eye. it is easy to see that the ludovisi juno would be out of scale in a boudoir, but the discrepancy, in diminishing, naturally becomes less obvious. again, a vase or a bust may not be out of scale with the wall-space behind it, but may appear to crush the furniture upon which it stands; and since everything a room contains should be regarded as a factor in its general composition, the relation of bric-à-brac to furniture is no less to be studied than the relation of bric-à-brac to wall-spaces. much of course depends upon the effect intended; and this can be greatly modified by careful adjustment of the contents of the room. a ceiling may be made to look less high by the use of wide, low pieces of furniture, with massive busts and vases; while a low-studded room may be heightened by tall, narrow commodes and cabinets, with objects of art upon the same general lines. it is of no less importance to observe the scale of appropriateness. a bronze pallas athene or a cowled mediæval _pleureur_ would be obviously out of harmony with the spirit of a boudoir; while the delicate graces of old saxe or chelsea would become futile in library or study. another kind of appropriateness must be considered in the relation of objects of art to each other: not only must they be in scale as regards character and dimensions, but also--and this, though more important, is perhaps less often considered--as regards quality. the habit of mixing good, bad, and indifferent in furniture is often excused by necessity: people must use what they have. but there is no necessity for having bad bric-à-brac. trashy "ornaments" do not make a room more comfortable; as a general rule, they distinctly diminish its comfort; and they have the further disadvantage of destroying the effect of any good piece of work. vulgarity is always noisier than good breeding, and it is instructive to note how a modern commercial bronze will "talk down" a delicate renaissance statuette or bust, and a piece of deck or minton china efface the color-values of blue-and-white or the soft tints of old sèvres. even those who set down a preference for old furniture as an affectation will hardly maintain that new knick-knacks are as good as old bibelots; but only those who have some slight acquaintance with the subject know how wide is the distance, in conception and execution, between the old object of art and its unworthy successor. yet the explanation is simple. in former times, as the greatest painters occupied themselves with wall-decoration, so the greatest sculptors and modellers produced the delicate statuettes and the incomparable bronze mountings for vases and furniture adorning the apartments of their day. a glance into the window of the average furniture-shop probably convinces the most unobservant that modern bronze mountings are not usually designed by great artists; and there is the same change in the methods of execution. the bronze formerly chiselled is now moulded; the iron once wrought is cast; the patina given to bronze by a chemical process making it a part of the texture of the metal is now simply applied as a surface wash; and this deterioration in processes has done more than anything else to vulgarize modern ornament. it may be argued that even in the golden age of art few could have walls decorated by great painters, or furniture-mountings modelled by great sculptors; but it is here that the superiority of the old method is shown. below the great painter and sculptor came the trained designer who, formed in the same school as his superiors, did not attempt a poor copy of their masterpieces, but did the same kind of work on simpler lines; just as below the skilled artificer stood the plain artisan whose work was executed more rudely, but by the same genuine processes. this explains the supposed affectation of those who "like things just because they are old." old bric-à-brac and furniture are, indeed, almost always worthy of liking, since they are made on good lines by a good process. two causes connected with the change in processes have contributed to the debasement of bibelots: the substitution of machine for hand-work has made possible the unlimited reproduction of works of art; and the resulting demand for cheap knick-knacks has given employment to a multitude of untrained designers having nothing in common with the _virtuoso_ of former times. it is an open question how much the mere possibility of unlimited reproduction detracts from the intrinsic value of an object of art. to the art-lover, as distinguished from the collector, uniqueness _per se_ can give no value to an inartistic object; but the distinction, the personal quality, of a beautiful object is certainly enhanced when it is known to be alone of its kind--as in the case of the old bronzes made _à cire perdue_. it must, however, be noted that in some cases--as in that of bronze-casting--the method which permits reproduction is distinctly inferior to that used when but one object is to be produced. in writing on objects of art, it is difficult to escape the charge of saying on one page that reproductions are objectionable, and on the next that they are better than poor "originals." the united states customs laws have drawn a rough distinction between an original work and its reproductions, defining the former as a work of art and the latter as articles of commerce; but it does not follow that an article of commerce may not be an adequate representation of a work of art. the technical differences incidental to the various forms of reproduction make any general conclusion impossible. in the case of bronzes, for instance, it has been pointed out that the _cire perdue_ process is superior to that by means of which reproductions may be made; nor is this the only cause of inferiority in bronze reproductions. the nature of bronze-casting makes it needful that the final touches should be given to bust or statue after it emerges from the mould. upon these touches, given by the master's chisel, the expressiveness and significance of the work chiefly depend; and multiplied reproductions, in lacking this individual stamp, must lack precisely that which distinguishes the work of art from the commercial article. perhaps the safest general rule is to say that the less the reproduction suggests an attempt at artistic interpretation,--the more literal and mechanical is its rendering of the original,--the better it fulfils its purpose. thus, plaster-casts of sculpture are more satisfactory than bronze or marble copies; and a good photograph of a painting is superior to the average reproduction in oils or water-color. the deterioration in gilding is one of the most striking examples of the modern disregard of quality and execution. in former times gilding was regarded as one of the crowning touches of magnificence in decoration, was little used except where great splendor of effect was desired, and was then applied by means of a difficult and costly process. to-day, after a period of reaction during which all gilding was avoided, it is again unsparingly used, under the mistaken impression that it is one of the chief characteristics of the french styles now once more in demand. the result is a plague of liquid gilding. even in france, where good gilding is still done, the great demand for cheap gilt furniture and ornaments has led to the general use of the inferior process. the prevalence of liquid gilding, and the application of gold to furniture and decoration not adapted to such treatment, doubtless explain the aversion of many persons to any use of gilding in decoration. in former times the expense of good gilding was no obstacle to its use, since it was employed only in gala rooms, where the whole treatment was on the same scale of costliness: it would never have occurred to the owner of an average-sized house to drench his walls and furniture in gilding, since the excessive use of gold in decoration was held to be quite unsuited to such a purpose. nothing more surely preserves any form of ornament from vulgarization than a general sense of fitness. much of the beauty and propriety of old decoration was due to the fact that the merit of a work of art was held to consist, not in substance, but in design and execution. it was never thought that a badly designed bust or vase could be saved from mediocrity by being made of an expensive material. suitability of substance always enhances a work of art; mere costliness never. the chryselephantine zeus of olympia was doubtless admirably suited to the splendor of its surroundings; but in a different setting it would have been as beautiful in marble. in plastic art everything depends on form and execution, and the skilful handling of a substance deliberately chosen for its resistance (where another might have been used with equal fitness) is rather a _tour de force_ than an artistic achievement. these last generalizations are intended to show, not only that there is an intrinsic value in almost all old bibelots, but also that the general excellence of design and execution in past times has handed down to us many unimportant trifles in the way of furniture and household appliances worthy of being regarded as minor objects of art. in italy especially, where every artisan seems to have had the gift of the _plasticatore_ in his finger-tips, and no substance was thought too poor to express a good design, there are still to be found many bits of old workmanship--clocks, _appliques_, terra-cottas, and carved picture-frames with touches of gilding--that may be characterized in the terms applied by the builder of buckingham house to his collection of pictures:--"some good, _none disagreeable_." still, no accumulation of such trifles, even where none is disagreeable, will give to a room the same distinction as the presence of a few really fine works of art. any one who has the patience to put up with that look of bareness so displeasing to some will do better to buy each year one superior piece rather than a dozen of middling quality. even the buyer who need consult only his own pleasure must remember that his very freedom from the ordinary restrictions lays him open to temptation. it is no longer likely that any collector will be embarrassed by a superfluity of treasures; but he may put too many things into one room, and no amount of individual merit in the objects themselves will, from the decorator's standpoint, quite warrant this mistake. any work of art, regardless of its intrinsic merit, must justify its presence in a room by being _more valuable than the space it occupies_--more valuable, that is, to the general scheme of decoration. those who call this view arbitrary or pedantic should consider, first, the importance of plain surfaces in decoration, and secondly the tendency of overcrowding to minimize the effect of each separate object, however striking in itself. eye and mind are limited in their receptivity to a certain number of simultaneous impressions, and the oriental habit of displaying only one or two objects of art at a time shows a more delicate sense of these limitations than the western passion for multiplying effects. to sum up, then, a room should depend for its adornment on general harmony of parts, and on the artistic quality of such necessities as lamps, screens, bindings, and furniture. whoever goes beyond these essentials should limit himself in the choice of ornaments to the "labors of the master-artist's hand." footnote: [ ] "a little study would probably show that the ptolemaic era in egypt was a renaissance of the theban age, in architecture as in other respects, while the golden period of augustus in rome was largely a greek revival. perhaps it would even be discovered that all ages of healthy human prosperity are more or less revivals, and have been marked by a retrospective tendency." _the architecture of the renaissance in italy_, by w. j. anderson. london, batsford, . conclusion in the preceding pages an attempt has been made to show that in the treatment of rooms we have passed from the golden age of architecture to the gilded age of decoration. any argument in support of a special claim necessitates certain apparent injustices, sets up certain provisional limitations, and can therefore be judged with fairness only by those who make due allowance for these conditions. in the discussion of æsthetics such impartiality can seldom be expected. not unnaturally, people resent any attempt to dogmatize on matters so generally thought to lie within the domain of individual judgment. many hold that in questions of taste _gefühl ist alles_; while those who believe that beyond the oscillations of fashion certain fixed laws may be discerned have as yet agreed upon no formula defining their belief. in short, our civilization has not yet developed any artistic creed so generally recognized that it may be invoked on both sides of an argument without risk of misunderstanding. this is true at least of those forms of art that minister only to the æsthetic sense. with architecture and its allied branches the case is different. here beauty depends on fitness, and the practical requirements of life are the ultimate test of fitness. if, therefore, it can be proved that the old practice was based upon a clearer perception of these requirements than is shown by modern decorators, it may be claimed not unreasonably that the old methods are better than the new. it seems, however, that the distinction between the various offices of art is no longer clearly recognized. the merit of house-decoration is now seldom measured by the standard of practical fitness; and those who would set up such a standard are suspected of proclaiming individual preferences under the guise of general principles. in this book, an endeavor has been made to draw no conclusion unwarranted by the premises; but whatever may be thought of the soundness of some of the deductions, they must be regarded, not as a criticism of individual work, but simply of certain tendencies in modern architecture. it must be remembered, too, that the book is merely a sketch, intended to indicate the lines along which further study may profitably advance. it may seem inconsequent that an elementary work should include much apparently unimportant detail. to pass in a single chapter from a discussion of abstract architectural laws to the combination of colors in a bedroom carpet seems to show lack of plan; yet the transition is logically justified. in the composition of a whole there is no negligible quantity: if the decoration of a room is planned on certain definite principles, whatever contributes line or color becomes a factor in the composition. the relation of proportion to decoration is like that of anatomy to sculpture: underneath are the everlasting laws. it was the recognition of this principle that kept the work of the old architect-decorators (for the two were one) free from the superfluous, free from the intemperate accumulation that marks so many modern rooms. where each detail had its determinate part, no superficial accessories were needed to make up a whole: a great draughtsman represents with a few strokes what lesser artists can express only by a multiplicity of lines. the supreme excellence is simplicity. moderation, fitness, relevance--these are the qualities that give permanence to the work of the great architects. _tout ce qui n'est pas nécessaire est nuisible._ there is a sense in which works of art may be said to endure by virtue of that which is left out of them, and it is this "tact of omission" that characterizes the master-hand. modern civilization has been called a varnished barbarism: a definition that might well be applied to the superficial graces of much modern decoration. only a return to architectural principles can raise the decoration of houses to the level of the past. vasari said of the farnesina palace that it was not built, but really born--_non murato ma veramente nato_; and this phrase is but the expression of an ever-present sense--the sense of interrelation of parts, of unity of the whole. there is no absolute perfection, there is no communicable ideal; but much that is empiric, much that is confused and extravagant, will give way before the application of principles based on common sense and regulated by the laws of harmony and proportion. index adam, ceiling ornaments of, andirons, _appliques_, in hall and staircase, araldi's ceiling in the convent of st. paul, parma, architrave of door, see doorway; of mantel-piece, arm-chair, modern, _armoires_, old french and italian, ashby, castle, inigo jones's stairs in, aviler, d', his description of dining-room fountain, ball-room, ; in italy, ; louis xiv, ; lighting of, ; chairs, barry, madame du, dining-room of, bath-room, ; in pitti palace, bedroom, development of, ; renaissance, ; louis xiv, ; xviii-century, ; cotton hangings in, ; suite, plan of, ; children's, bedstead, history of, belvédère, at versailles, frescoes in, bérain, ceiling arabesques of, _bergère_, origin of, ; design of, bernini, his staircase in the vatican, bindings, decorative value of, blinds, blois, spiral stairs in court-yard of château, ; _cabinet_ of catherine de' medici, blondel, on doors, ; on fireplaces, book-cases, medieval, ; in catherine de' medici's _cabinet_, ; in france in the xvii century, ; built into the wall, ; in england, ; modern, books in the middle ages, ; in the renaissance, bosse, abraham, engravings of louis xiii interiors, ; examples of state bedrooms, boudoir, ; modern decoration of, bramante, his use of the mezzanin floor, breakfast-room, bric-à-brac, definition of, ; knowledge of, ; superiority of old over new, burckhardt, on medieval house-planning, , note byfield, g., his stairs at hurlingham, _cabinet_, italian origin of, ; used in french renaissance houses, ; of catherine de' medici, book-cases in, campbell's _vitruvius britannicus_, example of palladian manner, ; of english house-planning, carpets, in general color-scheme, ; choice of, ; _savonnerie_, ; designs of, ; stair-carpets, , ; hall-carpets, caserta, staircase in royal palace, casino del grotto, near mantua, frescoes in, ; ceilings in, casts in vestibule, ; in hall, ; in school-room, ceilings, ; timbered, ; in france and england, ; elizabethan, ; louis xiii, ; louis xv, ; louis xvi, ; adam, , ; objections to wooden, ; modern treatment of, ; frescoed, chambord, staircase at, _chambre de parade_, chandeliers, , chanteloup, library of, chantilly, stair-rail at, chevening, inigo jones's stairs at, cheverny, fireplace at, chinese art, influence of, on stuff patterns, chippendale's designs for grates, "colonial" style, the, color, use of, in decoration, ; predominance of one color in each room, ; color-schemes, cornices, interior, durand on, cortile, italian, modern adaptation of, coutant d'ivry's stair-rail in the palais royal, curtains, mediæval and renaissance, ; in xvii and xviii centuries, ; muslin, dado, the, ; sometimes omitted in lobbies and corridors, decoration and furniture, harmony between, ; individuality in decoration, ; graduated scheme of, "den," furniture of, ; decoration of, dining-chairs, mediæval, ; xvii century, ; xviii century, dining-room, origin of, ; in france, ; in england, ; furniture of, ; french, xviii century, ; fountains in, ; decoration of modern, ; lighting of, ; state, ; heating of, dining-table, mediæval, ; modern, donowell, j., his stairs at west wycombe, doors, ; sliding, origin of, ; double, ; mediæval, ; in palace of urbino, ; in italy, - ; locks and hinges, ; in the hôtels de rohan, de soubise, and de toulouse, ; glass doors, ; treatment in england, ; mahogany, ; panelling, principles of, ; veneering, ; concealed doors, ; entrance-door, doorway, proper dimensions of, , ; treatment of, in italy, ; in france, ; in england, drawing-room, in modern town houses, ; evolution of, in england, ; in france, ; origin of modern, ; treatment of, in england and america, ; furniture of, dressing-room, _duchesse_, durand, j. l. n., on originality in architecture, ; on interior cornices, easton neston, use of panel-pictures at, entrance, treatment of, ; entrance-door, fenders, fire-backs, fire-boards, fireplaces, ; mediæval, construction of, ; in italy, ; in france, ; lining of, ; american, ; accessories of, fire-screens, floors, ; of brick or stone, ; marble and mosaic, in italy, ; parquet, ; of vestibule, ; of ball-room, fontana, his staircase in the royal palace, naples, fountains in dining-rooms, fresco-painting, in wall-decoration, ; examples of, in italy and france, ; in ceiling-decoration, ; in italy, ; in france, ; in italian gala rooms, furniture, in the middle ages, ; furniture and decoration, harmony between, ; modern english and american, ; xviii century, in france and england, ; in vestibule, ; in hall, ; in _salon de compagnie_, ; in drawing-room, , ; english, xviii century, ; in dining-room, ; in bedroom, ; in school-room, gabriel, influence of, on ornamental detail, ; on ceilings, ; on stair-rails, gala rooms, ; uses of, ; in italy, gallery, genoa, royal palace, doors in, gibbons, grinling, carvings for panel-pictures, gilding, deterioration of, giulio romano's frescoes in the palazzo del t, _grand'salle_, mediæval, grates, gwilt, his definition of _staircase_, hall, ; old english, ; uses of, ; modern treatment of, ; decoration of, ; furniture, ; floor of, ; lighting of, ; prints and pictures in, holkham, over-mantels at, hôtel de rohan, doors in, de soubise, doors in, de toulouse, doors in, houghton hall, doors in, , note house, carlton, stair-rail in, devonshire, stair-rail in, norfolk, stair-rail in, individuality in decoration, isabella of este's apartment at mantua, doorways in, jones, inigo, his introduction of palladian manner in england, , note; influence on ceiling-decoration, ; on plan of english hall, ; his stairs at castle ashby, ; at chevening, juvara, his staircase in the palazzo madama, turin, lambrequin, origin of, lamour, jean, his wrought-iron work at nancy, lantern in vestibule, laurano, luciano da, palace of urbino built by, lebrun, door-locks in _galerie d'apollon_ designed by, le riche, frescoes of, in belvédère, versailles, library, ; in the university at nancy, ; of louis xvi, at versailles, ; of chanteloup, ; modern, decoration of, _lit de parade_, _lit de repos_, longhi, frescoes of, in palazzo sina, venice, louis xiii, windows, ; ceilings, louis xiv, modern house-furnishing dates from his reign, ; style, characteristics of, ; window-shutters, ; influence on french, ; mantels, ; ceilings, ; stair-rails, ; ball-rooms, louis xv style, characteristics of, ; doors, ; ceilings, ; wrought-iron work, ; stair-rails, louis xvi style, characteristics of, ; gabriel's influence on, , ; doors, ; ceilings, ; stair-rails, luciennes, madame du barry's dining-room at, mantegna's ceiling, palace of mantua, mantel-pieces, italian renaissance, ; french renaissance, ; louis xiv, ; xviii century, ; american, ; facing of, mantua, doorways in palace, , ; mantegna's ceiling in, ; _cabinet_ of isabella of este, mario dei fiori, massimi alle colonne, palace of, in rome, mezzanin, origin of, ; treatment of, ministère de la marine, paris, door in, mirrors, use of, in over-mantel, ; painted, in borghese palace, rome, ; in ball-rooms, morelli's staircase in palazzo braschi, rome, morning-room, mullions, use of, music-room, ; at remiremont, music-stand, music-stool, nancy, wrought-iron work at, ; library in the university, naples, staircase in royal palace, niches, in hall and staircase, nursery, oberkampf, inventor of color-printing on cotton, object of art, definition of, ; reproductions of, openings, placing and proportion of, ; lines of, carried up to ceiling, , , , ; treatment of, in rocaille style, orders, use of, in wall-decoration, ; application to doorways in italy, ; in france, ; in england, ; in ball-rooms, originality in art, ; j. l. n. durand on, over-doors, mediæval treatment of, ; in italy, ; in france, ; louis xvi, over-mantels, renaissance, ; use of mirror in, ; xviii-century treatment, ; in england, palais royal, stair-rail in, palazzo borghese, rome, painted mirrors in, braschi, rome, staircase in, gondi, florence, stairs in, labia, venice, frescoes in, madama, turin, staircase in, massimi alle colonne, rome, date of, piccolomini, at pienza, staircase in, , note pitti, florence, bath-room in, reale, caserta, staircase in, reale, naples, staircase in, riccardi, staircase in, , note sina, venice, frescoes in, del t, mantua, frescoes in, palladian window, panelling, in italy and north of the alps, ; wood, stone and stucco, , ; subdivisions of, parma, araldi's ceiling in convent of st. paul, ; rocaille stoves in museum, pavia, certosa of, doorways in, _perroquets_, perugia, ceiling in the sala del cambio, perugino's ceiling in the sala del cambio, perugia, peruzzi, baldassare, his use of the mezzanin, piano, design of, pictures, proper background for, ; mode of hanging, ; in hall, ; in dining-room, ; in school-room, picture-frames, selection of, plan of house in relation to decoration, plate-glass in windows, pompadour, madame de, dining-room fountain of, pompeii, wall-frescoes of, portière, use of, presses, old english, prints in hall, ; in school-room, privacy, modern indifference to, proportion, definition of, ; isaac ware on, pyne's _royal residences_, examples of pictures set in panels, rambouillet, madame de, her influence on house-planning, raphael, ceilings of, remiremont, music-room at, renaissance, characteristics of domestic architecture, ; doors, ; window-curtains, ; mantels, , ; ceilings, - ; french architects of, rennes, palais de justice, carved wooden ceilings, rugs, oriental, , ; modern european, _salon à l'italienne_, see saloon _salon de compagnie_, origin and use of, , ; decoration and furniture of, ; lighting of, _salon de famille_, origin and use of, saloon, adaptation of, in england by inigo jones, ; introduction in france, ; uses in italy, ; at vaux-le-vicomte, school-room, ; decoration of, screen in tudor halls, shobden court, stairs in, shutters, interior decoration of, ; at vaux-le-vicomte, ; in rooms of mesdames de france, versailles, ; purpose of, sideboard, mediæval, ; in france, smoking-room, stairs, ; development of, in italy, ; in the palladian period, ; in the xvii and xviii centuries, ; spiral, ; in hall, in england, ; construction of, in italy, ; in france, stair-carpets, staircase, meaning of term, ; walls of, ; in simple houses, ; lighting of, stair-rails, in italy and france, ; louis xiv and xv, ; louis xvi and empire, ; tudor and elizabethan, ; palladian, in england, stoves, use of, in hall, ; examples of old stoves, ; in dining-room, stucco, use of, in decoration, ; panelling, in italy, ; in ceilings, ; in elizabethan ceilings, ; combined with painting, stuff hangings, stupinigi, frescoes at, ; over-mantels at, styles, essence of, ; conformity to, symmetry, definition of, ; advantages of, tapestry, use of, in northern europe, ; its subordination to architectural lines of room, tiepolo, frescoes of, in the villa valmarana, ; in the palazzo labia, titian's "presentation of the virgin," doorway in, _toiles de jouy_, trianon-sous-bois, fountains in banqueting-gallery, udine, giovanni da, ceilings of, in collaboration with raphael, urbino, ducal palace of, ; doors in, ; fireplace in, ; _cabinet_ of isabella of este, vanvitelli's staircase at caserta, vatican, bernini's staircase in, vault, the roman, influence of, on ceilings, vaux-le-vicomte, interior shutters at, ; saloon at, versailles, frescoes in belvédère, ; windows in rooms of mesdames de france, ; shutters in same, ; library of louis xvi, vestibule, ; furniture of, ; lighting of, ; absence of, in english house-planning, villa, italian, chief features of, , note villa giacomelli, at maser, over-mantel in, madama, in rome, ceiling of loggia, rotonda, near vicenza, saloon in, valmarana, near vicenza, frescoes in, vertemati, near chiavenna, over-mantel in, ; carved wooden ceiling in, viollet-le-duc, on doorways, , note; on mediæval house-planning, voguë, hôtel, at dijon, wall-decoration, wall-papers, walls, ware, isaac, on proportion, ; on sliding doors, ; his definition of staircase, west wycombe, donowell's stairs at, windows, decorative value of, ; dimensions of, ; plate-glass in, ; french or casement, ; sash, ; curtains, , ; shutters, , ; lambrequin, ; muslin curtains, ; blinds, wood-box, scanned images of public domain material from the google print archive. [illustration: book cover] remodeled farmhouses [illustration: the curtis house from the roadside] remodeled farmhouses by mary h. northend author of "colonial homes and their furnishings," "historic homes of new england," etc. _with numerous illustrations_ [illustration] boston little, brown, and company _copyright, ,_ by little, brown, and company. i dedicate this book to my friends in my native city to whom i am indebted for many kindnesses preface there is a certain fascination connected with the remodeling of a farmhouse. its low, raftered interior, its weather-beaten exterior, never fail to appeal. types vary with the period in which they were built, but all are of interest. in this collection, which has been pictured with great care, pains have been taken to show as many different types as possible, so that the student will be able to find numerous interesting details that can be incorporated into his contemplated remodeling. in the study of this work i have grown to feel a deep reverence for the old homes of our forefathers, and have come to realize as never before the care and painstaking thoroughness of the old master builders. i wish to thank the owners of these homes who have so kindly thrown open their doors to my inspection, and who have told me the interesting stories connected with the houses. acknowledgment should be made to _american homes and gardens_ for permission to use various articles of mine which they have previously published. in the contents of this book i trust there may be much of value to those who are contemplating the remodeling of a farmhouse and that the work will bring to them the same enjoyment that the study of the subject has brought to me. mary h. northend. august, . contents chapter page preface vii i. iristhorpe ii. limovady iii. the kittredge house iv. the curtis house v. green meadows vi. nawn farm vii. boulder farm viii. three acres ix. the robert spencer house x. the davenport brown house xi. the doctor charles e. inches house xii. the charles martin loeffler house xiii. little orchard xiv. willowdale xv. the george e. barnard estate xvi. the w. p. adden house xvii. the kate douglas wiggin house xviii. the franklin brett house xix. the george d. hall house xx. the walter scott hopkins house xxi. henry w. wright's house xxii. the howland s. chandler house index list of illustrations the curtis house from the roadside _frontispiece_ facing page iristhorpe, front view the entrance porch from the garden the entrance porch, another view the dining room, and the living room the morning room, and the out-door living room limovady, rear view from the garden side view two views of the living room the dining room, and the lounge two of the chambers an old cape cod house side view the attic chamber, and the living room the kitchen the curtis house, the entrance porch before remodeling, and remodeled the hall and unique stairway side view, and the dining room green meadows, front view an old-fashioned chamber, and the living room two views of the den nawn farm, front view rear view, and the living room two views of the dining room the china closet in the dining room boulder farm, front view the front doorway the hall the den, and the parlor two views of the dining room three acres, from the main road front view side view a corner of the living room the living room, and the dining room the robert spencer house on cape cod front view two views of the living room the attic chambers the davenport brown house the hallway the sun-parlor or out-door nursery, and the library two of the chambers the nursery, and the service wing the charles e. inches house, front view showing the old well before remodeling across the lawn the hall and stairway, and the living room the studio opposite the charles m. loeffler house the charles m. loeffler house before remodeling as remodeled two views of the living room the dining room, and the music room in the studio building little orchard, the house from the driveway the angle of the ell the stairway the entrance porch, and the dining room willowdale, before remodeling, and the front view the house from the garden a rear view, and the living room two of the chambers the george e. barnard house before remodeling, and the front of the house the house from the terrace the pergola-porch the hall, and the alcove in the living room the den, and the dining room the w. p. adden house the stairway quillcote, mrs. kate douglas wiggin's summer home the hall two views of the living room the den, and the dining room two of the chambers the franklin brett house, front view before remodeling, and as remodeled the pergola-porch a first-floor vista, and the living room lone tree farm as finally remodeled, and the sun-parlor the living room, and a corner in the dining room the sewing room, and the den the walter scott hopkins house before remodeling as remodeled the living room two views of the dining room the henry w. wright house the living room, and the dining room two noteworthy chambers the howland s. chandler house end view the hall the sun-parlor, and the living room the den, and the kitchen chapter i iristhorpe as you drove slowly along the country road, did you ever stop to consider the many possibilities for development that lie hidden in the old colonial farmhouses found here and there? some are situated quite a distance from the main road, while others are placed practically on its boundary line. many of the types are disguised by the unattractive additions that have been built to accommodate the growing needs of their occupants. others, with sagging roofs and weather-beaten exteriors, stand mute witnesses of the days when our country was making history for itself. some of these unattractive old dwellings in their early days sheltered the most ardent patriots of our land, men whose gallant deeds have made them famous, and who now lie forgotten. fortunately for us, these old houses were not all built in the same century, but present a variety of types which makes them all the more interesting both to architect and house owner. the age of the house is clearly defined in its design. many of the earliest examples were framed in white pine, a wood whose lasting qualities have been plainly shown through their power to withstand the ravages of time. others were constructed of stone or brick and are equally interesting in character. from an architectural standpoint, most of these houses, no matter how dilapidated their condition, show good lines. to be sure, these are often hidden under poor surroundings, for as the families grew larger and additions became necessary, the new parts were often badly placed. this makes it hard for an inexperienced eye to detect where the old house leaves off and the additions begin. it must be remembered that the early tillers of the soil took little interest in their homes save as shelters for themselves and families, and chose for their buildings material that lay nearest at hand. all their ready money was expended in the building of large and spacious barns to house their cattle. there is a wealth of possibilities in the reconstruction of old farmhouses that are easily recognized by the experienced eye of the architect. the study of lines which determine the size and design of the old building is most interesting and teaches a lesson in old-time architecture which is extremely fascinating. the adaptation of the house to new and different purposes, the creation of a picturesque result wholly unlike and yet following the lines of the original building, calls into play not only skilful designing but careful planning. many of these old houses contain fine woodwork which is often hidden under layer upon layer of hideous wall-paper bought with an eye to price rather than good taste. the fireplaces are sometimes bricked up and plastered over to permit the use of a modern "air-tight"; the wainscot and molding are buried under coats of unattractive paint and give little impression of their value until the original walls and woodwork lie bare. some houses, more especially those situated near the coast and erected during the period of commercial prosperity, were built by ship carpenters and wood-carvers during dull seasons. in these, one comes occasionally upon a wonderful old fireplace or perchance a porch that shows artistic carving. many of these old dwellings naturally show original treatment, and it is to these that the architects of to-day turn for details to be introduced into the modified colonial house. they were built by men who were forced to use their brains, since they were unable to turn to books for ideas. as originally built, many of them stood with their backs to the road, their long, sloping roofs sweeping to the ground, their front doors opening on to extensive farm lands. before the door usually stood the father and mother elm, their graceful branches seeming to hover protectingly over the dwellings. many of the trees were there when the houses were built, while others have replaced their worthy sires and contribute a bit of landscape picturing that adds much to the attractiveness of the home. in these old houses, more especially those that are past complete restoration, the architect of to-day frequently finds choice old woodwork. sometimes it is a rare bit of pumpkin pine such as is seldom seen; again it is a fine old wainscot, or a wonderful staircase that has been saved from the ravages of time. often some of these details are introduced into another remodeled farmhouse to replace parts too far gone to be used. the growing vogue of the country home has led to the restoration of many of these old-time farmhouses and has saved many a valuable structure from falling into decay. fortunately the appreciation of their possibilities came before it was too late to save them from destruction, although many that could have done service were allowed to go to ruin. there are, however, many fine examples still standing, and some of these have been altered to suit modern uses. little wonder the old farmhouse has come into its own, its attractiveness after remodeling making it available for summer or all-the-year-round uses. to-day there is scarcely a farm or country resort that does not show one or more of these old-time buildings in their new dress. some have interesting history connected with them and are associated with legends that have been handed down from generation to generation. often the house has been photographed to show both its former appearance and the results of the restoration. some owners, however, have given little thought to the original structure, and it is left to the imagination to picture the house as it used to be. [illustration: iristhorpe--front view] it was six years ago, while hunting for a place to locate a summer home, that doctor and mrs. homer gage of worcester, massachusetts, discovered at shrewsbury a simple little farmhouse, showing no claim to architectural beauty. it was such an unattractive, plain, little building, that only the experienced eye could discover its fine lines. this house stood close by the dusty highway; the fence which formed the boundary line had fallen into decay, while the farm lands, run down through hard usage, showed no trace even of an old-fashioned garden, such as many of the housewives of the earlier day so loved to tend. the house was built before the revolutionary war, being erected in , and was considered in those days to be a good example of what a farmhouse stood for. surely it was an excellent type, considering the usual lines in the new england farmhouses of that day,--this small, unpretentious dwelling, whose entrance door out of plumb and windows irregularly placed made a curious combination that was in reality fascinating and appealing. it was two stories in height, with an attic under the eaves,--a hot little place during the summer months and cold in winter, but good for storage of furniture and unnecessary household belongings. the roof had a pitch at the back and sloped to meet the kitchen, which was only one story in height. two sturdy, six-foot chimneys had been built on one side of the house, as stoves were unknown in those days. the frame was of white pine, well seasoned, and the timber hand-hewn, with the mark of the adze plainly showing in the beams, for it was built when honest labor prevailed and was as stanch as in the days when the bush stuck in the chimney or ridge-pole showed that the carpenters' work was done. the farm buildings were connected with the main house and comprised a barn, hen-house, corn-crib, and byre, all huddled together in the most compact kind of way. it had not been occupied since doctor brown, the original owner, paid his last visit and left the house to its fate. the interior was not as dilapidated as in most old houses, being in tolerably good repair. and so, with little alteration, it was used as a dwelling house, while the new home which was being built near the center of the estate was erected. after the cellar was built and the foundation partly laid, the work on the new house was stopped. there was something about the old clapboarded farmhouse that appealed so strongly to the new occupants that they fell under its charm and decided not to supplant it by a modern home. but the house stood too near the road; there was no privacy and no freedom from dust. it was of such solid construction, however, that its moving could be easily accomplished. so, slowly but surely, it slid down the hill and finally rested on the foundations which had been designed for the summer house. [illustration: the entrance porch] under the direction of mr. george hunt ingraham, the remodeling was begun. the old lines of the roof were left unaltered, and although more room was needed, dormers were left out in its reconstruction. nothing, the new owners felt, could so destroy the lines of the house as to break them with intrusions such as this. the long, unbroken skyline is one of its greatest charms, and even the long slope at one side, reaching down and over the one-story kitchen ell, has been carefully retained and adds not a little to the harmonious effect of the whole structure. at the front was added a small porch showing colonial treatment, in the center of which hang graceful vases filled with iris. the same latticed effect was carried out across the front of the house in the space between the windows of the first and second stories. on either side of the main dwelling, outdoor living-rooms were secured by the introduction of screened piazzas, the roofs of which were painted with water-proof paint. one of these living-rooms opens on to a water-garden with its arches of roses at one side of the house. it is fitted up with willow furniture, in the coverings of which is introduced the prevailing flower, the iris, which is also shown in the table cover and the shape of the vase filled with the same flowers. the opposite porch is also fitted up as a living-room and overlooks the home garden. the exterior of the house is painted white with conventional green blinds, the chimneys following the same treatment, while the windows remain unchanged. the massive stone fireplaces were not taken out, although the old kitchen chimney had to be altered slightly in order to meet present needs. the house to-day overlooks extensive grounds and is embowered in a wealth of rambler roses and iris. it resembles the old house in its lines but shows in its remodeled form a most wonderful effect and reveals what beautiful results can be obtained by correct restoration. [illustration: from the garden] the house is named "iristhorpe," the name being chosen by the mistress of the house, who since her childhood has taken great interest in the iris because of a fairy tale told her by her grandmother, in which the flower was supposed to be the home of the fairies. [illustration: the entrance porch. another view] with modern methods of living, it would have been an impossibility to retain the old house in its entirety. more room was needed, and a service department was an absolute necessity, but in its enlargement such careful attention was paid to carrying out the lines of the original type that to-day it is almost an impossibility to find where the old house leaves off, and the new one commences. in the old structure, as it stood facing the main road, there were three rooms in a row on the first floor, with the kitchen ell attached at the rear, and the upper part of the house cut up into small rooms. in remodeling, these rooms were changed over into morning-room, living-room, and library, and occupy the entire front of the house, just as they did in the original building. they are connected with doors so carefully placed in line that they give one the impression of greater space than is really found at iristhorpe. at the rear, the old kitchen was converted into a most attractive hallway and stairway, with closets and lavatory located at the farther side. [illustration: the dining room] the dining-room, which is at the rear of the living-room, has been added and conforms in every respect to the original design of the old house. back of this are the service rooms, which are admirably planned and equipped with butler's pantry, servants' dining-room, kitchen pantry, rear hall, and stairway, together with a kitchen. in the remodeling, the second story was divided into four servants' bedrooms, a bathroom, and a large sewing-room at the rear. an interesting feature is that this department has no connection on the second floor with any other room in the house. the porch door opens directly into the living-room, which has never been changed from its original place in the old house. its central feature is the old fireplace, which has been opened at the opposite side into the new dining-room. this was originally the old kitchen chimney and contained the brick oven. it has been bricked in for modern use, and here, as throughout the house, the iris motive prevails. it is shown in the graceful andirons, in the coverings of the sheraton wing chair, in the sofa pillows, and even in the lamp-shade. this room contains fine woodwork, which is, in fact, a noticeable feature of every part of the house, and the colonial idea has been carefully carried out in all the furniture used. [illustration: the living room] the library opens out from the living-room at the right, and from that one passes to the outdoor living-room. on the opposite side of the living-room is the den or morning-room, with glass doors which open on to the porch. here again the iris is always the motive of decoration. in this room particularly the old paneling has been retained, as have the old strap hinges and latches, which, when missing, have been replaced by others of like design. this room was originally the doctor's office, and in the cupboard was found, at the purchase of the house, some of his old stock. one of the most interesting rooms is the dining-room, which contains an old brick oven and paneling so exactly corresponding to the character of the original that at first glance it is impossible to differentiate between them, either in age or workmanship. the window sashes, with their small well-shaped panes, give to the room an appropriate scale, and the old iron and brass hinges and latches lend an effective tone. the iris, charming in nature and no less decorative in its conventionalized form, appears here and there in the carved woodwork and always gives a delicate twist to the colonial design it embellishes. the beamed ceiling carries out the old-time idea, while wonderful japanese panels have been inserted in the finish over the fireplace, and huge iron andirons show an exact reproduction of the fleur-de-lis. this flower is found also in the cushions of the chippendale chairs, the decoration of the table, the china, and in a beautiful japanese screen of most graceful design that hides the service entrance into this room. [illustration: the morning room] the white woodwork is a noticeable feature of the interior, where harmony has been so carefully maintained that on entering one feels as if he were in a really old house, rather than one restored. it should be noted that in the architectural treatment, especial consideration has been given to lighting and air; the windows have been distributed so that the light is concentrated, giving the rooms an effect of cheerfulness that could not be obtained otherwise. even the hanging of the curtains, which are of the colonial type, adds to the charm of the house. [illustration: the out-door living room] the bedrooms, on the second floor, of which there are four, show the same low stud that is characteristic of the lower floor. they are small but most conveniently fitted up, even to the conversion of a small closet, which the architect had considered impractical for use, into an extra bathroom. every bit of available space has been made usable. an unusual feature is the guest house, which has been created in the second story of the large stable which stands at one side of the estate. this is especially useful for week-end parties. the loft has been converted into a suite of bedrooms, pool-rooms, and a screened veranda that can be used for sleeping accommodations. iristhorpe might be called a conventional farmhouse, one of the type met with on almost every country road. it has no exterior adornment of any kind, but is a fine example of how a picturesque building can be evolved from an unattractive one, and is probably one of the best examples of remodeling that can be found. the house is typical of the best american architecture, and credit should be given the pioneer who first laid the foundation of the old farmhouse. as iristhorpe now stands, its graceful lines cannot be improved upon, and clever as the alterations undoubtedly are, the great fascination that grips us as we view the house arises from the fact that it is a part of the early architecture, when hewn beams were first primed together, and when dwellings were erected that would endure for centuries. chapter ii limovady first the electric car and now the automobile have solved the problem of accessibility which until recently confronted those who would have returned to the old homestead even sooner, had it been nearer the town. but to-day the house must be far away indeed if it cannot be easily reached from the more active centers, and probably this fact more than any other has opened up for the enjoyment of the younger generations the natural charm of the countryside endeared to our forefathers. in the roomy, old-fashioned farmhouses of new england, surrounded by stately trees and overlooking acres upon acres of rolling pasture and meadow land, unlimited opportunities are offered for the development of the country home. in remodeling these houses of the early builders, any radical departure from the original scheme is seldom necessary. rather should the lines and motives be sacredly preserved to accentuate their old-time charm, and modern improvements introduced unobtrusively and with such care that the final result is indeed a restoration and not an alteration. the mellowing passage of time has dealt gently with many of our old homes, and history and romance have woven about them an added fascination for every generation to enjoy. when the work of restoration is commenced, the problem of retaining this charm is often a difficult one. in some instances it would seem as if nothing short of pure inspiration had guided the hands of the remodelers of many of the quaint and irregular old houses that stand by the side of the road. the old house is nearly always in harmony with its surroundings; if it did not seem a part of the landscape when it was built, it has at least had time to grow into it through the years, and the problem of all remodeling is to preserve in the completed structure the atmosphere that will make it appear to have always belonged where it stands. while the first thought of our forefathers was to provide an adequate home, they undoubtedly possessed a peculiar instinct in the choice of a picturesque location. by selecting the site best adapted to their needs, the house seemed literally to grow out of the land, and herein lies the secret of more than half the allurement of the old-fashioned structures. the intimacy between house and grounds seems as strong as were the family ties of those hardy pioneers who laid the foundations of american civilization. more practical considerations in regard to the environment than picturesqueness confront the house owner, however, and one of the most important is that of water supply and drainage. these must necessarily be kept far apart. a gentle incline is the best location for a dwelling, so that the one may come to the house from higher ground above, and the other be carried off below. a hollow is bad, because the water will not readily flow away from it; it is always damp and hot, as it is shut in from the breezes. on too steep a hillside, heavy rains will work havoc with lawns, walks, and flower beds. the slope of the land should be considered in reference to the prevailing winds. the house should be placed so that the cool breezes of summer blow upon the living-room side and not upon the kitchen, or all the heat and odors from cooking will fill the rooms, and they will always be hot and stuffy. the attractiveness of the immediate outlook should be noted, and it is well to ascertain if there are any objectionable features which cannot be removed or which are likely to arise within immediate prospect. the character and proximity of the neighbors will play a large part in the enjoyment of a summer home. if the house is not set well back on the property, it should at least be screened with full-grown trees and shrubbery to obtain the seclusion desired. old trees add greatly not only to the attractiveness of a place but to its actual value and comfort, for it takes a long time to grow new trees that will provide adequate shade from the heat of summer suns. there is an illustration of a thus happily situated farmhouse at georgetown, about thirty miles from boston, known as the jewett house, which was built in . it is typical of an old dutch lean-to and has a great central chimney twelve feet square, with four flues. snuggled down in the midst of rolling grass land, it made an attractive picture in its surroundings of old elms. it stood far back from the road and was approached by a long lane that wound among splendid trees to the front of the house. like many dwellings of this period, its back was toward the main road, and the front door opened upon a wide expanse of shady meadows which in the summer were bright with many-colored wild flowers. between the house and the road there was a wide stretch of green grass which has been transformed into an old-fashioned flower garden, planted about a small, cement-lined pool and water garden. [illustration: rear view from the garden] this house was discovered several years ago by a young southerner who had come north from her sunny home in kentucky to find a summer abode for her brother and herself. the house as it stood was in a very dilapidated condition, and only an artist would have realized its possibilities. but about it was a warmth of atmosphere that appealed to the enthusiastic southerner. not the least of its attractions were the elms that cast their protecting shadows not only over the long avenue which led to the house but over the dwelling itself; many of them were patriarchs of the primeval forests when their younger companions were yet in seed; others were set out later, to add their charm to the forsaken home. [illustration: limovady--side view] it was purchased in , and the work of restoration was immediately commenced. the outside was weather-beaten and guiltless of paint. the roof sagged, and the great stone chimney needed repair. it was propped up and made thoroughly safe, and the old roof was entirely-rebuilt, but the original lines were closely followed. viewing the house as it stands to-day, one realizes what attractive apartments can be evolved from ugly interiors, and what interesting results ingenuity and good judgment can bring about. the interior showed coat after coat of vivid tint and layer after layer of atrociously colored wall-paper. the rooms, originally large and square, had been divided and partitioned off to meet the needs of growing families; many of them were small and hopelessly unattractive. but there were latent possibilities. when the house was first purchased, the owner went over the inside herself to discover the original lines. as in many houses of the kind, it was easy to restore the size of the room by following beams and knocking out partitions. it must be remembered that the usual plan in houses of that period was to construct a large, square room in the center with small rooms opening off from it which were used as chambers. the work of decorating, and, as far as possible, the remodeling itself, was done by mrs. william otis kimball and her brother. along the front of the house a screened, outdoor living-room has been added. the original building consisted of four rooms on the first floor. the front door opened into a small hall, to the right of which was the great living-room, and to the left the dining-room. back of the former was a guest room, and back of the latter the old kitchen. [illustration] [illustration: two views of the living room] in the living-room, the flooring, which was composed of boards often two feet wide, was in such good condition that it was left intact, treated to a black walnut stain, and shellacked. the height of the ceiling was but seven feet; so the heavy beams of swamp oak were boxed in and painted white, and the space between whitewashed. the walls, which were covered with ten tiers of paper, each one uglier than the last, were cleared to the boarding. the last one was found to be a wonderfully fine landscape paper, which showed that an early owner of the house must have been a person of means, who probably had it brought over in one of the merchant-ships during the time of commercial prosperity, when newburyport had a lively trade with foreign lands. the walls were treated with a water paint colored a creamy pumpkin tint that makes the room seem always well lighted. it is a most inexpensive finish, such as is used by scene painters in a theater, and can be put on with an ordinary-whitewash brush. the wainscot was stained dark brown to harmonize with the floors. around the top of the room the owner painted a frieze of conventionalized pomegranates, which follow the color scheme of the woodwork and wall. the old fireplace, which had been closed up, was opened, and the over-mantel enriched with a splendidly decorative painting by the artist herself, representing a normandy boar hunt about . after it was remodeled, the room measured twenty-four by twenty-six feet, the original size when the house was first built. it is now used as a living-room and library. inexpensive shelves, made of boards stained to match the wainscot, are fastened along the walls. in places there is a single shelf; sometimes two are placed about twelve inches apart, and they are used for books, pictures, and ornaments. the windows are curtained with an appropriate simplicity that is unusually attractive. unbleached cotton is used for the over-curtains and decorated with a border of richly colored cretonne, corresponding in color and conventionality of design to the painted frieze on the walls. the hallway is five feet in width and has been kept in the original boards. they are stained in tones of soft brown which harmonize splendidly with the varying color schemes of the rooms that open on either side. opposite the entrance door is a narrow, winding staircase whose white steps and balustrade contrast sharply with the dark woodwork and hand-rail. half way up is the old nightcap closet from which, in the early days, our forefathers took their nightly toddy. underneath the stairs is a secret closet so carefully hidden in the panels that only those familiar with it can find it. this was known in colonial days as the "priest hole," and it was here, so the legend runs, that french refugees were secreted during the french and indian wars. [illustration: the dining room] the dining-room opens off the hallway at the left. it is a long, narrow room with a fireplace at one side of the end nearest the hall. the woodwork has been finished in a dark stain, and the old corner cupboard has been kept intact. the fireplace wall is paneled in swamp pine, and over the mantel there is a secret panel cupboard. the lower part of the walls is covered with dark green burlap, and above is a decorative paper in boldly striking colors. there is a long, refectory dining-table in this room, made of stout oak boards, and the other furniture has a monastic simplicity which is entirely in keeping with the character of the room. the small room at the rear of the living-room is used as a guest chamber and is known as the missionary room. here the walls are tinted a soft moss green, and ornamented at the top by a black and white frieze that pictures the different stages of a missionary's life. he is shown from the time of his arrival on the lonely island to his chase and capture by a band of cannibals, and finally being roasted amidst scenes of hilarity as they turn his fat form on the spit. the studio was originally the kitchen and opens out of this room. the woodwork is of the same dark brown tint used through all the lower story, and the walls are hung with natural colored burlap. the principal features of the room are its fireplace and quaint dutch oven which were built into the center of the twelve-foot chimney when the house was erected. from the pothook on the crane hangs an old colonial kettle. of almost equal interest are the small-paned windows which are closed by sliding inside panels. the present kitchen has been added at the rear. it has white walls decorated with a frieze in which lobsters disport themselves in different attitudes. a small closet at one side of the passage that leads into the kitchen has been utilized for a bathroom. it is finished in white with a dado of tiles painted with turtles. [illustration: the lounge] when the house was first purchased, there was an old barn on the property a short distance away. this was moved up and connected with the house. it opens from the dining-room and has been converted into a lounge room, with servants' quarters at the rear. this room is one of the most interesting in the house. it is finished in stained pine, and the old rafters and woodwork have been left as they originally were. the spaces between the heavy beams of the ceiling are white, the beams being black with a narrow band of peacock blue above. [illustration] [illustration: two of the chambers] the originality used in finishing the house is evidenced nowhere better than in the chambers, on the second floor. each one has been decorated with a different flower, and they are known as the holly-hock, the sweet pea, the wistaria, and the morning-glory room. a frieze of the particular flower has been painted around, and the canopies and bed coverings show the same design and colors in cretonne. a small room in the barn wing, which was not large enough to be converted into a chamber as it stood, has been utilized for this purpose by opening up a large, connecting closet into an alcove to hold the bed. it is so arranged that at night the bed can be pulled out into the center of the room, and in the daytime hidden behind curtains drawn across the alcove. there are quaint old four-posters in all of the bedrooms, and old-fashioned and simple furniture is used throughout the house. some of it is home-made, and in many of the rooms are bookcases constructed from packing-boxes, and hung across with curtains of the cretonne used elsewhere in the room. in altering many old houses for modern occupancy, there has been a greater expenditure than would have been required to build an entirely new structure. but in this instance the charm of the old home has been retained with a considerably smaller outlay than would have been necessary to erect another of equal size and facilities. there is an undeniable satisfaction in realizing that all has been gotten out of a venture of this kind that was possible, and that no offense has been committed against the spirit of the old house. every one who has attempted remodeling obtains different results from those first planned, for as the work proceeds, new possibilities and new limitations constantly appear, till the completed building has an individuality unrealized in the beginning. in limovady, as this little country place is named, we find a good example of what can be done to make an old house not only a livable but a delightful home, and it is a success such as this that inspires other home seekers to remodel, according to their own ideas. for no two people will be likely to conceive the reconstruction of a home in just the same way, and it is this stamp of individuality that lends to the remodeled house a large part of its charm. chapter iii the kittredge house have you ever noticed the fishermen's little cottages that stand along the seacoast wherever modern summer resorts have not displaced them? from a modern architectural point of view, they would at first seem quite insignificant, and yet, hidden away beneath the rough exteriors, there are often interesting lines and good proportions. the humble fishermen who dwelt there cared little for external appearance, but they built their cottages strong and solid and, though unpretentious, they were comfortable. these little old houses, seemingly commonplace though they may be, hold much more interest for the prospective house owner and the architect than do the more elaborate ones of later periods. for wherever men have utilized what skill and intelligence they have to satisfy definite needs in the simplest, most straightforward way, they have achieved something of lasting worth. the ages of these old seacoast houses vary just as do those farther inland. some were built long before the revolution and others at a much more recent date. some have fallen into hopeless decay, while others are still stanch and habitable. the possible purchaser should make a careful examination both inside and out before he decides to remodel. sometimes, from a superficial survey, an old house may appear sturdy enough to warrant renovation, but a closer investigation will prove that this would be an expensive business. for the old timbers often hold together firmly because they have all settled together as a unit; if any one is disturbed, the rest may be greatly weakened or even threaten to fall apart, like the proverbial house of cards. the first indication of dangerous weakness is a sagging roof. if the lines are even a little concave, it is a bad sign, for the roof would not have settled had the walls held absolutely true. because of pressure against them, they have been forced apart and perhaps are on the point of tumbling down altogether. if the roof passes its test well, then examine the line of the walls and be sure they are absolutely vertical and have neither spread nor fallen inward. next study the condition of the timbers. the sill is the most important one. if it is badly-decayed, all the other members resting upon it will have been thereby weakened and the whole structure impaired. the upright timbers and the studs will all have settled, and to straighten them will mean practically the rebuilding of the house. the floors and the roof which rest upon them will be endangered. sometimes the ends of the uprights have rotted, and the slightest new work about them will result in their crumbling and undermining the beams and rafters they support. it is often necessary to use a sharp iron or a long knife and pry underneath the coverings on both the exterior and the interior to determine their condition. a little attention given to these points will determine whether it is worth while to attempt remodeling, or whether the expense involved would be out of all proportion to the result. scarcely less vital is the condition of the cellar. is there dampness, caused by lack of ventilation, by bad walls, or by some inherent moisture? some of these old houses have a well in the cellar; this should be drained off and filled up. but if there is an actual spring of water, as not infrequently occurs, either move the house or abandon it. bad walls can be cemented and waterproofed. if the trouble comes from lack of light and air, it may be possible to cut larger window openings. most old houses were set too low, however, and it is frequently an advantage to raise them. this requires sound underpinning, or the expense will be great. while considering the subject of dampness, it is well to examine the roof and see how much it leaks under the moss-grown shingles. if it is an old house that is in tolerably good repair at the present time, it may be that under some previous owner the roof fell into decay, and rains soaked through. look for signs of this, for it will mean weakness in timbers and plaster that must be guarded against. examine the boards of the roof to see if they are strong enough to permit the laying of new shingles. the chimney is another important matter to investigate. in old houses which have not been used for some time, the bricks often deteriorate and become so soft that they crumble at the touch. this would necessitate the not inconsiderable expense of rebuilding the whole chimney, unless it is so large that a second smaller one may be inserted within the old. with the huge fireplaces of other days, whose yawning mouths were often capable of holding a ten-foot log, a metal flue is frequently used in the remodeling. it is surrounded on the outside, between itself and the old chimney, with concrete, which renders it entirely safe from danger of fire. a glance should be given also, in this inspection, at the condition of the floors. if they are not level, it indicates defects in the timbers underneath. the boards themselves are often so rough and laid with such large cracks that it will be necessary to lay new floors. notice, too, the condition of doors and windows; whether they are straight and true enough to be used again, or if others will have to replace them. tap the plaster here and there to see where it is loose and to what extent it must be renewed. these are the tests that indicate whether the old house is worth buying and what will be the essential expense to make it habitable. sometimes one or another defect is so severe as to make the venture foolish; again it can be remedied by resort to strenuous methods. not infrequently the drawbacks of a bad cellar and a poor location are at once overcome by removing the house altogether to a new site. this is practicable when the building is sound in structure and an inexpensive operation if it is small. [illustration: an old cape cod house] that was the proceeding which miss mabel l. kittredge undertook with an old fisherman's cottage that had stood for many years on the shores of cape cod. it was a simple little building, dilapidated and weather-beaten, and quite unsuggestive of a summer home. but its very quaintness and diminutive size attracted her attention, and she determined to investigate it. the owner was willing to part with it, just as it stood, for eighty-five dollars, not including the land. the location was not desirable, and it was decided to "fleck" the house, as is the colloquial term on the cape for preparing a building to be moved. it was taken apart and floated across the water to its new foundations in south yarmouth. here it was "unflecked" and set up facing the harbor and the cool breezes from the ocean. [illustration: an old cape cod house--side view] the original building, erected in the early part of the nineteenth century, was a small, shingled structure, thirty by twenty feet, with a straight gable roof rising from the low stud of the first story. its proportions were not at all unpleasing, and the placing of the several small-paned windows was particularly agreeable. there was a kitchen shed attached to the rear. when it was set in position in the new location, additional windows were cut, a small porch built at the front entrance, and a second shed attached at right angles to the kitchen wing. in the second story, a broad flat-roofed dormer with three windows increased the interior space, without seriously altering the straight lines of the roof. the effort to retain the original simplicity of line is also evident in the porch roof, which follows closely the wide angle of the gable ends of the house. [illustration: the living room] the original interior was cut up into a number of small rooms, the partitions of which were removed, with the exception of those dividing off a bedroom at the rear. this left one good-sized apartment, which was fitted up for living and dining-room combined and made a most delightful place. the stairs were built at the left, along the rear wall. a group of three windows was cut here to give extra light and air, and the manner in which they have been handled is interesting. on account of the position of a heavy supporting beam, it was impossible to make these new windows the height of the original ones. the effect of this was ameliorated by placing a shelf directly above the group of three and extending it across the wall to meet the old window. a number of interesting pieces of china placed on the shelf give it a character and weight which thus carries the eye along from one opening to the other without any consciousness of the break in height. this is but one of those ingenious methods by which remodeling is made successful. the large, old-fashioned fireplace is the center of interest in this room. at the right of it is a china closet with mullioned glass door, and on the left two narrower closets are found in the paneling. a new hardwood floor had to be laid, as the original one was in bad condition. the wainscot and woodwork throughout the house was unusually good for such a small and unpretentious structure. after the former layers of paint had been removed and the wood thoroughly cleaned, it was finished in white. the walls, scraped down to the original plaster, were painted in a soft green flat-coat that was delightfully fresh and cool. back of this large room was a small hallway leading into the ell at the back. at the left, space was taken for a bathroom. [illustration: an old cape cod house--the kitchen] the kitchen was kept practically the same as in the old house. the rough stud and rafters were stained a dark brown, and the boards of the roof whitewashed. the walls were plastered to the height of the stud. a modern stove was attached to the old chimney flue on the outside of the building. the exposed uprights provided an opportunity for convenient shelves to be built for the various kitchen appliances. [illustration: the attic chamber] up-stairs the entire floor was thrown into one room, instead of making several small, stuffy, sleeping apartments. the dormer which was cut in the front added not only to the light, air, and space of the room, but gave an opportunity for a most attractive window-seat to be built beneath the broad windows. the old, wide boards of the floor were in good condition and kept intact. the walls were plastered to the ridge, exposing the heavy tie-beams. along the walls under the eaves, sets of drawers were built into the woodwork, thus obviating the necessity of having chiffoniers or chests of drawers to consume already limited space. the rough bricks of the chimney, which breaks slantingly through the floor near the center of the room, are not concealed. instead, they form a rather decorative feature in the little apartment, and about the four sides of the flue shelves are built which serve as a dressing-table and a desk. the furnishings of the whole house are delightfully simple and suggestive of the quaint colonial period when it was built. tables and chairs, pictures, mirrors, and china are interesting heirlooms that have been handed down in the family of the owner and preserve the spirit of the little cottage as admirably as do the various alterations which have made it so modern and habitable. chapter iv the curtis house the great charm of colonial farmhouses lies in the simplicity of their appearance. many dilapidated, weather-beaten old buildings, long neglected by an indifferent community, are really little masterpieces of harmonious line and good proportion. the style of the roof tells much about the age of the building to the initiated, and its line is easily the most important factor in the appearance of the house. the pitched roof is one of the oldest types and was used long before our country was discovered. this roof slopes away from the ridge-pole on both sides, thus forming a triangular area, the angle at each end of which is called a gable. in the early days, the pitch was built very steep to accommodate the thatching with which the roof was covered. as shingles came into use, the slope gradually flattened, and the age can be roughly judged by its angle. the gambrel roof appeared before the eighteenth century and was commonly used in new england farmhouses. each side of this is made up of two distinct pitches, which have no rule to govern their relationship. a somewhat later development was the hipped roof, in which the gabled ends were flattened, making four flat sides sloping from the ridge-pole. this was used when no attic chamber was needed. in the more pretentious georgian houses, the top was flattened, and a wooden balustrade put around it. these roofs are generally shingled and practically never painted; the soft gray color they attain in weathering is sometimes imitated in stain on new shingles. the addition of a wing or ell brought up a new problem in roofing, and it is this point that demands most serious attention from the remodeler. the old builders have not always been successful in preserving the unity of the roof line that is so essential to pleasing design. whenever it is possible, the new roof should be made a part of the old, and the lines of one should run into those of the other. the pitch of the two should be practically the same. the same type of roof must be used over all parts of the building, although it is occasionally permissible to have a pitched roof on an ell when the main roof is a gambrel. where a veranda is added, its roof line must be carefully studied and made to seem an original part of the building, not something stuck on as an afterthought. this problem of keeping the lines of the different roofs in harmony is a vital one, and nowhere is there greater demand for ingenuity and thoughtful treatment. the question of dormers is also important. when it is desired to have a second-story porch or sleeping-room, the dormer often supplies the solution of this difficult problem. the earliest ones were merely a flattening of the pitch of the roof, and this is the type that should be used when it is necessary to add a dormer to the older farmhouses. as the georgian details were developed, the gable-roofed dormer was used with the cornice moldings of porches and door frames. these dormers were high, with a single window often having a semicircular head. they were usually combined in groups of three and connected with each other by a balustrade. the exterior walls of the first houses were made of heavy boards laid vertically on the framework, without studding. before long, the wood was laid horizontally, each board overlapping the one below it. this clapboarding and siding was used without interruption through all the various changes in other details. much later, the shingle was adopted for the sides of the house as well as for the roof. a larger shingle, however, was used on the walls, with a wide exposure of surface. these were made of pine or cypress. although the walls of most old houses follow a straight line from one story to the next, there was a type, copied by the colonists from the buildings of the mother country and used somewhat freely before the georgian era, in which the second story extended beyond the first. this overhang was generally used only on the front and back and not on all four sides, as in the european counterparts. the girders and cross beams were framed into the second-story posts, which frequently ended in an ornamental knob or drop, as it was called. the gables, too, occasionally had a slight overhang. in altering a pre-georgian house, it is therefore permissible to make use of this overhang feature, and it may solve some otherwise knotty problems of required extra space. [illustration: before remodeling] a house which shows unusually clever handling of these points is situated in the little village of charles river, not so many miles outside of boston. within the last few years, this locality has been opened up, and many modern homes have been built and farmhouses remodeled. they are situated along charming woodland roads and seem to nestle in their picturesque surroundings. this particular one stands on the road from boston to dover, invitingly shaded by graceful elms that have watched unnumbered generations pass. it suggests to passers-by a typical, seventeenth century farmhouse, ingeniously remodeled, through the plans of the late philip b. howard and f. m. wakefield, architects of boston, into a twentieth-century summer home. this old farmhouse was built in and was of the rectangular type, built about a central chimney, with four rooms and a hall on the lower floor. when mr. frederick h. curtis selected it for his home, it had already been materially altered from the original simple structure by various succeeding tenants. and many of these had not added to its charms. the exterior was most uninviting in a vicious shade of red paint with white trim. in front was a small lattice porch entirely out of keeping with the architecture of the house. but in spite of all these unattractive features, there was an insistent appeal about the old place that made it seem worth venturing to restore. the first problem which presented itself was that of interior space. the difficulty lay in enlarging this space in such a way as to provide the needed room and at the same time maintain the harmony of the exterior lines. the original four rooms had been added to from time to time by former owners by means of the customary ells at the rear. the house was two and a half stories high, with a straight, pitched roof starting from the top of the second story. in the rear there was a two-story ell and a one-story addition behind that, with an outside chimney. each of these was increased by one room, so that space for a laundry was added in the lower floor and for servants' quarters in the second. the chimney was kept on the outside above the laundry roof and built up to the required height. this second-story extension overhangs the old kitchen wall by about eighteen inches on one side and on the other runs into an entirely new wing, whose roof line joins without a break to that of the old ell. the roof of the main building has been extended in the rear, following its straight line to the top of the first story, as was frequently done in old houses. this brought the lines of the main building and the rear ells into greater harmony and provided space for an outdoor living-room on the first floor. a flat-roofed dormer was thrown out above this on the second floor and turned into a sleeping-porch. the lines of the several roofs have thus been kept remarkably simple, considering the great amount of space which has been added. [illustration: remodeled] [illustration: side view] on the opposite side of the house a new wing has been added to the second floor, parallel to the main building and at right angles to the ells in the rear. the front part of it has a pitched roof following the angle of that on the main building, and the rear has a flat roof on a very low stud. this provides three additional rooms on the second floor. it has been built over an outdoor breakfast or morning-room on the first floor, and the kitchen has been widened under it. [illustration: the entrance porch] at the front of the house, the flat-roofed entrance porch was removed, and one more in keeping with the colonial period built in its place. this has a gabled roof, supported in front on two simple columns. the back part of it is closed and forms a small vestibule, with old-time oval windows extending on each side beyond the gabled roof-line. there are two benches in front, also beyond this line and protected by vine-grown lattices and small, extending eaves. the floor is paved with brick. these comprise the major changes to the exterior; but new shingles were put on the old roof; the dilapidated slat-shutters were replaced by blinds of solid wood, with a diamond cut in the upper panel after the old-time fashion; and the ugly red paint was changed to a soft colonial buff. [illustration: the hall and unique stairway] the narrow entrance hall, opening directly on the stairs, has not been altered. in the stairs, however, an exceedingly interesting treatment has been introduced, made necessary by the plan of the rooms above. on the first landing a doorway was cut in the chimney wall, and stairs built up the center of the chimney between the two flues. these give access to a small hall in the rear, connecting the several bedrooms. the door that leads to these stairs, at the foot, is a "secret" one; that is, it is covered with the wall-paper which surrounds it and fits tightly into the wall without framing woodwork. [illustration: the dining room] at the right of the hallway the parlor and dining-room were thrown into one long living-room, and a pleasant triple window was cut in the rear wall looking out upon the veranda. the fine old woodwork about the fireplace was restored to its original beauty with many coats of white paint. the hand-hewn beams in the ceiling were uncovered from the casing which had hidden them, and the wood rubbed and oiled. the floor was found to be in good condition and, after the placing of additional boards where the partition was removed, was merely scraped, filled, stained, and polished. a semicircular corner cupboard in a reproduction of an old style, its shelves filled with interesting specimens of seventeenth-century pewter, gives character to the room. the walls were finished in a soft shade of burlap, and the old mahogany furniture, chintz covers, rag rugs, and simple scrim curtains preserve the delightful atmosphere. on the opposite side of the hall is the library or den. this is unchanged, except for the white paint and the quaint colonial wall-paper. willow furniture is used. back of this, and extending across to the living-room, is the dining-room. the beams show the position of the original walls and indicate the way in which the room was enlarged. this leaves the fireplace at the side of a sort of alcove and so, to balance it and give importance to that end of the room, a china closet was built across the corner. an unpaneled wainscot, with simple baseboard and molding at the top, runs around the room, the new part matching the old. the woodwork is all white, including the encased beams, which here were not in a condition to be exposed. the upper walls are covered with a blue and silver grass-cloth that strikes an effective color note behind the mahogany furniture. in this room is a good example of the use of modern reproductions of sheraton chairs with a genuine old sideboard. glass doors lead from either end of the dining-room on to the two verandas. both of these verandas are really rooms without walls, as they have been incorporated so completely within the lines and framework of the house. the one on the side of the house in front of the kitchen is used as a breakfast-room, and many of the other meals are served out here in the open air. that in the rear of the living-room is a delightful spot on summer afternoons and evenings. both of these porches are thoroughly screened and fitted with framework in which glass sashes are placed during the winter. on the second floor there are four bedrooms and a bath in the main part of the building, with a sleeping balcony leading from one of them. this is protected with screens and awnings and furnished with hammocks and reclining chairs. in the wings there are three servants' rooms and a bath. all of the rooms have been fitted up in a quaintly simple style that is thoroughly in keeping with the period of the house, the low ceilings, and fine woodwork. in some of the rooms there are valuable old pieces of furniture, a four-poster of the sheraton type, and a highboy with details of the queen anne period. in another room modern white enamel furniture has been used, but it is so simple and straightforward in design that it harmonizes entirely with the atmosphere of the room engendered by the old fireplace and chimney cupboard, the thumb latches on the doors, rag rugs, and an old-time wall-paper figured with stripes of morning-glories and daintily poised humming-birds. in this second floor, the old iron hardware has been largely used in strap and h and l hinges, latches, knobs, and shutter fastenings. throughout the lower story, modern brass knobs and key plates reproducing an old colonial pattern have been used, securing greater convenience and safety. hot-air heating has been installed and electric lighting. the outlets, however, are all in the walls or baseboard sockets, so that there is no conspicuous inconsistency in the atmosphere, and lamps and candles are also used throughout the house. chapter v green meadows the architect of to-day has an advantage over the master builder of long ago in that he is able to grasp all ideas that were introduced into the old house and can restore it without losing the spirit of the original in either the exterior or interior. the wings and ells which were added by succeeding tenants often bear little relation to the main building and must either be torn down or harmonized in some way to preserve the unity of the completed design. the general plan of the house and the arrangement of the rooms should be carefully observed before the house owner and architect undertake the task of remodeling. too many houses are disappointing because a study has not been made of the different types and periods of old houses, and the result is a mixture, neither one thing nor the other. old colonial houses were always built on the rectangular plan, as this provided the greatest amount of enclosed space with the least expenditure of labor and material. they were also constructed about an axis, and it is essential for the remodeler to determine what that axis is before making any alterations. in the earliest days, the chimney was the center of the building and dominated the plan. the various rooms opened around it, so that as many of them as possible could have a fireplace from the one chimney. it was consequently a huge affair and occupied about three fourths as much space as one of the rooms. in the first plans, there were usually but two rooms, a kitchen on one side and a parlor on the other. later, a room was built in the back for the kitchen, and a third opening made in the chimney. the narrow stairs were built in at the front to fit into the chimney space and generally ascended with two landings and turns at right angles. as a late development, about the time of the revolution, four equally large rooms were needed, and this one chimney was divided into two and placed on either side of the center of the house, so that in each of the main rooms there was a fireplace opening front or back from one of the two chimneys. this arrangement altered the position of the stairs, and stairs and hall became the central axis of the house. the proportion of the space allotted to them, however, remained about the same as when the chimney had occupied the center. this accounts for the wide colonial halls, which are such a charming feature of old houses. the stairs were built along one side, the length of the hall, often a perfectly straight flight without turn or landing, and the hall was frequently cut clear through to a door in the back, which formed a rear exit to the garden. the georgian houses at the end of the eighteenth century were commonly built on this plan. there was one other distinct type, in which the fireplaces in the four corner rooms were in the outer walls, and four separate chimneys were built. the central hall and staircase retained their same dominant proportions, but a second cross hall was sometimes built, dividing the house from end to end. to all of these types, additions were frequently made, as the family increased, or new owners took possession. the extra space was not acquired by enlarging the main building but by adding an ell in the back at right angles to the original structure, or a wing at the side, parallel with it. these additions were attached to the house by their smallest dimension, as that obstructed the least amount of light. they were smaller than the main part; many were but one story in height, and those that were two had a lower stud, so that the original building would remain the important feature in the whole. after examining the old house from this point of view, consider the new uses to which it will be put and determine what changes will have to be made. sketch the entire plan out before commencing an alteration, and then endeavor to see if the proposed remodeling is practical from a structural point of view, and if it harmonizes with the original spirit of the old building. mark out in each room the position of windows and decide where new ones may have to be cut in the rearranged interiors. study the fireplaces and find out whether the proposed removal of a partition wall will throw them out of balance in the rooms, and what you can do to counteract it. pay particular attention to closet room, for in the old days it was given too little consideration for modern requirements. draw rough plans and put your ideas regarding every possibility down on paper; it is surprising how many new suggestions will occur as each scheme is worked out, and there is a fascination in seeing how much can be fitted into a given space. after the work is begun, unforeseen conditions will crop up and necessitate changes in the project, as well as disclose new opportunities, but a greater part of the planning can be done beforehand. a roomy, old, new england farmhouse near hamilton was recognized by mr. george burroughs as a fertile subject for development into a beautiful country home. it was situated in the heart of rolling country and surrounded by wide stretches of grass land, from which the estate was named "green meadows." [illustration: green meadows--front view] the original house, separated from the highway by an old wall of field stone and an elm-shaded dooryard, was built in , and it is curious to note that no deed was ever recorded. it was the usual type of farmhouse, constructed about a central chimney, two and a half stories in height, with an unbroken roof line. subsequent owners had added wings at each side instead of the more customary ell at the rear. one of these wings is of brick, which indicates that it was probably not built before the middle of the last century, but although the two building materials seem incongruous in the one house, vines have so overgrown this wing that the red glimpsed through them and contrasting with the white walls of the house is very attractive. the only important alterations in the exterior appearance of the house were in the addition of the long veranda across the rear and the alteration of the frame wing at the right. the old structure was found to be in too dilapidated a condition to restore, but it was reproduced in all its exterior details and joined to the end of a new wing attached to the house and a trifle broader than the old. two hip-roofed dormers add to the space in the second floor and permit the construction of attractive servants' quarters. the frame of the entrance door in the center of the front façade is a particularly happy example of the simple georgian style used in the better class of farmhouses of that day. its flat pilasters and well-proportioned cornice illustrate the restraint and refinement in the work of even the average builders. the door itself opens into a small hallway, restored with fresh white paint to all its original beauty. on this left side of the house the partition between the old dining-room and parlor has been removed to make one large living-room. after the cornices and the wainscoting were restored, the woodwork, including the encased beams in the ceiling, was painted white. the condition of the old floor made it necessary to lay a new one of hard wood. this room admirably reflects the old colonial spirit in its fireplace and cupboards. the paneling above the mantel shelf presents an interesting variation in the framing of fireplaces. the original wainscot with its molded cap divides the wall surface in an agreeable proportion, and the rather heavy cornice moldings at the ceiling line relieve the emphasis of the great beams. the old hardware is used on doors and windows, the thumb latches are finished in the natural black, and the h and l hinges painted white to correspond with the woodwork. the upper part of the walls is covered with a rose-colored paper reproducing a conventional georgian medallion design in silvery gray. this rose color has been carried out in all the furnishings of this room; the upholstery of chairs and sofas is in a deeper shade; the over-curtains are somewhat paler, and in the oriental rugs, rose blends with soft browns and blues. old-fashioned venetian blinds or slat-curtains shade the windows in the living-room and throughout the house. on the opposite side of the entrance hall is the reception-room. the same treatment has been accorded here as in the living-room, and the furnishings are especially harmonious and well arranged. the long, low lines of an adam sofa, a slender-legged desk, and chairs and table, each one a noteworthy masterpiece of cabinet making, are admirably chosen to add apparent height to the low stud, but the monotony of too much light and low furniture is broken by a tall grandfather clock placed in the corner. the pictures on the walls, old prints simply framed in mahogany, are hung with a similar thought to increase the apparent height of the room, and their arrangement is well worth studying. the fireplace, on the opposite side of the chimney from that in the living-room, is equally interesting. the wall above the white wainscot is papered in a golden yellow of conventional flowers, and the upholstery and draperies are of a golden striped and figured adam damask that brings out the rich color of the satinwood and mahogany furniture. in the rear, on the same side of the house, is the dining-room. the old woodwork here was insignificant, and it has been replaced with modern paneled wainscot covering two thirds of the wall surface. one could wish that the proportions of the original woodwork had been a little more closely followed, and the atmosphere of the other rooms carried more definitely into this. the old fireplace has been retained across the corner of the room with its flue in the central chimney, but its frame is a modern conception. the chimney cupboard in the side has been turned into a china closet with a new door of mullioned glass displaying interesting old pewter and plates. the upper third of the wall above the wainscot is covered with a reproduction of an old-time scenic paper in greens and grays, and the window hangings are of corresponding colors in damask. the seats of the hepplewhite chairs carry the same tones in tapestry. the apparent size of the dining-room has been cleverly increased by carrying the decorative motives into the passageway which connects it with the service quarters in the right wing. the same paneling of the wainscot and the same paper above, seen through the double doorway, give the impression that this is all part of the one room, and the placing of a buffet in front of the opening enhances the effect. on the other side of the dining-room a small hall, paneled with white enameled woodwork to the ceiling, leads into the living-room. [illustration: the living room] french doors of glass open from here on to the wide veranda which has been added across the back of the house, overlooking the green meadows and shady vales that stretch away on all sides. [illustration] [illustration: two views of the den] from this veranda or from the living-room, one can enter the brick wing at the left of the house. this originally contained the kitchen with bedrooms above, but in altering it, the entire wing was thrown into one room opened to the roof. with the great old beams and rafters showing, and all the woodwork stained dark, this apartment lends itself admirably to the character of a den or smoking-room. at the end, the old kitchen chimney has been utilized for a fireplace, and old paneling inserted above the high mantel. seats have been built under the windows flanking the chimney and, with their soft cushions and pillows, add materially to the comfort of the room. the windows in this wing are unusually large,--an indication of the later date of its construction,--and in order to carry the same proportions in their divisions as in the older part of the house, twenty-four panes of glass were used in each. a rich green and brown landscape paper covers the upper two thirds of the walls above the wainscot molding. the upholstery and cushions on davenport, armchairs, and window-seats of brown leather stamp this apartment indelibly as a man's room, and the decorations of old flint-locks in one corner add to the effect. the service quarters of the house in the wings at the right have been made especially complete. in the middle section are butler's pantry, kitchen, laundry, and refrigerator, with two bedrooms on the second floor; and in the narrower part is a servants' hall and three bedrooms which are open to the roof. [illustration: the old-fashioned chamber] on the upper floor of the main part of the house the four bedrooms have been kept much as in the past. those in the rear have been made to open out, through double doors, on to the second story of the veranda, which can be used as a sleeping-porch. the old white woodwork and the original fireplaces add their ineffable charm. the floors were in poor condition and are covered with matting as a background for the rag rugs. some very interesting old pieces of furniture add to the atmosphere of these chambers. the registers of the hot-air heating system which has been installed are unusually well selected for an old colonial house. instead of the customary meaningless scroll and meander pattern in the grills, a simple square lattice has been used, which preserves the spirit of other days admirably. chapter vi nawn farm city people are prone to think that the country is agreeable only during the summer months, and that winters spent there are unpleasant and dreary. this notion is fast being dispelled, as country houses are kept open longer and longer each year, and the pleasures of country week-ends during the entire winter are definitely proven. there is in reality no more delightful place to spend the long winter months than in the heart of a beautiful country. a never-ending round of interests astonishes one who has never tried it before. each month brings a fresh phase, and it is hard to determine whether the country is at its best during the summer or winter season. there is a fascination indescribable in watching the fall of snow, the settling of flakes on the bare limbs, the transition from brown to diamond-covered branches that glisten with every motion and are often decorated with long icicles reflecting all the prismatic colors. if you have never seen this side of country life, you will find it a wonderful world, where it is intensely interesting to study the seasons in turn, note the coming and going of birds, look for the early and late flowers, watch the melting of snows and the swelling of buds in the warm spring suns. more active pleasures, too, await the adventurer in the winter country. there are so many sports to be enjoyed that one does not wonder the youth delights to come here for skating, snow-shoeing, or toboganning. what is more delightful than a sleighing party, whose destination is a remodeled farmhouse not too many miles from the city? start the cheery fire in the huge fireplace, pile on the six-foot logs, draw your chairs nearer while you forget the outside world, and feel a glow of delight that you, too, have joined the throng who know the thrill of country life. the first thing to do when contemplating an all-the-year-round country home is to look for a house in the right location. in selecting it the problem of heating must be thought of in a different way than as that for merely summer use. then fireplaces will amply suffice for the few cool days and chilly evenings, and no better method could be desired. but for the real cold of winter, whether for continued use or the occasional week-end, more complete heating will need to be provided. the cheapest and simplest way is undoubtedly by stoves which can be attached to the fireplace flues. but this necessitates closing up the fireplace and depriving family and guests of all the joys of the blazing logs which never seem more cheerful and hospitable than in the bitterest weather. if the house is to be used mainly for week-end parties, stoves have another serious drawback. they must be kept oiled when not in use, to prevent their rusting, and it takes nearly two days after the fire is lighted to burn the oil off. then, when closing up the house again, the stove must be re-oiled, and this necessitates putting the fire out and waiting in the cold house until the metal is sufficiently cool to apply the treatment. the most adequate method is by hot water or steam, and for a large country house these are really the only practical ways. the expense involved will depend upon the structure of the house. in a brick or stone building, it will cost a good deal to have the pipes built into the wall. sometimes conditions will allow them to be carried up in a closet or partition. in a frame house that has been built with deep window jambs, as was so often done in the olden times, the pipes can be hidden within this furred framework. the great objection to steam or hot-water systems in old houses, however, is the presence of the radiator, which never can be made to harmonize thoroughly with the spirit of the old building. when it is used, some attempt must be made to disguise it. if it can be made long and low and placed in front of a window, it can be treated as a window-seat with a metal grill in front. for houses of the later georgian period, grills can be found whose designs are not at all out of keeping with the other classical details. sometimes a radiator can be placed entirely within the furred partition, and the heat admitted into the room through paneled doors which are thrown open when it is in use. for small houses, the hot-air system is perhaps the most desirable. the registers are inconspicuous and bring no jarring note into the old-time atmosphere. the pipes require considerable overhead room in the cellar, which sometimes becomes a hard problem in the low foundations of old houses. the fact that it is difficult to drive the hot air against the wind raises a second objection, but if the furnace is placed in the corner of the house from which the cold winds blow, or even a second furnace is installed, the trouble will be largely overcome. and there is the great advantage, especially for a week-end house, that it can be started up or left at a moment's notice without trouble from water in the pipes or danger of freezing as in the hot-water systems. whatever the method decided upon, it is an interesting work from start to finish. one feels a thrill of adventure in evoking from the home of past generations one for twentieth-century living with all the comforts and appliances necessary. but to transform an old building that has never even been intended for living purposes into a residence that is not only comfortable and suited to the owner's needs but an architectural success as well, is a still more fascinating problem. how messrs. killam and hopkins have accomplished this with an old barn at dover and kept the distinctive simplicity and atmosphere of the original building is worthy of emulation. [illustration: nawn farm--front view] when mrs. genevieve fuller bought the nawn farm some three years ago, it was her intention to alter the farmhouse then on the property. its location, however, was not entirely favorable; the house was on sloping ground in somewhat of a hollow and too near the public road. besides this, the rooms were small and very much out of repair. on the crest of the hill was the barn, occupying a commanding position and framed in splendid old trees. the structure was found to be so stanch that it was decided to tear down the old house and convert the barn into the residence. [illustration: rear view] the foundations were left unchanged, and an ell on the north side was added for the service portion of the building. the supports and interior divisions are all virtually unaltered. the living and dining rooms occupy the positions of the former mows, and the hall connecting them is the old passage for the wagons. most of the original studding has been used as it stood, and the beams incased or hidden in the finish of the walls. the roof was flattened on the top, and the gables cut off, but the slope was unaltered. wider eaves were added at a slightly different pitch, softening the lines of the roof. doors and windows were, of course, cut anew to conform with the different usage of the building. their position was necessarily determined somewhat by the existing supports, but they have been very happily placed, whether in groups or singly. those of the sleeping rooms on the second floor are especially well handled; they are wide and raised well up under the overhanging roof, so that they carry out the broad low lines of the architecture. the openings of the sleeping-porches have been treated exactly as windows, their size corresponding with the apparent dimensions of the windows, and their locations determined by the same factors. they become at once an integral part of the structure instead of the unsightly excrescence which the presence of a sleeping-porch so often proves. [illustration: the living room] on the first floor, the living-room occupies the entire eastern end, having exposures on three sides. this has been attractively finished in gum wood stained a dark brown, and the warm tones of natural colored grass-cloth tone the walls. an interesting treatment has been accorded the fireplace by flanking it on either side with a nook, the outer walls of which cleverly conceal parts of the old structure. in each of the recesses is a small window above the paneling and window-seat. the furnishings of the room are appropriately simple and invitingly comfortable, suggesting old-fashioned things adapted for modern uses. especial interest is attached to the fireplace fittings; they are of hand-forged iron, wrought by the village blacksmith after designs of the owner. the andirons were made from the tires of old cart wheels, flattened and bent into shape and curled over at the top. the wood-box is of flat strips of iron interlaced. from one wing of the hall ascend stairs which are the faithful reproduction of an old colonial design. the other part of the hall, across the southern front, is so broad and cheerful with two big windows and two glass doors opening on to the sunny loggia that it has been furnished with a davenport, tables, and chairs almost as a second living-room. the woodwork is north carolina pine stained brown, and the walls are gray. the billiard-room back of this hall, with its attractive alcove and fireplace, is finished in fumed oak, and the walls are also gray. [illustration] [illustration: two views of the dining room] perhaps the distinction of being the most attractive room in the house can be accorded the dining-room with its colonial white woodwork. the fireplace and the china closet, balanced on the other side by the door into the pantry, are of excellent proportions and charming detail. the mullioned panes of the china closet and the treatment of the moldings about the frame are especially interesting. on the opposite side of the room a group of three windows provides opportunity for an unusually delightful feature in the long window-box, built by the village carpenter. its simple, sturdy lines are worthy of notice. the walls are papered in a deep cream, and the greatest simplicity maintained in the furniture and draperies. [illustration: the china closet in the dining room] the service portion is well arranged both for convenience of labor and comfort of the domestics. the basement laundry leads directly into a large drying yard which was the original enclosure for the cows and is surrounded by the same wall of field stone. up-stairs the rooms might be said to be divided into three suites, which can be practically shut off from each other: each has its own bath and sleeping-porch. in the group over the living-room there has been an ingenious solution of the structural conditions. the division of the rooms made possible by the old supports permitted a dressing-room to be placed conveniently between the two chambers, but the fireplace added in the living-room was directly below, so that the chimney would naturally cut off the outside wall. it would have been possible to construct a large fireplace in the dressing-room and allow the light to come through the chambers, but the architects evolved another scheme. the chimney was carried up on one side, providing a fireplace for one of the chambers, and a second chimney was built in the opposite corner of the dressing-room. in the space between, a window was cut, and the two flues joined directly over the window. from the outside of the building this gives a most unusual effect as there is a chimney directly over a window, having no apparent support, or even purpose. the lines of the pyramidal base conform to the slope of the roof. chapter vii boulder farm the remodeling of an old farmhouse is apparently a simple matter; it would at first seem necessary only to preserve the main lines and characteristics of the original in the alterations that are required to meet the conditions of modern life. but when one realizes that the less conspicuous details are also important, in order to maintain the essential harmony of the whole, it becomes a more intricate proposition. one cannot merely study the details already on the building and slavishly copy them for the new parts, because frequently it will be found that doors or windows or shutters have been added by more recent owners and are not really in keeping with the old structure at all. in order to reclaim the house, then, so that it shall have a consistent unity throughout, one must have some understanding of the evolution of these details. there is no more significant element in these old colonial houses than the front door. it was placed in the center of the front wall and formed the unit of the exterior design. the very early doors were of heavy oak boards placed vertically and fastened together with horizontal strips. these batten doors, as they were called, were made very sturdy and strong, in order to resist attacks from indians or other marauders. often they were marked with an awl into diamond and lozenge patterns and sometimes studded with hand-wrought nails. not for a good many years did the panel door come into use. at first it was a flat panel, flush with the sides of the door and separated from the sides and top only by a small bead molding. this was soon developed into the flat sunken panel, meeting the surrounding wood with several moldings; and then the panels were beveled and raised in the center, and the moldings gradually became more elaborate and delicate in outline. the early doors were solid for purposes of protection, but as the country became more settled, thick bull's-eye glass was inserted into the top horizontal panel to let light into the hall. as the interior plan was changed in its evolution, the hall became larger, and these bull's-eyes did not provide sufficient light, so the transom was introduced over the door. for some time a simple top light was used, divided by lead and then wooden muntins. then side lights were introduced, and the treatment became more elaborate in the beautiful styles of the later georgian period. the frame about the door was at first of flat, undecorated boards, the upper one resting on the two at the sides. then these were molded and mitered at the corners, and later a cap of heavier moldings was put across the top. this hood became more and more prominent and required the use of definite support. console brackets were sometimes used but more frequently flat pilasters set against the wall. these gradually became more important, developing into the three-quarter round and finally the isolated column. the pediment and cornice were then extended into the open porch that is one of the splendid features of the georgian style. here in cornice and capital was a field for the development of all the most delicate and beautiful motives of classic carving. as this door and porch was the center of the design of the exterior, the windows were grouped symmetrically about it, the same on each side. there were few of them at first, and they were of rather small size. casement windows were the earliest kind used, and the small, diamond panes were sunk in lead, as were those made in the mother country. it is probable that most of these windows were brought over from england and not constructed here. after , the sliding sash was introduced, dividing the windows horizontally, and these had wooden muntins. it must have been considered a more elegant type of window, for it was used in the front of the house for a long time, while the leaded casement was still put in rear windows for many years. the early wooden muntins were quite heavy but later became nearly as delicate as the leaden ones. they divided the sash horizontally and vertically into squares. the window casings, like the door frames, were at first entirely plain and then had a heavier band across the top which developed into a molded cap or cornice, as at the entrance. when sliding sashes were introduced, the walls of the houses were not thick enough to contain them, so the frames and the sashes were built on to the outside, frequently projecting quite a distance. the necessity for constructing them in this way led to the deep jambs and sills which are such a charming characteristic of the colonial style. shutters were used on the outside of the house as a means of protection from the indians, when the country was being settled, and these were made of heavy, battened wood three or four inches thick, like the doors. subsequently a small diamond was cut in the top to admit some light when the shutter was closed. then a shutter with a solid upper and lower panel was used, and finally these panels were replaced with slats. there was one other part of the exterior which developed interesting characteristics to be observed in the remodeling: that is, the cornice of the roof. this was merely the overhang in the early buildings and sometimes consisted of the framing beam actually exposed. in the georgian houses, this was boxed and later elaborated with splendid carvings that deserve perpetuation in more lasting material than wood. there was no gutter for rain-water, and the drip from the eaves was caught on flagstones on the ground at the corners of the house. this detail, although not needed with modern gutters and rain pipes, gives a charming old-time touch when retained in the remodeled home. it is by attention to such seemingly insignificant points that the atmosphere of the original buildings has been consistently retained in so many cases. an excellent instance of how this has been done may be seen in a late georgian type of farmhouse that stands somewhat back from the old londonderry turnpike on an estate at hopkinton, new hampshire. although it is not very old, having been built in , it is typical of the better class of simple home in the early days of the republic. [illustration: boulder farm--front view] the history of the building of this old house is rather interesting. in the days when lotteries were still in flourishing condition, and some of the best men in the community were interesting themselves in the various schemes, a member of one of the churches induced deacon philip brown's hired man to purchase a ticket for a paltry sum. repenting his investment, he afterwards sold it to his employer, who was a clever silversmith and clock-maker, much respected and well known in the community through his yearly rounds about hopkinton to repair the clocks of the farmers. the ticket proved to be the winning one, that drew a great prize. with part of this money, deacon brown purchased the old "boulder farm," as it was called from a great rock that still stands in an open field just south of the house. here he erected the georgian farmhouse that is standing to-day. the rest of the money, so the legend runs, he buried somewhere in the field, but he probably removed it later, as it has never been found. he placed the house on rising land, a short distance from the broad highway, built in the same year and for a long time the straight thoroughfare from londonderry to concord and boston. deacon brown lived on the estate until , with the exception of the year , when it was occupied by governor matthew harvey of new hampshire. the property, placed on the market, then fell into the hands of a man named kelly, brother-in-law to grace fletcher, the first wife of daniel webster. during his life, the great american statesman often visited there. what happened during the period between this occupancy and the time of its purchase by mr. harry dudley of concord, new hampshire, is not recorded, but we can be confident that the house had careful treatment from its state of preservation. it was while mr. dudley was looking around for a home with ample grounds, and near enough to his business to allow him to go back and forth every day, that he discovered this historic place. its attractiveness and the healthfulness of the surroundings appealed to him. very little was needed to bring the house back to good condition and make it habitable. the land was attractive and could be improved. in front of the house was a wide stretch of meadow that was easily terraced to meet the boundary line. to the many old trees shading the house and lawn were added young trees to replace some of the ancient ones that were dying. [illustration: the front doorway] although the house was a model type of the architecture of its day, and there had been abundant room for the old-time residents, modern ways of living demanded additional space. a long ell, built at the rear for the service department, and a wide veranda in dignified colonial style along one side were the two main exterior alterations. the appearance of the windows was changed by putting in larger panes in order to admit more light, but they were still in keeping with the old-time atmosphere. the reshingling and repainting of the house and the addition of the trellises at one side completed the exterior improvements. the splendid front entrance porch with its graceful fanlight, doric columns, and straight cornice, and the equally interesting though less imposing side porch were left practically unchanged. the old blinds were restored, to give the stately, old-time atmosphere to the mansion. the new veranda is wide and extends along the whole side of the house. its flat roof rests on coupled doric columns that carry out the classical georgian detail of the entrance porch; the second story is finished with a simple balustrade, in keeping with the fine simplicity of the main lines. during the summer months this broad piazza is a delightful out-of-door living-room, from which there is a splendid view over the green country; and one can, in imagination, picture the old stage-coaches of former days lumbering by on the highroad. the upper part of the veranda opening from the chambers on that side of the house is used as a sleeping-porch. the path that leads to the main entrance passes through a wicket gate and ascends the terrace over stone steps to the granite block before the door. the pleasant formality of this porch is accentuated by two close-clipped bay trees, one on either side of the step. [illustration: the hall] this door opens directly into the hall and faces the long, straight flight of stairs which reaches the second floor without a turn. the woodwork of these stairs is particularly nice in proportion and line; and the carving under the ends of the steps, in a simple but beautiful scroll design, is most interesting. the hand-rail is mahogany, and the molding which follows it on the wall side above the wainscoting is also mahogany. [illustration: the parlor] in the parlor at the left no innovation has been introduced, and it remains almost as when the house was built. there we find the old white wainscoting unpaneled, with a fine carved molding defining the top. the windows, recessed in the colonial style, retain their original inside shutters that are still used. it is unusual to find these to-day, for in remodeling houses the shutters are almost always removed in favor of more modern conveniences. shutters were formerly used as we now employ curtains, to be closed at night-fall or to shut out light and cold. the fireplace in this room is a fine example of colonial work. it shows a central medallion of a plentifully filled fruit basket and wheat sheaves over the fluted side columns; the edge of the mantel shelf has an unusual ball and string ornamentation finely carved. the wall-paper dates back to the time of the fireplace. it shows a grecian pastoral design in shades of brown, yellow, and old rose and was hand-printed from blocks made in england. through all these years it has retained its brightness, escaping the hands of time, and lends a charming and quaint atmosphere to this room. all of the movable furnishings are equally well in keeping; the slat-back chairs and tables conform to the spirit of the period, as does the fine old empire mirror, resting on its rosettes. on the opposite side of the hall from the parlor is the living-room. this is similar in character, with a fireplace only slightly less interesting. it has the same old white wainscoting, but the upper walls have been covered with a modern foliage paper which, strangely enough, blends harmoniously with the setting of the room. it is furnished with eighteenth-century pieces corresponding to those in the other parts of the house. [illustration] [illustration: two views of the dining room] at the end of the hall is the dining-room, reached through an open arch. the old wall and door here were cut away in the remodeling to produce an impression of spaciousness and give a vista from the entrance clear through the house and into the garden at the rear. the arch was added to finish the opening, but it conforms carefully to the details found in the architecture of that day. this room was originally divided, and one part used as a kitchen, but the partition was removed and the two thrown into one, making a long dining-room which occupies the greater part of the rear of the house. at the end, the old single window was enlarged, and two smaller ones cut through on either side to make a delightful sunny group which adds materially to the charm of the room. in the fireplace, which was the original old kitchen one, used for cooking and baking, the brick oven was removed to admit the introduction of a door opening into the living-room. otherwise it was left unchanged, and the white painted woodwork about it, although simple and unpretentious, is beautifully proportioned. the old flint-lock and warming-pan which hang there pleasantly emphasize the colonial idea. the wall-paper is a reproduction of a colonial block pattern in soft shades of gray and green. the floors in this room, as all over the house, are covered with matting laid over the original boards, which were found to be in too bad a condition to restore; entirely new ones would have been necessitated had bare, polished floors been demanded. [illustration: the den] at the end of the dining-room, opposite the triple window, a door leads into a small room which is used as a den. this retains the old fireplace opening from the same chimney and directly back of that in the parlor. the walls have been papered in a plain green and are sparingly decorated with sporting prints and trophies suggestive of the hunt and the master's particular domain. doors lead from this room not only into the dining-room, but to the parlor and the veranda at the side. the ell of the house, opening from the dining-room, is devoted to butler's pantry, kitchen, servants' dining-room, and servants' chambers on the second floor. the upper story of the main part of the house has been kept almost as when it was built, and the large square chambers are well-lighted and airy. the open fireplaces and the colonial furniture, four-posters and highboys and chests, give to the rooms a delightfully old-fashioned atmosphere. the whole house is a fine example of late georgian architecture, preserved in all its interesting detail. chapter viii three acres few people realize how much thought should be put into the remodeling of a farmhouse, and many fail to keep the simple country atmosphere; they endeavor to establish in suburban surroundings a home that is better suited to city life. a house reclaimed in this way is necessarily a misfit and must always seem inharmonious in its setting. it never carries out the idea for which we are striving: that a house should be typical of the life of the people who live in it. it should express individuality, be a house to live in, to grow in, to become identified with your life; this is a most important fact that cannot be too carefully observed, and it becomes all the more essential if the home is to be an all-the-year-round one and not merely a summer residence where but a few months are passed. to-day it is a far more difficult matter to select an old farmhouse of sufficient distinction to remodel than it was even ten years ago. the most desirable ones have already been bought, since the pleasures of living in the country have been realized by so many former dwellers in the city. there are many personal matters to be thought of in the selection of a house for remodeling; one must consider his individual needs in its relation to his daily pursuits. the business man must select a house near enough to the city to allow traveling back and forth every day; but the man whose occupation does not require city life during the time he wishes to be in the country can establish himself wherever he chooses. there is no doubt that the latter is able to find a far better farmhouse, for he can go farther away, where the best types have not been reclaimed, owing to their distances from the large cities. it is to be taken for granted that a person has a definite purpose when he leaves the city for a country existence, and it is necessary that he educate himself to the point where he makes his ideas practical. this cannot be done without study beforehand. in making a house suit individual requirements, one must follow along its own lines. do not attempt to transplant into it features from some other house you admire. an elizabethan gable or a craftsman living-room may have been very interesting in the friends' houses in which you saw them, but they would be quite out of place thrust into a colonial farmhouse. if you have a real need for the features that you find in some other house, you should adapt them to the spirit of the building you are remodeling. if it cannot be made to harmonize with the other motives, it is possible that you are attempting to make a home out of a building that is not suited to your style of life. but it is because these colonial farmhouses meet the requirements of the average american families so adequately that they are so interesting to remodel. each house owner must decide for himself what is the main element in his existence and reclaim the house accordingly. in one family, the interests will be entirely domestic; another household will live in the open, occupied with sports; another devotes much time to music; and there are still others who are absorbed in some special craft or work that will require definite accommodations. in many cases the house can readily be adapted to these particular requirements without any essential change in its atmosphere. the success that is achieved by working with these old-time elements is due to their sincerity and honesty in solving the problems of their own day and age; they are the results of actual and real experience, and we know no better ways to meet the same conditions. so that when we have the same problems confronting us, we cannot do better than accept the successful results of others' experiments. this does not mean a slavish copying of the old in restoration; to simply imitate old elements would be neither interesting nor commendable, except for the purposes of a museum. each style is based upon some fundamental principle, and it should be our aim to work with the underlying idea of creating that which will best meet our special needs, not merely to reproduce the old in imitation of itself. nature lends itself to the remodeling and suggests many ideas that help to identify the house with the personality of its owner. everything attempted in the way of improvements can be broad and expansive and not congested, as would be necessary in the city. you should in every particular make the house grow to fit the surroundings and do it in such a way that it will seem to have been so always. often the house has to be moved on its foundations to meet this need, but that is not a difficult matter to accomplish, if the timbers are stanch and the underpinning steady. if the owner's ideas are carried out, the house in its finished condition will be but an expression of his taste and understanding. in it we will be able to read his likes and dislikes. unity should be the keynote of it all and should permeate not only the house itself in all its details, but its gardens, lawns, stables, and every aspect of the estate. [illustration: three acres, from the main road] there is a house that has been given rare individuality in this way at duxbury, massachusetts. as one drives along the picturesque country road, he comes to a winding lane that leads by graceful turns to a little brown farmhouse situated on the crest of a hill about three hundred yards from the main road. if the farmhouse alone is attractive, how much more so is it made by the entrance, for on either side are graceful elms that form an archway, disclosing the house beyond like a picture set in a rustic frame. on either side of the roadway one finds meadow lands and flower and vegetable gardens, everywhere dotted with graceful trees and the picturesque sumach. vines clamber over the stone walls, partly hiding their roughness and giving their homelike atmosphere to the grounds. there are just three acres in this little property, bounded on two sides by delightful woodlands and on the others by rolling farmland and pastures; but there is room in even these small confines for a garden to supply the table all the year round and a bit of orchard where the gnarled old apple-trees are still fruitful. originally the old farmhouse was in a most unprepossessing condition. it had been inhabited for many years by farmer folk who took little pains with its appearance either without or within. when mrs. josephine hartwell shaw, of boston, was searching for a country seat where she could pursue her occupation away from the bustle of city life and unmolested by chance guests, she was attracted first of all to the quiet little town by the name of duxbury. as she looked about for a suitable house, she was charmed with the location of this weather-beaten old building, and closer examination proved it well worth reclaiming, both from an artist's point of view and from that of her own individual requirements. [illustration: three acres--front view] like many of the farmhouses in eastern massachusetts, it had that peculiar beauty which consisted largely in its simple and straightforward solution of the problems at hand. it was not the creation of a master architect but of ordinary builders and craftsmen following the traditions of their fathers, varied by the restrictions of local material and newer requirements. it is this rugged and sturdy simplicity that gives to it an enduring charm; it was the very lack of a set style that gave to the remodeling of it an unfailing zest, increased by the very difficulty of the experiment that might result in a woeful failure or a great success. in dealing with houses such as this, it is impossible for the architect to rely on any formula or book of rules to direct him in a correct restoration. it requires a much deeper study and an understanding of the problems that confronted the builder in erecting the structure and the conditions under which he worked. it is then that the spirit of the old house will be manifest, and its adaptation to modern requirements will be but the thought of former years revised to meet present needs. [illustration: three acres--side view] there are few buildings that can claim a more sympathetic handling in their restoration than this early, pre-georgian farmhouse, which is called three acres. the excellent line of the wide, gabled roof, broken by a succession of outbuildings, forms an unusually attractive picture, with the weather-stained shingles softened against a background of oak and pine trees. the house now faces away from the main road and fronts upon a wooded slope that falls sharply down to the shores of a picturesque little pond. this is partly hidden by dense woods that form a background and a windbreak for the house. formerly the public road went along here within a few yards of the front of the house, but it has been abandoned for the broader highway in the rear, and only the vaguest traces of it remain to-day. the building was a two-story, shingled structure with an uncompromising squareness about it. the wide, gable roof sloped down to the stud of the first floor, giving but little room in the chambers above. it was of the central chimney type. in the rear, a small, gable-roofed ell had been added, and later still a flat-roofed shed at right angles to the ell, or parallel to the main house, was built. in still a third addition, a well was incorporated in the rear, under a continuation of the roof of the shed, and another small outhouse in an extension to the side. this seeming conglomeration of roofs in reality made a rather interesting and graceful play of line that lifted the little house from commonplaceness. it was found to be in such good condition on the exterior that little repairing was needed, but several alterations were made, adding both to the character of the building and the comfort of the occupants. the original front door opened very abruptly upon the stairs, leaving only enough hall space to open the door. this was remedied by the addition of a small, flat-roofed bay at the front, increasing the space in the hall by just that much. the old door with its bull's-eyes was used in the new position. the step before it was protected under the same roof, supported on two, small, square posts and a trellis at the sides, giving somewhat the effect of an old-time colonial porch and serving not only the material purpose of adding room to the interior but of relieving the abrupt and uninteresting severity of the front lines. in the second story, unusually successful dormers were cut in both the back and front pitch of the roof. the plan of these dormers deserves especial study, as each group is in reality composed of three separate dormers, enlarging three rooms in the interior, but confined under the one flat roof. note, too, how each end of the dormer extends beyond the middle portion, and how the shape of the windows accents the design. a new entrance was cut at the side toward the lane, and a screened veranda added, with a flat roof corresponding to that at the front. several new windows were made necessary by the rearrangements in the interior, but they were placed with careful regard to the exterior proportion and balance. the glass used in the old windows when the house was bought was all the full size of the sashes, doubtless having been put there by some recent owner and seeming quite out of harmony with the details of the house; consequently they were replaced with small panes, twenty-four to a window, and the new windows were all of the casement type. the interior of the house with its ugly paint and paper, presented a rather hopeless appearance, that only a vivid imagination and an unwavering enthusiasm could have transformed into the attractive home that it is to-day. beginning at the front, the cramped little hall was enlarged as has already been explained. this made a trifle more stair room, and the first seven steps reaching to the little landing were rebuilt with lower risers and broader treads that made ascent to the second floor a less arduous matter. on the left of the hall was the living-room, on the right a bedroom, and in the rear of the house the room originally designed for the kitchen; in each of these was a fireplace opening out of the one central chimney. the first step in the restoration consisted of tearing off the many layers of hideous wall-paper, removing the plaster where it was crumbling, and scraping the woodwork free from its dingy paint. in these operations a number of unexpected discoveries were made concerning the fine old paneling and great, hand-hewn beams that had been entirely covered up. [illustration: a corner of the living room] the only change made in the plan of this floor was in the corner beyond the living-room and at the end of the kitchen. this was originally divided into a tiny chamber opening from the living-room, and a pantry off the kitchen. these were thrown into one, and the openings to living-room and kitchen enlarged. the former bedroom window was changed to a door leading on to the screened veranda, and an attractive group of three casement windows replaced the one in the rear wall, overlooking the charming vista of winding lane and old apple-trees and meadows beyond. this little apartment has been treated as a sort of anteroom or really a wing of the living-room, and wall finish, paint, and furnishings all harmonize. [illustration: the living room] in the living-room the fireplace holds the center of attention. it is faced with queer old spanish tiles inserted at intervals in plain cement, the rich colorings of which give a quaintly exotic air to the fine white woodwork. the moldings about the frame and over the mantel are unusually fine for this type of house; the support of the heavy mantel shelf and the carved dentils in the ceiling cornice are especially interesting. at the right of the fireplace is a cupboard with an upper and lower door, in the old-time fashion; the upper one has small, square, mullioned panes of glass which disclose some attractive pieces of old china and silver. [illustration: the dining room] in the kitchen, which was turned into the dining-room, the old fireplace had been bricked up to receive a stovepipe, and the woodwork had been plastered over and papered. the fireplace was opened up to its original size, large enough to accommodate a six-foot log, and in refacing it, the old, blackened, fire-burned bricks were used with delightful effect. the paneling about it is very simple, but the proportions are interesting, and the quaint, double-panel cupboards on each side lend the whole an insistent charm. the two, great, hand-hewn beams in the ceiling have been left exposed, and the fact that they have settled a little on their supports, sagging toward one end, only adds to the effect, just as the unevenness of a hand-drawn line is more beautiful than the accuracy of one ruled. these three rooms opening so closely into each other have been treated so that there is a harmonious and striking vista from every point. the walls are covered with a soft, creamy gray, and the hangings of russian crash are of the same tone. the color is supplied in fireplaces, rugs, books, pictures, and such ornaments. in the dining-room, there has been a slight accent of blue and rose in rug and table runner and candle-shades. in the living-room the deep green of the upholstery carries the strongest note. the characteristically old-time furniture, with a pleasant mingling of dutch and english and american motifs of the eighteenth century, has been arranged with studied care to preserve the possibilities of the open vistas from room to room. the entrance hall completes a delightful picture from the living-room; the soft gray colors of a lovely japanese paper blend strikingly with tiny curtains of a wonderfully fresh old blue at the casement windows. the rag carpet carries this same blue up the white stairs to the second floor. the rooms on the right of the lower hallway have been kept nearly in their original state with the addition of fresh paint and attractive papers. they form a small suite of a study and bedroom, seeming quite apart from the rest of the house. on the second floor, a refreshing simplicity has been observed in the bedrooms. the dormers that have been cut in the roof add not only to their comfort but provide charming little bays and alcoves, giving unexpected opportunities for interesting furnishings. quaint, old-time papers and hangings and coverlets on the four-poster beds, matched in rugs and cushions and candle-shades, contrast gaily with the spotless white paint. considerable ingenuity has been necessary in planning this floor, as the original rooms were so tiny and space so very limited under the long slopes of the roof. the dormers gave the much needed increase in the size of the chambers, and part of the rear one was converted into the bathroom. in the ell and shed at the rear of the house, perhaps the most interesting feature of all is situated. a step lower than the dining-room and reached through swinging french doors of glass, is the little kitchen which has been fitted up in a most compact way. an additional window has been cut at the side to provide both light and air, and an outside door gives access to the small court on the far side of the house between the main building and the rear shed. this has been turned into a miniature old-fashioned garden, where it is pleasant to sit among the flowers. back of the kitchen is the laundry and an old well, which has been drained and is now used as a cooling cellar, and the wire basket containing meats and milk and butter is drawn up and down on the old crank. beyond this, the old wood and coal shed has been transformed into the studio. here mrs. shaw designs all her beautiful jewelry work at the long work-table across the rear under the four long windows. opening from it is a tiny little apartment used as an office, and here at a quaint desk, the designs for the metal work are sketched out, and the correspondence connected with the business end transacted. in the adaptation of the outbuildings to the special and unusual requirements of the owner, an excellent example is given to others who have individual hobbies such as this to accommodate. but throughout the building the needs and the personality of the owner have been as carefully if not as ostensibly expressed. there has been no thought of comfort or of service sacrificed in the effort to revive the atmosphere of the past, but rather has that very simplicity and straight-forwardness been utilized to banish all that might complicate entire convenience. the personality of the owner has been interwoven into every detail, and shows nowhere more strongly than in the preservation of all the delightful vagaries and unevenness of hand work played upon and mellowed by time. chapter ix the robert spencer house the prospective house owner generally has little or no idea of how to go about designing his own home. if he chances to see some other house that strikes his fancy, he realizes that it approaches, at least in part, what he has in mind. how to accomplish his desire, however, he has no definite knowledge. he hesitates to call in an architect who is a stranger to him and knows nothing of his needs and habits and preferences; he fears that an attempt to combine his own ideas with those of the architect will result unsatisfactorily to both of them. to such a man as this, the remodeled farmhouse comes as a boon. from the old house he is able to determine what type his home will be; no matter how battered and worn it is to start with, he can get some impression of the possible room space and arrangement by studying other old interiors and their relation to each other. that is one of the reasons why the movement sweeping through the country to-day has become so extensive. it gives a substantial foundation upon which to develop an artistic home under one's own supervision. when a man purchases a weather-beaten farmhouse, it is evident that he is up against a real problem in remodeling, and the task demands plenty of time and a wide-awake, ingenious brain. if he consults his friends and neighbors across the way, doubtless their opinions differ so materially from his own that the result is worse than if he had solved the questions in his own way. we all have ideals, but it is not always easy to express them; they need to be developed in order to be made practical and require thought and diligent research if they are to be concretely embodied in the altered home. paper and pencil are good friends at this stage of the game, and even a rough sketch drawn carelessly on the back of an old envelope, as an idea occurs, gives subject matter for larger schemes and more realistic results. few people who are planning to spend the summer months in a new house realize how much their comfort depends upon light and space. it would be foolish for you to buy an old farmhouse and make the rooms small and cramped in size. you would lose a great part of the advantage of coming to the country to live, the pleasure of being as nearly out of doors as possible. most of the old houses were cut up into small rooms, for, owing to the limited heating facilities in olden days, large rooms would have been freezing in winter; accordingly one or two bedrooms were invariably crowded into the first floor to receive the warmth from the kitchen. but it is almost always possible to tear out the partitions between some of the rooms and make them into one large apartment which can be used for living purposes. this can usually be done without weakening the structure; the floor above will be found to rest upon a great beam, or a new girder can be put across. if the stud is low, do not change it, or you will spoil the whole atmosphere of the place. a low stud and large rooms are good developments, so try to achieve them when you are making over the house. have plenty of windows; in the old days, many windows meant a cold house in the winter, but if the farmhouse is to be used only as a summer home, the cooler the better. if for a winter residence also, modern systems of heating will counteract the difficulty. windows of the long french type are especially desirable; they are more adapted to the requirements of country life, as they admit abundant light and air and are entirely in keeping with the style of the farmhouse. the house should represent a unit; the porch should be planned so that it leads into the living-room, and by throwing open the windows, will seem to become part of a large airy room. the dining-room should either be part of the living-room or open conveniently near. the service quarters must immediately adjoin the dining-room. if there is other space on the floor which cannot be used to increase the comfort of the two main rooms, well and good; it may then be devoted to whatever purpose you desire. but when the removal of partitions will make a place more pleasant to live in, it is always wise to make such a change. we know that there are few of these old houses that have not been cut up and divided; but the conditions which made that necessary in the earlier days have been changed, and for a simple country house one large living and dining-room is far better than divisions which shut out light and air. many people look at these propositions from a limited view-point and do not stop to consider the complete idea. we all learn from houses that we visit what is right and what is wrong to do. if we look deeper into the subject and go farther afield, we find it pays to carefully develop the plan before commencing to rebuild. the requirements of elaborate modes of life, liveried servants and much entertaining, demand, of course, many apartments; reception-room and drawing-room, library and den seem essential in the house plan, but for those who come to the country to simplify existence, these are not needed. in remodeling your house, let three things be uppermost in your mind: convenience, comfort, and light; if you follow these, you will not go far astray. even a very small house need not be devoid of these qualities. it may be very tiny and yet most attractive and complete in every detail. with careful thought and a broad conception of the whole, it is quite possible to make a place where it is a pleasure to visit and where even the casual guest realizes the application of small and interesting details in making a harmonious whole. do not let your mind wander from the fact that the interior is of as much importance, and even more, than the exterior, for it is there that we live much of the time during the season, and it should therefore be harmonious and in good taste. the development of one room for common family use, and the elimination of the shut-up parlor for company, have brought about an atmosphere of simplicity that goes to make a perfect and livable house. [illustration: the robert spencer house on cape cod] this one-room idea has been charmingly carried out in a small house that has been remodeled for a summer home by mr. robert spencer of new york and south yarmouth. it is most attractively situated, standing far back from the road, with a background of pine trees that give a picturesque touch to the little cottage. originally it stood on the opposite side of the bay, on the shores of cape cod at south dennis, massachusetts. its possibilities seemed to the present owner worth developing, and he had it "flecked" and brought over the water to its present site. this was not a hard task to accomplish, as the timbers were stanch and in a good state of preservation. [illustration: the robert spencer house--front view] it was a typical fisherman's cottage, with a wide gable roof sloping down to the first story and four small rooms about a central chimney. to meet the needs of the new owner, it required considerable enlargement. a two-story building was added at the rear and side, meeting the main house only along the corner. little attempt was made to have the two harmonize, for not only are the roof lines of widely different types, but the frame of one is of white clapboarding and of the other weathered shingle. at the angle where they join, the roof of the old building has been raised to accommodate the higher stud in the new, thus making a break in it near the ridge. two dormers have been cut in the main roof to give extra room in the second floor; these are flat-roofed and well spaced, with two windows occupying the entire front of each. a porch has been added across the whole front of the house and half of it is roofed over. this breaks with the slope of the main roof, but follows that of the dormers. a detail which adds much to the appearance of the exterior is the simple, square-posted fence that surrounds the porch and encloses a quaint little garden in the square formed by the angle of the two buildings. this same detail has been adopted at the side of the porch roof in an effective way. this fence, and the clapboards and trim of the house, are white, and the shutters and shingles are green. [illustration] [illustration: two views of the living room] the front door opens immediately into the living and dining-room which occupies the whole right side of the house and opens at the rear on to a grassy terrace. a triple window has been cut along the side to allow ample light and air. small panes are used in these windows, and the french doors have glass of corresponding size. the feature of this room is the fine old fireplace at the center of the inside wall. it is very simple, with slight attempt at ornamentation, but the proportions are good, and the lines rather unusual. over the fireplace is an old cupboard that used to be called a "nightcap closet" from the hospitable bottle which was kept there to be passed around among the men just before retiring. at the left is a cupboard with upper and lower doors; in the panels of the former, panes of glass have been inserted. this end of the room has been treated as the living-room and the opposite end as the dining-room. the woodwork is all white, and the roughly finished plaster is tinted a deep cream. straight stairs lead to the second story along the wall at the dining end of the room. here, about the walls, a wide molding has been carried over doors and windows, which serves as a plate-rail for numerous interesting old family plates and jugs. beneath it, in several places, shelves have been bracketed to the wall to hold other pieces of china. the glass door at the end opens on to the terrace, and the paneled door beside it communicates with the kitchen and servants' quarters in the addition. the furnishings in this room admirably accord with the building in both age and simplicity. the older furniture has been supplemented with modern pieces of straightest and most unpretentious line and character. clocks, mirrors, pictures, andirons, and fire-set are family heirlooms. the coverings on the floor are large and plain rag carpets; at the windows are simple muslin curtains, with overhangings of colonial chintz in soft colors harmonizing with the cheerful and sunny atmosphere of the room. at the left of this room, occupying the other side of the house, are two bedrooms. one of them is the children's own room and has been furnished very attractively; fresh white tables and chairs harmonize with the older mahogany pieces and lend an air of distinctive charm to the apartment. [illustration] [illustration: the attic chambers] the space up-stairs is divided into large and small rooms under the eaves. the slope of the roof allows room for many built-in drawers and closets, and every inch has been utilized. the white paint and the simple white furniture arranged with a care and precision that is worthy of emulation contribute to make the effect of these rooms light and airy and inviting. the japanese crêpe or gay cretonne curtains at the windows add just the necessary touch of color. the lighting fixtures in the house demand especial notice, as it is so difficult a matter to attain a distinction in them when a house has not been wired but must depend upon older methods of illumination than electricity or gas. a number of simple candle brackets attaching to the wall have been purchased, and these are placed symmetrically in pairs, balancing each other on either side of a fireplace or mirror or window. the candlesticks for shelf or table have been arranged with equal precision, and some are given all the more importance by attractive hand-made shades. an occasional simple, square, candle lantern hangs from the ceiling to contribute to the effect. the table and reading lamps have been chosen with equal success. chapter x the davenport brown house in planning the remodeling of a farmhouse, has it ever occurred to you how much of the appearance of the exterior depends upon the architecture of verandas and porches? not only must we give much thought to the alteration of the lines of the house which may be required by the interior plan, but we must be equally careful when it comes to the addition of entirely exterior features. modern country life demands plenty of veranda room and, whenever possible, sleeping-porches. one does not go to the country to sit indoors, even if the windows are all thrown open. there is nothing that will so materially improve the health as outdoor life; tired and jaded nerves are soon restored by use of a sleeping-porch, where the fresh air can soothe and induce restful slumber. in the early days, the porch or veranda did not exist; it may be supposed that our pioneer ancestors were too busy to enjoy any leisurely hours out of doors; at least, they made no provision in connection with their houses for such relaxation. as the details of the exterior became more elaborate, the entrance porch was developed with free-standing columns. in time, this assumed greater importance, especially in the south, where columns the height of the whole building supported a roof across its entire front. in the north, the veranda was less frequently used, but there is occasional authority for both the front and the less pretentious back piazza. it is one of the additions which are imperative in remodeling the house, however, and it becomes something of a problem because there is no more definite authority for it. if there is to be simply an entrance porch, offering a bit of shelter at the front door for stranger or friend, it may have much precedent in the porches of georgian houses. in planning this, take into consideration that it should be an index of what one will find in the interior; it should be the keynote, as it were, of the entire house. here we may have the same details and the same proportions as in the cornice of the roof, or the fireplace within. we find many porches that are sadly out of keeping with the rest of the house and seem very carelessly designed. it is far better to have none at all than one which is insignificant and out of scale; yet it must not be more elaborate than the house itself and tend to dwarf the main structure. few people realize how important this feature is and how necessary that it should be a satisfactory adjunct to the architecture of the whole. it is almost the first thing we notice as we approach the house. whether it is well placed and rightly proportioned, whether it has a proper overhang, good roof lines, and adequately supported cornice, affects to a very great extent the style and character of the house. there were a great many different types of porch in the georgian houses: the simple hood with a high-backed settle on either side that was commonly used at a side entrance; the gable-roofed and flat-roofed, square porch and circular, open and partly enclosed, with round and oval windows at the sides, were all developed to high perfection. the simple, doric column, plain or fluted, with corresponding pilasters or three-fourths round against the house, was used on many of the porches; but the ionic and corinthian capitals are more elaborate than is appropriate for the simplicity of a farmhouse. from the infinite number of models which can be found, it should be a comparatively easy matter to construct an entrance porch, utilizing the details found in the house. a veranda demands somewhat different manner of procedure. first it is necessary to decide where it shall be put. where will it receive the best air and the least sun? it must, presumably, open from or adjacent to the living-room and yet be so placed that its roof will not cut off too much light. if the house is uncomfortably near the highway or neighbors, the matter of privacy cannot be neglected, and a thought may well be given to the outlook from the piazza. let it enjoy any advantage of a fine view or a picturesque garden that may be compatible with its other requirements. thus it may be at the front, at either or both sides, or in the rear. at the side of the ordinary, gable-roofed house, the roof of the veranda should as a rule be flat. if it is possible to continue the roof line of the house to include that of the porch, by all means let it be done; the unbroken sweep will usually be found excellent. at some angles it may seem too long and severe; then it is often possible to put a slight "kick" in it, especially if there is anything of the dutch type about the building. the floor of the porch in farmhouses should be low; it may be on a level with that of the house, or a step below it. it is well to let the underpinning be a continuation of that of the house, and it may then be covered with brick or tile, or the conventional boards. the columns or posts which support the roof are a stumbling block for many remodelers. these should closely copy the entrance porch, if there is one; even if it be no more than a flat semblance of a pilaster about the frame of the door, it will supply the correct motive. lacking this, there will undoubtedly be some detail in the interior which can be magnified to the right proportion for the exterior,--the upright of a mantel or the frame of a door. for a house which can boast no such source of suggestion, a straight, square post with a simple molding would be the solution. the cornice should follow the detail of the entrance door or the house cornice; and it is effective and increases the apparent unity to repeat the decoration of the one on the other. the rails and balusters of old houses were extremely simple and should be kept so in the remodeling. in the very early examples, the balusters were square and spaced far apart; later both square and turned balusters were used, and they were spaced twice their width. the design for these can often be taken from the stairs in the interior of the house. it is the modern tendency to use no railing about verandas, particularly when they are low or when they are screened in. some of the flat-roofed type had a railing around the roof, and an open-air porch was thus made for the second story. sometimes this porch can be utilized as a sleeping-porch on the second floor. this feature, while of course entirely foreign to the farmhouse, has become as much a necessity in many families as the open-air living-room, and it is therefore logical to introduce it where possible to do so without destroying the lines of the building. it is better, however, to do without it than to add it in such a way that it will seem an afterthought and not really incorporated in the structure. often it can be placed in a wide dormer cut in the slope of the roof; sometimes the roof line can be extended over the roof of the sleeping-porch, or again it may be merely a room with the walls largely cut away. each remodeler will have his own problem in connection with this, and by ingenuity and careful study must work it out to his own satisfaction. remember always that the integral simplicity of the building must not be disturbed, and that whether it be sleeping-porch, veranda, or entrance portico, it must seem always a part of the original building, as if it were the conception of the master craftsman who erected the first timbers. [illustration: the davenport brown house] most gratifying results along this line are shown in an old farmhouse at medfield, massachusetts, which was built in . like many other old houses, this had fallen into decay and stood neglected and unoccupied by the side of the road while the extensive grounds lay unkempt and desolate. but mr. davenport brown recognized in it a house that could be made to serve most acceptably as the foundation of his summer home. it is of the georgian type, built with the hall and straight flight of stairs as the axis. there are two main chimneys opening into four fireplaces on the first floor. a service wing has been added at the left, parallel with the main building, and half its width. back of that, an ell of equal size extends at right angles. both of these are two storied, but the upper stud is somewhat lower than in the main building, thus allowing it to retain its predominance in the design. the main part is given further importance by the dignified entrance porch. two three-fourths round and two free-standing, fluted, doric columns are used, supporting a cornice and a gabled roof, the details of which repeat those in the cornice of the house. a rather unusual type of scalloped dentation lends additional interest. the frame about the door is arched over, and there are side lights and an overhead fanlight in a simple style that carries out the colonial tradition. [illustration: the hallway] the hall leads past the stairs and through an open doorway to the rear of the house, where there is another entrance, repeating the design of the front one. this is some distance from the rear wall of the house, and consequently there is a small, arched-over portico formed within the lines of the building. the walls of this are paneled, and on each side is a built-in seat. the floor is tiled, and the woodwork painted white. at each end of the main part of the building is a flat-roofed veranda carrying out the details of the entrance porch in column and cornice. the same dentil ornamentation that appears on the cornice of the house is used here in smaller size, as on the entrance porch. around the edges of the flat roofs, boxes filled with blooming plants and vines form an original and most attractive method of softening the sharp lines and finish of the house. the veranda on the right side overlooking the wide lawns and gardens is used largely as the outdoor living-room and is screened in. the spacing of the bars and framework of the screening is well proportioned and adds not a little to the decoration. the floor of the veranda is edged with brick and paved in the center with square tiles which slope toward a drain at one side. this wing of the living-room has been comfortably furnished with canvas hammocks and chinese grass chairs and stools, and even a sand-box for the children finds room here. in the central hall, the details carry out the character of the old period carefully. there is a white unpaneled wainscot carved around the walls and up the stairs, with a similar treatment in the second-floor hall. the stairs are wide, with white risers and mahogany treads, and the hand-rail is mahogany supported on white, turned balusters and a mahogany newel post. the upper walls are papered in a gray landscape paper, and the furnishings consist of a pair of sheraton card tables. [illustration: the sun-parlor or out-door nursery] [illustration: the library] at the right of the hall, the two rooms have been combined into a living-room by cutting double arches on either side of the fireplaces which open from the back and front of the chimney. the furnishings are especially interesting here, as there are a number of rare and beautiful pieces. the mantel mirror over the front fireplace is a fine example of american workmanship. the mahogany frame divides its length into three sections, and it is ornamented with carved and gilded husk festoons; the scroll top is surmounted with a gilt spread eagle. in front of the fire there is a beautiful little sheraton fire-screen. chairs and tables are equally interesting; there is an old "comb-back" chair and an upholstered "martha washington" chair, as well as more modern easy chairs and davenports. the upholstery and curtains are of small-patterned, colonial fabrics that carry out the spirit of the room. in the back part of this room, a large double window has been cut, looking out over the gardens and the grounds. underneath it is a most attractive window-seat suggestive of an old-time settle, and on each side low book-shelves extend around the whole end of the room. the dining-room is situated at the left of the hallway. the fireplace and paneling hold the attention in this room. the woodwork is very simple but well proportioned, and on either side of the mantel are narrow, built-in, china closets with small, leaded, diamond panes in both upper and lower parts of the door and even in a transom over it. the walls above the unpaneled wainscot are painted white and divided into simple, large panels with narrow moldings. the furniture in this room is suggestive of the early part of the nineteenth century, with the exception of the queen anne type of chair. over the heavy and massive sideboard is a long gilt mirror of the empire "banister" type; between the two side windows is a gilt, convex girandole with three branching candlesticks on each side. on the mantel is a fine example of a willard shelf clock, and on each side of it are tall mahogany candlesticks with the old-fashioned wind glasses. the over-curtains at the windows are a soft rose damask; they hang from gilded cornices and are caught back on gilded rosettes,--the style of draping which is carried out in all the main rooms of the house. [illustration: the service wing] the service wing opens from the left of the dining-room, and the den, which is back of it, with a fireplace on the opposite side of the same chimney, is reached from the rear of the hall. [illustration: the nursery] at the head of the stairs at the right, one enters the bright and sunny nursery. here the fireplace is very simple and has no over-mantel. the woodwork is white, and a broad molding divides the upper part of the wall. below is a quaint paper picturing mother goose scenes which the children never tire of studying. the furniture is mainly white, and the little chairs and tables in child's size are decorated in peasant fashion with painted flowers and lines of color. [illustration] [illustration: two of the chambers] there are two other bedrooms in the main part of the house and each has an open fireplace. the furnishings are simple and old-fashioned in character, retaining the colonial atmosphere admirably. in one room there is a field bedstead of english make, dating about , showing reeded posts and a curved canopy top. the chairs and the little night stand at the side of the bed are in close harmony with the period of its design. in the other chamber are twin beds which are modern reproductions of four-posters, but other furnishings retain the distinctive atmosphere of age. over one bureau there is a fine mirror with the georgian eagle ornamentation; in keeping with it are the old fireside wing chair and a side chair of sheraton type. the most interesting bedroom, perhaps, is in the wing of the house, where hannah adams, the first american authoress, was born. this is reached by a cross hall which leads from the main one, and gives access to baths and rear stairs and another tiny bedroom. although the old fireplace has been remodeled, the aspect of the room is much the same as when the house was built. the woodwork here is all dark, and the hand-hewn rafters and cross beams are exposed in the ceiling. an unusual wall-paper in black and gay colors forms an interesting background for the four-poster and other old furnishings. an old batten door with a quaint little window in the center strip leads from this room to the chambers in the service ell. much of the house has been restored under the direction of the architect, mr. john pickering putnam of boston, and to him the credit for its successful remodeling must be largely given. the planning and laying out of the grounds about the house, however, are the work of the owner, who has spared no pains to make a harmonious setting for his home. between the house and the road is a row of great overshadowing elms that make a delightful setting for the red and white of the house. the drive sweeps around these trees to the stable on the left and is separated from the house and the lawns by white palings in a simple colonial pattern, having fine, carved posts surmounted by balls. the fence stops at either side of the front to allow wide space for a heavy embankment of conifers. somewhat back of this fence, along the whole length of the lawn, is a second lower one, with posts of the same height. this marks the boundary of the wide lawn and forms a charming background for an old-fashioned hardy border that extends all the way to a swimming-pool and pergolas at the far end. immediately behind the house is the flower garden, from which all the blossoms used to decorate the house are cut; this is screened by a white trellis and pergola, carrying out some of the details of the entrance porches and verandas. chapter xi the doctor charles e. inches house a very interesting feature in an old farmhouse is the fireplace, which varies in size with the age of the house; the oldest ones are large, with cavernous mouths, since they were the only means of heating the house. these are capable of holding a ten-foot log, for it must be remembered that at that period of our country's history the woods grew at the very door. a few of these old fireplaces are found to-day, principally in the old kitchens or living-rooms, although occasionally we see an old house which has them in almost every room. there is a great variety in their design as well as size, some being very simple and framed in wood, while others show tiling; occasionally we find elaborate carving, but this is in the better class building rather than in the simple little farmhouse. these details denote the different periods and also the wealth of the former owner. with the introduction of stoves, many fireplaces were bricked in to accommodate an air-tight stove which gave more heat and saved fuel. one unaccustomed to the features of an old farmhouse would infer a lack of fireplaces. the removal of brick and mortar, however, reveals the large, cavernous hearth which was often three feet deep and sometimes showed a second bricking in, to make it smaller. often in the narrowing of the fireplace, tiles are used, generally dutch, which are blue and white in coloring. occasionally in opening up these fireplaces, one comes across rare old andirons that were considered of too little value to be removed; old cranes and kettles are also found, of the type common in the days of our early ancestors. it must be remembered that the chimneys of these old houses were often six feet square and had many fireplaces opening from them. it was the central feature of the house, around which the rooms were built. the earliest chimneys were daubed in clay, and in the masonry oak timbers were often used. in remodeling a house many people tear down these old chimneys for the space which may be converted into closet use and alcoves, making a smaller chimney do service. in the olden times, when the first chimneys were erected, they were so carefully built that they were less liable to smoke than the smaller ones, so that it is better to let the old one remain if possible. brick was generally used in the construction, although sometimes we find stone. it was not the finished brick of to-day but rough and unfaced. this was not true, however, of those which formed a part of cargoes from abroad, more especially those brought from holland. the use of stone was not popular, as it was apt to chip when brought in contact with the heat; this is also true of the hearthstones, where the flagging became rough and most unsatisfactory. the fireback was a feature of some of the old fireplaces. the earliest of these made in our country were cast in saugus, massachusetts, and some were most elaborate in design. often coats-of-arms and initials were worked out in their construction. in addition to the brick and stone, soapstone facings were sometimes shown, but seldom do we come across good carving. the crane was a feature of the fireplace, and on it were hung the pothooks from which depended the iron and brass pots in which food was cooked. in one side of the bricks, just at the left of the fireplace, was often a large brick oven with an iron door, and here on baking days roaring wood fires were kindled to heat the bricks before the weekly baking was placed within. examination of these old ovens will be very apt to reveal the age of the house. in the remodeling it is well to leave the fireplaces much as they stand, with the exception of bricking them in, for the old ones allowed too much air to come down the chimney, and at the present high price of wood, we are not able to indulge in the ten-foot logs that were in evidence in our grandmothers' time. a house with many fireplaces that stands back from the winding country road on the border line between medfield and walpole in massachusetts was chosen for a summer home by charles e. inches. it is shaded now as it was long ago by large, old elms whose widespreading branches seem to add a note of hospitality to this most attractive estate. possibly there are better examples of the restored farmhouse than this one found at medfield, but it is very picturesque, not only in type but in surroundings. it stands near a turn of the road, where it was erected, in , situated in a sheltered glen and protected from cold winds. [illustration: front view showing the old well] at that time it was a small and unpretentious building about twenty feet long and showing in the interior fine examples of hand-hewn timbers. even in its dilapidated state it was most attractive, with its many fireplaces and old woodwork. this particular house has two values, the one relating to its historical record and the other to its old-time construction. through two centuries this little farmhouse had been the home of the adams family, a branch that was near in kin to the presidential line of adams who lived at quincy, massachusetts. [illustration: before remodeling] at the time of its building, a stream wound in and out through the meadow land that was a part of the property. it was such a large stream that it afforded sufficient power to run an old mill that originally stood on the estate and which for many years ground the neighbors' grain. on a ridge opposite the house, worn stone steps lead up through pastures to a sturdy oak which stands nearly opposite the front of the house and is known in history as the "whipping tree." here, in colonial days, wrong-doers were tied to be whipped. just before we reach the stone wall, which was laid probably by the slaves held by the landowner of that period, we find an old mounting-block. on the side of one of the stones are the figures ; and it was from this block that many a colonial dame mounted to her pillion to ride in slow and dignified style behind her worthy squire. even in those days the grounds were very extensive and reached for many acres. these to-day have been reclaimed and laid down to grass land and garden. [illustration: across the lawn] half way between the house and the tennis court which defines the estate is a wonderful old garden which has been designed not so much for show purposes as to supply flowers all through the season. this is not the only garden on the place, for back of it is the vegetable garden and the old-fashioned one. the dividing line between the two is a row of stately trees which hide the former from view at the front of the house. rows of apple-trees, many of which were on the estate when it was first purchased, remnants of the original orchard, surround in part the tennis court, behind which is a swimming pool which is in frequent use. this is about twenty-five feet long and twelve wide, cemented to a depth of seven feet; with its background of tall poplars it is very artistic and lends itself to all sorts of water contests. during the latter part of the nineteenth century, new life came to the old house. it had stood for years, weather-beaten and old, guarding the family name. while the outside was very attractive and in tolerably good repair, it was the interior that appealed especially. there was beautiful old wainscoting and paneling of wide boards, some of which was split from logs at least thirty inches in width. great reverence was paid by the owner to the original structure, particularly to the old kitchen with its large, brick fireplace and chimney which was restored to its early beauty. sagging plaster was removed, and underneath were found well-preserved, hand-hewn beams and rafters. these were carefully cleaned and considered of such great beauty that they were left exposed as far as possible, more especially those which showed the sign of the adze. the walls, which had been previously neglected, were stripped of wall-papers which were in some places ten thicknesses deep. in removing one of these, a wonderfully fine landscape paper was discovered, and although every attempt was made to save it, it was too far defaced. under the paper was a wide paneling of white pine, so good that it needed only a slight restoration. in the opening of the fireplace the crane, pothook, and hangers were found to be intact, while many pieces of ancestral pewter and copper were polished and placed in proper position on the wide, receding chimney. this was to give it the look of the olden days, when pewter was used for the table. there was no bricking in of this old fireplace, for it was considered such a wonderful example that it was left in its original state. the old flint-lock that did service in the early war was hung over the fireplace, while from the chimney hook the old-time kettles were swung much as they did in the days when they were used for cooking purposes. the old brick oven used by the adams family was not removed, and at one side of the fireplace a long braid of corn was hung in conformity with the custom of that period. the hand-hewn rafters and beams have been left intact in this room, as has the old woodwork, so that the kitchen, now used as a den, is an exact reproduction of the original room. it is the most interesting apartment in the house, being situated at the right of the entrance and furnished with old family heirlooms, including five rare slat-back chairs, a rush-bottomed rocking-chair, and a settle of the same period. even the wide boards that were used in the original flooring have been retained, and the old brick hearth, showing wide bricks such as are never found in modern residences. to meet present requirements, the cellar was cemented, and a furnace added, in order that the occupants need not depend entirely on the fireplaces for heat. [illustration: the hall and stairway] in the hallway, the stairway, following the lines of many colonial houses, rises at one side. here the wall-paper is wonderfully preserved, being in the old colors of yellow and white and of a very old design. it was made in england over a century ago and gives an appropriate atmosphere to the entrance of the attractive old home. [illustration: the living room] the living-room, which is spacious and comfortable, is at the right just before you enter the den. the woodwork has been painted white, following the colonial idea, while old-fashioned, diamond-paned windows have been substituted for the original ones. here, as throughout all the house, one comes unexpectedly upon groups of shelves filled with books. there are built-in cupboards that provide places for the wonderful collection of books, many of which are rare editions, owned by the present occupants. like every room in the house, this shows several tables of unusually fine design, a handsome side-wing chair, and a few other choice pieces. the great open fireplace with its colonial accessories lends much to the hominess of this room. at the left of the hallway is the large and spacious dining-room, which is in reality three rooms opened into one, the partitions showing in the beamed ceilings. the walls are finished in green textile and are left unornamented with the exception of one or two choice pictures. there was a method in the construction of this room which was planned for unbroken spaces to bring out to advantage the lines of the beautiful old sideboard. then, too, the space shows off the lines of the rush-bottomed chairs that are used for dining-chairs. the mantel, framed in white wood, is hung with rare porringers, ranging from large to baby size. there is a restful atmosphere about this room, that, combined with its perfect setting, is most refreshing. at the farther end of the room, french doors open upon the sun parlor which is used during the summer months for a breakfast-room. this overlooks the garden. the bedrooms up-stairs are large and airy, each one of them being carefully furnished with colonial pieces which include four-posters, high and lowboys as well as quaint, old-time chests of drawers that can do service as bureaus, or as storage space for extra blankets, hangings, or rugs. the floors throughout the entire house are of hard wood, many of them being the original ones that were laid when the house was built. rare old chippendale, sheraton, and hepplewhite chairs are used in the furnishings, while hand-woven rugs cover the floors. the windows are screened by chintz hangings of bright colors and gay designs, and the whole house presents a sunny, restful atmosphere. at the rear of the house an ell has been added where the new kitchen with all modern conveniences, pantries, servants' dining and sitting rooms are found. thus while the exterior features of the old house have been carefully preserved, the addition of the ell gives comfort and convenience to the new building. shrubbery has been planted around the house, and a veranda thrown out; window-boxes filled with brilliantly blossoming plants add a bit of color to the remodeled farmhouse which is painted red with white trim. velvety lawns have replaced the old-time farming lands, and the planting of trees has done much to add to the picturesqueness of this estate. the grounds themselves are extensive, covering forty-five acres, and the natural beauties are unusually varied. broad stretches of fields and hills intersected with trees make a most appropriate setting for the old adams homestead. chapter xii the charles martin loeffler house it was a staircase that was responsible for the remodeling of one house which had no other unusual feature. it was designed by a village carpenter whose object was four walls and a shelter rather than architectural beauty. the structure was so simple and unobtrusive that it did not arouse any enthusiasm in the heart of the architect who examined it, for it presented no chance to show his ability in its remodeling. it was the kind of a farmhouse that one would find in almost any suburban town, built without any pretensions, its only good feature being the staircase which saved it from passing into oblivion and caused it to be remodeled into a charming, all-the-year-round home. it had been unoccupied for a long period and with exterior weather-beaten and interior uninhabitable, it presented a forlorn appearance, repelling to most would-be purchasers. it stood by the side of a traveled road and in its best days was occupied by a farmer and his family who cared more for the barn adjoining the house than they did for the farmhouse itself. the estate was a large one that had been neglected and allowed to run down until weeds and rank grass were so intermingled that it seemed a discouraging task to bring it back into a good state of cultivation. adjoining the house, and connected with it by a shed, was a large barn with sagging roof and so dilapidated that it seemed past restoring. across the front, defining the estate, was once a neat paling fence that had been torn down until only a small portion remained. many acres of the estate were meadow-land which swept to the horizon of trees, yet the once fine apple orchard, though sadly in need of pruning, showed promise, and there were possibilities in the whole estate that needed only attention and development to make them profitable. there had been no one to care for the old house, and it stood discouraged by the roadside awaiting a sympathetic owner. [illustration: before remodeling] it was in this condition when first seen by mr. charles martin loeffler, whose experienced eye discerned its possibilities. it is the wise man who fits his house to his grounds and who in the general scheme considers its surroundings. the grass land, the garden, the orchards, the fencing of the estate, each one of which demands separate treatment, should be so arranged that they will be profitable in the end. the new owner realized this and also that he could not be too careful in combining house and garden so that they would make a harmonious whole. the location was ideal, quiet and retired and exactly what had been most desired, so the remodeling was placed in the hands of a careful architect, who, after thoroughly considering the situation, decided it could not be done. it was then that mr. loeffler took the matter into his own hands, drawing exact plans of what was necessary to achieve the desired result, and it was under his personal direction that the workmen began to remodel the unattractive little cottage. it was borne in mind that even the addition of a porch or veranda must be carefully considered to avoid confusion of architecture so that the house itself, when finished, should follow a single idea and not a composite mass of details that were entirely out of place and in bad taste. it was realized that no house, no matter how situated, should have discordant surroundings. out-buildings should not be allowed to mar the symmetry of the house and should be removed so that they would not be an eyesore but in keeping with the general plan. the house itself, however, demanded attention first; it was very small, with a pitched roof in the upper story and a long ell connecting it with the farm buildings. the exterior was left practically as when first purchased, with the exception of a small and well-planned porch at the front, a long ell for servants' quarters, and a wide veranda at the rear that extended the entire length of the house. in the porch settles were added on either side which help to give the house an air of dignity and invite the guest to rest and enjoy the beautiful scenery. [illustration: as remodeled] the screened-in veranda at the back is used as an out-of-doors living-room. it is wide, carpeted with rugs, and furnished with simple but substantial pieces. it is a most comfortable place, where charming views and wonderful vistas can be enjoyed, for beyond lie the old orchard with the meadows between and a background of finger-pointed pines that seemingly melt into the blue of the sky. trellises were built on the garden side of the house to carry vines, but this was after the house had been given a coat of white paint and the blinds painted green. over the veranda a balcony was built which can be used for outdoor sleeping purposes if desired. the picket fence was restored and painted white to match the coloring of the house, and a stone wall was built at the farther end to enclose the garden; on the outside wild shrubs were planted to give a note of color to the gray stone. the old trees, pruned, took on a new life and are now in a most nourishing condition; across the entire front, as a partial screening, silver-leafed poplars were planted. the farm lands were reclaimed, new trees planted in the old apple orchard, and at the side of the house an attractive garden was laid out with a background of apple-trees. it was a small garden, only about an eighth of an acre in size, and filled with old-fashioned flowers to make it harmonize with the period in which the house was built. a single path divides it in two, and its color schemes have been given careful study. at one side of the garden a rustic pergola has been built with a central path of grass, and over this a grapevine has been trained which makes it a restful, shady place in summer, while in early fall the vines are loaded with great clusters of purple grapes. everywhere surrounding the garden are stretches of green lawns that prove a fitting setting to the bright blossoms in the trim and well-kept beds. the fields beyond have been brought back to a good state of cultivation and present a beautiful green tract beyond which stretch rich meadows with waving grass where flit the bobolink and the red-winged blackbird. in the trees around the house orioles and robins nest, while everywhere the old apple-trees grow, many of them gnarled and twisted with age. in the early fall, loaded with fruit, they form an attractive color note of red and yellow in the landscape. great care has been taken to remove the branches of the old trees in order to afford attractive vistas. this gives a landscape picture carefully planned and creates a delightful feeling of restfulness and a sense of relief from the bustle of city life. over the porch has been built a lattice to be covered eventually with rambler roses, and in order to obtain more light, clusters of windows have been let in on either side of the front door. the interior as well as the exterior has been carefully planned with a regard to light and views. one enters the house through the little porch and finds himself in a spacious hallway which extends to the living-room. the staircase is at the right of the' entrance. it is not a primitive affair of the ladder type which is the earliest on record; neither is it steep with flat treads, high risers and molded box stringers, but the kind that shows simple posts and rail with plain balusters. it is of the box stringer type and has no carving in either post or balusters; it is perfectly straight and leads by easy treads to the second-story floor. [illustration: the dining room] the dining-room is at the left of the hallway and is a room built for comfort and for everyday life, showing plenty of windows. a feature is the great, open fireplace and the bricked chimney-breast, with small closets at one side. the woodwork in this room is the same that was in the house when it was discovered by mr. loeffler and, cleaned and treated to a coat of paint, is most attractive. the wide board floor has been retained and stained dark to bring out the color schemes of the rugs. [illustration] [illustration: two views of the living room] this room leads directly into the living-room which extends entirely across the house and is also entered from the hallway. its windows face the green fields studded with trees and also overlook the old-fashioned garden which is near enough to the house so that every summer breeze wafts the perfume of its flowers to the occupants. a central feature is a bricked-in fireplace that has been built into the room. instead of plastering, the old oaken cross-beams have been left in their original state, and the room is finished with a wainscot painted white, above which is a wall covering of japanese grass-cloth. bookcases form an important furnishing of this room which also contains many pieces of antique furniture. it is a cheerful, homelike apartment, into which the sun shines practically all day long. through large french windows one steps from the living-room on to the veranda. the second story is devoted to chambers and bath. its location has a distinctive charm, as it is not too near the city or too far away from neighbors. it is well adapted for outdoor living, with its wide, inviting veranda and the side garden where bloom the stately phlox, the gaudy poppies, and the bright-hued marigold. [illustration: the studio opposite the charles m. loeffler house] [illustration: the music room in the studio building] as time went on, the house grew too small for the owner's needs, and so another house just across the way that had passed its prime and stood desolate and deserted was also purchased and remodeled into a studio, one room expressly designed for mr. loeffler's work,--large and commodious with high, vaulted ceiling. here, too, a veranda was built across one end that can be used if need be for an outdoor living-room. it is shaded by many trees, more especially some fine old elms whose graceful branches shadow the house, while a stretch of lawn extends to the street. across the front a paling fence corresponding in style to that across the street was built, entrance being through a swinging gate that leads directly to the outside porch. this house shows less remodeling than the first one; it is principally in the interior that changes have been made. the whole front of the house is made into a music-room of unusual type, being hung with pictures of the old masters. here the second-story flooring has been removed, and the ceiling vaulted and sheathed, in order to secure acoustic properties. a large chimney has been introduced into the inner wall, with brick mantel and chimney breast, and big enough to hold a six-foot log. the floors are of polished hardwood, and the ornamentation shows chinese ships hung upon the walls,--an interesting feature for interior decoration. the room is entered through french windows that lead on to the outside porch. in addition to the music-room, this house is also used for the caretaker and week-end guests. the long ell at one side is used for the former, while at the back of the music-room several rooms are fitted up for the use of guests, thus solving a problem that is to-day vexing the minds of many a house owner, more especially in suburban towns. there is about the whole place a restfulness that has been achieved by careful planning and attention to details. there is no part of the estate where one may wander without coming upon picturesque bits of landscape, that while apparently in their natural state, yet are restored and preserved with a true appreciation of nature. this estate is a lesson in reclaiming and remodeling that cannot fail to be instructive to all home builders. it goes to show that forethought and ingenuity can create a comfortable and inviting home in the midst of desolation, and transform an old dilapidated cottage into a charming and picturesque abode. chapter xiii little orchard the old farmhouse can well be copied as a type for the modern summer home, for its lines are excellent, and its design is often so striking that it lends itself to easy reproduction. to the house owner of to-day it may seem a little strange that, with the trend of modern improvements, the old houses should be used for this purpose, and the architecture of the master builders of long ago shown preference over that of modern architects who have given their life to this subject. the builders and designers of old houses had to depend on their own ideas or possibly on a few designs that were sent over in the cumbersome ships that plied between england and the new country,--the work of sir christopher wren, one of the most celebrated architects of his day. there are no more satisfactory details of house construction than we find in these old houses, where fireplaces, doors, porches, and carving show individuality. these ideas, modified and improved upon, are found in many a twentieth-century home, lending a dignity and charm that would otherwise be lacking. if you are remodeling an old house and wish to change a fireplace that is unsatisfactory or a stairway that is not artistic in design, do not introduce modern ideas, but rather seek for an old house that is being torn down and from it take bits that will satisfactorily fit into the work of remodeling. it is not a hard matter to find details of this kind, for many an old farmhouse has been neglected so long that it is past redemption, and it is the blending of the old with the old that does much to keep distinctive the period that you are seeking to preserve. sometimes the house has been badly mutilated, often to such an extent that its best features are disguised, and it is a serious problem to eliminate the wrong ideas and duplicate the original. the old craftsmen before colonial times were apt to build houses along certain lines which often failed to bring proper results; details varied and sometimes were incongruous with the type of the house. the first houses were generally one-roomed; later, other rooms like units were gathered around it, and the result in some cases was the appearance of a lean-to. later on came the ell, and, to save steps, chambers were designed on the lower floor, leading off the main rooms of the houses. naturally in houses of this kind the largest room was the kitchen, for this was the family-living-room, more especially during the cold weather. we will find as we examine an old farmhouse that the dominant portion of the building was the first floor, and that the chambers were adapted to the lower-story plan. these were not always satisfactory, as little or no care was given to the arrangement of the rooms, and in many houses closets were little considered. the partitions between these rooms were not double, like those found to-day, but were made of matched board and accommodated themselves to the framework. later on plastering came into vogue and this made the rooms warmer and much more habitable. the windows were generally spaced carefully and were in harmony with the front door, making an attractive exterior. the walls were of wood, often with a layer of brick to keep out the cold and also to form a better protection. the roofs, more especially in the early houses, were very steep, since they were planned for thatching; later on, when shingles came into use, they grew lower and wider. it was not until that the gambrel roof came into style. in considering the evolution of the house we must look backward, and thus we come to realize the progression of architecture. we then discover that every old house shows interesting features, and it is the house with a history that makes its greatest appeal to the antiquarian; while the revival of colonial architecture brings a renewed interest in the history of that period. there is no more attractive remodeled farmhouse than that of mr. roland c. lincoln, which is a charming, rambling, summer home situated on the gloucester road half way between manchester-by-the-sea and magnolia. it is a low, yellow cottage, picturesquely placed against a background of trees and nestled on the side of a hill seemingly as if it had been there for centuries. at the front is the ocean, while surrounding it is well-placed shrubbery and artistically trained vines. [illustration: the house from the driveway] the grounds are just at the left of the main road and separated from it by a low stone wall; the entrance is by a driveway at one side that winds to an entrance porch. all around the house are carefully trimmed lawns and gardens gay with flowers, while the soft expanse of green sward extends to the shadowing trees and the background of forest and rock. the house was built two hundred and fifteen years ago. at that time it stood on the road and was overshadowed by the very oldest house there was in the town, which stood on the crest of an adjoining hill. it then contained four rooms only, each one of which was thirteen and a half feet square. surrounding the old farmhouse was an orchard of apple-trees that even in the early days gave to it its present name of little orchard. [illustration: the angle of the ell] the possibilities of the little cottage, as it stood forlorn by the side of the road, attracted the attention of the present owner, who purchased it, moved it back from the road to its present location, and remodeled it, adding a wing at the left. the old front door was improved by the addition of a semicircular porch which is an exact reproduction of the porch on the white house at salem, massachusetts. the side porch was unique and most picturesque in its design. ivy has been trained to cover the veranda and outline many of the windows. at the rear, facing the garden with its frontage of gnarled apple-trees, we find the veranda or out-of-doors living-room. this is used during the summer months and commands one of the most picturesque views on the estate, overlooking lawns and forest. [illustration: the entrance porch] [illustration: the stairway] entrance to the old house is through the porch, and one finds himself in a most charming hallway, at one side of which is an alcoved recess. this is hung in blue and white morris paper. near the front door at the right is the staircase which leads with low treads and broad landing to the second-story floor; it has a hand-carved balustrade with a mahogany rail, while its newel post shows fine carving. half way up between two huge beams have been placed some wonderful old pieces of china of the colonial period, and under them is the quaint inscription, a welcome to the home, "in god's hands stands this house, may good luck come to it and bad luck go out of it." the staircase is reproduced from a particularly fine model found in a house in boston that was originally the home of one of america's greatest statesmen, edward everett. it fits into its new surroundings as if it had always been there and is exactly the type one would expect to find in such a house as this. there is a fine old cabinet near the staircase that is considered one of the best pieces in the country. inside is an entire tea-set of lowestoft originally brought to manchester by one of the old sea captains as a commercial venture and placed on sale. it was purchased by the present owner and holds a prominent place in her collection. at the foot of the stairs, inside the front door, the name of the house has been done in burnt wood. mrs. lincoln arranged to have this executed while she was traveling abroad and when talking with the workman she told him the story of her remodeled farmhouse and why it was named little orchard. he was very much interested in her description, and when the inscription was finished, it bore not only the name, but decorations in each corner of tiny little apples. [illustration: the dining room] at the end of the entrance hall is the dining-room which is long and well lighted by many windows on two sides. this was a part of the original house, enlarged and added to. here we find the low stud and the beamed ceiling so prevalent in houses of that day. it is hung with a most interesting morris paper done in pink and blue, and at one end is a recessed sideboard. the upper part of this is used as a china cupboard, while on either side bookcases have been inserted. the furnishing of this room is all of the colonial period; the chairs are sheraton, as is also the sideboard. the fireplace is unusually good, being handsomely carved with a basket of fruit as the central decoration. opening from the dining-room is the living-room, a large, square room with beamed ceiling, a feature being a built-in bookcase at the farther end. on the walls are many original paintings including one by the late william h. hunt, "tired of work." an interesting inglenook is a space-saving device that has been introduced. underneath the window-seat, studded in brass nails, is the name of the house again, little orchard. the reception-room is back of the living-room and shows the staircase of old colonial design at the farther end. the fireplace was taken from a house which once sheltered general lafayette. when the house was torn down, the beauty of the carving and the graceful design attracted the attention of the present owner, who purchased it for his remodeled house. when it was brought home, it was found to be almost impracticable, through being so badly worm-eaten; under the hands of skilful workmen, however, it has been thoroughly renovated and is now a prominent feature of the room. the apartment is well lighted by many windows, each one of which is of a different design. these have been perfectly planned, and there is no discordant note. the second story has been so arranged that all the rooms open into each other and also into the hallway. they are of low stud and contain dormer windows. the colonial atmosphere has been carefully observed, so that new pieces which have been introduced fit in harmoniously with the old ones. each room has a large, open fireplace with a crane, suggestive of good cheer. the success of this house has been attained through the careful thought of the owners, and it is an example of a charmingly remodeled farmhouse of a type such as one seldom finds. chapter xiv willowdale should you chance to run across an old farmhouse that shows good interior woodwork, do not carelessly pass it by, for such houses are not easy to discover. you must realize that when restored it will be much more attractive than one with a plain mopboard and narrow cornice. woodwork was not of the colonial type in the earliest houses; it was used merely as a wall covering and was called wainscot, the same as it is to-day. this was because the paneling was originally made from wainscot oak which was well grained and without knots. differing from that in nineteenth-century houses, it was put on the walls vertically, the boards being rough and wide. it must be remembered that in those days trees had not been felled to any extent, and the giants of the forest provided the best of lumber for this purpose. these boards were either lapped or put together with tongue-strips. later on, we find interiors where they were laid horizontally, like those of a century or more ago, and instead of being plain boards, were well finished. wainscot is an inheritance from our early ancestors, for in the manor houses in the mother country there is wonderful woodwork, used not only for wainscot, but for other parts of the interior finish. white pine, which at that time grew abundantly in our native woods, was employed for interior as well as exterior purposes, this being more especially true in the northern and eastern parts of the country, where it was more plentiful. it has generally been conceded that this wood was the best on account of its wearing properties, and as it did not show figure in either the grain or markings. it was often called "cheese-like" and for this reason was preferred by wood-carvers and cabinetmakers for their art. the wainscot was used until about the time of the revolution and not until a later period were the walls plastered. it has never lost its popularity and is found in many twentieth-century houses. it is generally shown in paneled effects which came into vogue much later than the plain board period. this woodwork was generally in the lower story, where more time and thought were given to interior finish; very rarely is it found in the chambers and then only in the better class of houses. wainscot is not the only interior woodwork used; we often find whole walls finished in paneled wood, and fireplaces with a simple frame in paneled effects. many of these old fireplaces showed a wooden shelf only, while later on, in the early part of the nineteenth century, fine carvings were included. occasionally we run across a mantel of this kind in an old farmhouse, but it is very rare. it would be out of place for the house owner to introduce a mantel of this kind, no matter how attractive, in some types of old farmhouses. it would not be in keeping with the style and, while handsome and graceful in design, would be incongruous even in remodeled surroundings. door-frames as well as the wainscot betoken the age of the house, for in the earlier ones doors are perfectly plain in finish, elaboration in design of paneling and wood-carving coming into play at a little later period. cornices widened and also became more elaborate as house building progressed, and a century after the first wainscot was used, we find them sometimes several inches in width and showing different motives, such as the egg and dart. these also are rarely found in an old farmhouse, for it must be remembered that our early ancestors had little time to think out elaboration in the interior finish of their homes which were built solely as shelters. in the reproductions of to-day the wide boards are not easy to find, unless they are taken from some old house. one of the most valuable boards is the pumpkin pine which is now rarely found, having disappeared from the new england forest long ago. fortunate is the house owner who discovers this wood in his old farmhouse, for it is found only in the very oldest buildings. the softness of the wood and the great width of the boards distinguish it from the white pine. in , on the shores of cape cod, not far from cataumet, a small farmhouse was built, with four rooms down-stairs and two rooms and an unfinished attic above. it was the home of one of the early settlers and stood facing the highway, a simple, unpretentious dwelling of no particular design and incongruous architecture. although it had been substantially built, it had been abandoned for many years and was in a most dilapidated condition. originally the water came nearly to its door, but the shore line gradually had receded, so when first discovered, the little building stood with its back to the road, and its face to the bare meadows. [illustration: before remodeling] like other houses of this early period, it was guiltless of paint, and its weather-beaten sides showed the wear and exposure of many years' conflict with the elements. to transform this house into a summer home equipped with accommodations adequate for a modern family, was a difficult problem. the proportions of the exterior were good but so simple that in order to extend the original quaint outline of the house without marring it, the additions had to be made with unusual care. [illustration: the front view] the first step was to carefully study the period for correct remodeling and to lay out the five acres of grounds to balance the house and preserve symmetry of detail. a driveway starts at the entrance, where on a high pole swings a shield-like sign with a red background and showing the name of the house, willowdale, in white. the estate is defined by a fence, and the house in its remodeled state is attractively located on rising land, many feet back from the main highway. [illustration: the house from the garden] a hundred years after the house was built, a new highway was opened at the rear; thus the front or south side was wholly screened from observation, and it was here that the new owner decided to lay out his garden. it is enclosed by a high fence painted white, with latticed panels stained green; at the end a summer-house was erected, whose axis is the central path of flat stepping-stones that leads to the quaint porch entrance. its three outer sides extend beyond the fence and command a broad view of the picturesque shore territory. the garden proper is of the old-fashioned type, in conformity with the old-time atmosphere of the estate, and the same sorts of flowers thrive in the trim beds that bloomed no doubt in the first owner's garden. trailing vines conceal the fence outlining this plot from view. the only distinctive modern touch and yet one quite in harmony with the quaintness of the grounds is a large crystal gazing-bowl. this reflects in its luminous surface the nodding heads of the flowers, the floating clouds, the children dashing past, or the still loveliness of the summer sunset which preludes the night. [illustration: a rear view] the original house had been substantially built, and while appearing dilapidated, few of the shingles needed replacing even after two hundred years' wear. in the interior comparatively few repairs were necessary, paint and paper being the principal requisites. additions had to be made to secure the needed room, and the first problem was to arrange these to conform with the original quaint outline. the old part was of the old farmhouse type, low of build. to the right a wing was built to contain three bedrooms and a bathroom, and to balance this a broad, covered veranda was added at the left; behind this, at the rear, quarters for the kitchen, servants' hall, and chambers were thrown out. there was need of more light for the second-floor rooms in the old building, so dormers were inserted in the deep pitched roof at the front. the exterior was then painted dark red with a white trim, following the style of the first painted houses. whether the red was used for economy's sake or not is a question, but it probably was, and proved most appropriate. yellow was the next coloring used, which is shown by the fact that it is sometimes found with red underneath; the white paint came into vogue still later. over the front door a small porch was built which was in strict keeping with the period. trellises were erected at one side of the house for rambler roses and vines that would break the plain, solid effect of the shingled surface. an old-fashioned well was boxed in, at the rear of the kitchen entrance, and furnishes drinking-water for the family. the old chimney was retained, so that the fireplaces could be used. when the house was first built, there were two rooms at the front and at the rear a kitchen, kitchen-bedroom, and a dairy. the three small rooms were thrown into one large room which is now used as a dining-room. when the plaster was scraped off from the ceiling, it was found that there were hand-hewn beams underneath in such a good state of preservation that they were left uncovered, giving to the new apartment a distinctive touch. it was then discovered that the house had been built around a tree, for a substantial oak, with its roots deep in the ground and its large trunk still shouldering the roof beam, was disclosed. underneath the old paper was found fine wood paneling which was scraped and painted white; next the fireplace was opened, and proved to be eight feet wide with a swinging crane at the back. this was restored to its original size, and a square, brick hearth was laid. the old floors were replaced by new ones, and the entire room was given the tone of the period. rag rugs are laid on the floor, and all the furniture represents seventeenth-century pieces. at one end of the room is the dining-table, and at the farther side, large french windows hung with chintz open on to a vine-clad veranda. [illustration: the living room] the parlor, which opened from the dining-room, was covered with many layers of dirty wall-paper. when these were removed, it was discovered that there was a very fine wainscoting. in one corner was a three-cornered cupboard with a paneled door underneath. the fireplace was opened up, and when the room was painted it developed into one of the most charming rooms in the house. the paneling was painted just off the white, and the walls were hung with soft, gray paper with tiny pink flowers, making the color scheme of the room gray and pink. this was carried out in all the furnishings,--the chintz used for cushions and the hangings harmonizing with these tones. instead of having all the furniture of the colonial period, comfortable willow chairs were introduced, in order to give the light, airy touch that makes a summer home distinctive. this is a large, livable room, well-lighted by many windows and looking out upon the lawn and the garden. the hallway is of the plain, simple type which was so common in the oldest houses. the walls are covered with a reproduction of an old-time landscape paper, and the passage forms the division line between the old sitting-room and the dining-room. this dining-room is now used as a chamber; it is large and sunny with a wide-open fireplace. it is furnished with an empire bed and shows everything that would have been found in the early days in a chamber of this kind, even to the spirit lamp that stands on the high mantel, the warming-pan beside the generous fireplace, the oval mirror, and the wooden cradle with its hand-woven blanket, where now sleeps a twentieth-century baby. [illustration] [illustration: two of the chambers] on the second story the rooms have been remodeled and show the same good taste which prevails all through the house. the unfinished attic has been plastered, papered, and converted into two bedrooms which are equipped with the old-time furnishings and are used primarily as guest rooms. the gable windows make them light and airy and at the same time afford a charming glimpse of the garden, heavy with the fragrance of the sweet-smelling blossoms, much as it was two centuries ago. willowdale is one of the most comfortable and well appointed of the many remodeled houses that are found in new england. it is the possession of such a quantity of fine old woodwork that has given the house its distinctive atmosphere, though this has been preserved and heightened by the good taste of the present residents, who have succeeded in making it a most livable dwelling. every room is well lighted and well ventilated, yet the house maintains in its renovated state all the quaintness and charm of a seventeenth-century home. it is a fine example of how an old house can be remodeled with little trouble and expense, and how the old and new can be combined harmoniously. chapter xv the george e. barnard estate in remodeling a farmhouse, one should plan to build wide verandas, overlooking pleasing views. these can be glass-enclosed, so that during inclement weather one need not stay indoors. out-door life is a part of the essentials in planning a summer home, and it means so much to the house owner that every possible means should be devised to secure it. with this object in view, why not lay out around the house attractive flower beds? just a plain lawn does not mean much, but planted with trees, effective shrubbery, and well-planned gardens, it furnishes an inducement to sit on the porch and watch the ever changing views. in attempting this work, plan for vistas, well-selected spaces through which one can get glimpses of the world beyond. have an objective point in view, so that the beauty of the setting sun and the clouds clothed in rainbow hues make it more attractive. panorama effects are always interesting and are obtained through judicious planting, for one must remember that a plain level lawn in itself has few features that attract. let the units be carefully spaced, and if there are walks or drives near the house, lay them out where they will not detract from the picturesque effect that you desire. an exception can be made with the english or flag treads, which make a charming adjunct to the grounds when grass grown. in the early days, the first settlers had their flower beds close to the house, probably because they did not then interfere with garden space. the effect was pleasing, for it added to the simple attraction of the early building. it is a good plan, after remodeling a house, to carry out this scheme of our forebears and have a narrow bed following the line of the house. trees also are always effective; they break the roof line and shut off objectionable views. if you have no trees, by all means plant some. screens can be devised by planting shrubbery, which makes unnecessary a latticed enclosure and is all the more interesting if the shrubs bear flowers, adding a bright spot to the color scheme. they are very practical as well, since they serve many purposes besides shutting off objectionable portions of the grounds. if rightly planted, they serve as windbreaks and can be arranged to frame a vista. while evergreen is often used for this scheme, yet shrubs such as the lilac, forsythia, bridal wreath, flowering almond, and many others are suitable. plant these so that there will be a continuation in bloom, and also with reference to a definite color scheme. a remodeled farmhouse set back from the road without any surrounding decoration of garden or hedge cannot be picturesque, for merely a stretch of green lawn leaves it bare and uninviting, no matter how much you cover the house with vines. the composition of house and garden should be carefully planned, all the more if the estate is extensive, with plenty of land that can be used for this purpose. it is not much trouble to plant shrubs, and they need little cultivation. in the woods near at hand you can usually find plenty that will serve the purpose, if economy has to be considered. in planting the garden there are many things to be regarded; one of the most important is the sequence of bloom. this should be arranged with a view to color effects, for nowhere will one's taste be more conspicuous than in the garden plot which surrounds the house. there is no doubt that the harmony of color is a vital question, and complementary ones should be grouped together. yellow should never be left out of the garden unless one wishes a very quiet effect; red is a favorite color and contrasts well with white. it must be remembered that quiet colors can be used in greater profusion than glaring ones; and if the exterior of the house is white, it permits one a much wider latitude in the choice of colors and in the arrangement of pleasing effects. the combination of house and garden that is found on the george e. barnard estate of ipswich, massachusetts, is ideal and the result of many years of careful thought. the house was originally a small and unattractive farmhouse which contained only four rooms; it was dilapidated and forlorn in appearance and situated in the midst of uncultivated grounds. it was the location which attracted the present owner, for he saw here great possibilities for development; so he purchased the estate with a view of surrounding the house with gardens. [illustration: before remodeling] the house has been added to, a little at a time, by throwing out here a room and there a veranda, instead of completing the whole work at once. vine-covered verandas now surround three sides of the house; the shrubbery has been well planted. from the time the garden was first started, it was the desire of the owner to paint in flowers what other people have painted on canvas. steep hills that obstructed the view at the side of the house have been converted into gentle slopes; bare spots have been thickly planted, and colors have been combined so that there is no inharmonious note in the finished garden. careful planning eliminated straight lines, but not even the slightest curve in a flower bed was made until after due consideration. the flowers were planted to fulfill, as near as possible, the scheme of a landscape picture, and each plant not in perfect harmony was removed. the effect as one sits on the veranda is like looking at an immense canvas, where the pictures change with every move, for the estate is a masterpiece of color and bloom, depicting a different phase of landscape on every side. in remodeling the house, so many changes have been made that it is almost impossible to tell the manner in which the improvements were effected. there is not a room in the house but has been thoroughly changed, nor one that has not been enlarged. the service quarters are all new; they have been placed in the rear, where they do not intrude on the scheme that has been carried out in remodeling--that of making an attractive house in keeping with the setting of the grounds. the main house is at the front and has been kept in practically the same general style as when purchased. the entire rear portion of the house has been added a little at a time, until now it is most complete in each and every detail. [illustration: the front of the house] [illustration: the house from the terrace] dormer windows have been let into the roof in order to give better lighting, and the wide verandas have been railed in, to provide an up-stairs living-room, from which one gets the best views of the garden. the lower veranda is furnished with well-chosen willow furniture, each piece being carefully selected so that there are no two alike. it has been given a setting of ornamental bay-trees in green tubs and huge pottery vases filled with masses of bloom. the most attractive part of the veranda is at one side of the house, where it is paved with brick and lined on the one side with evergreen trees and on the other with scarlet geraniums. [illustration: the pergola-porch] [illustration: the hall] the hall or morning-room was a part of the original house. it is entered directly from the veranda and has been so treated as to present a different series of pictures from the time one enters the door until one leaves, each room which opens out of it being carefully designed for harmonious effects. [illustration: the alcove in the living room] at the left of the room is the staircase which leads to the second-story floor. the low mahogany risers and treads contrast with the white balusters which are topped with a highly polished mahogany rail. doors have been removed so that the adjoining rooms are glimpsed as one enters from the veranda. this room is hung with a colonial paper showing delicately tinted red flowers against a gray background, and its beauty is heightened by the leaded glass windows of the china closet at the right and the simple fireplace with its brass accessories. every bit of furniture here is old colonial and is upholstered in green to match the color of the hangings. a long french window opens on to the veranda and gives glimpses of the beautiful gardens. the upper portions of the old cupboards that were in the house have been glassed in. the floors have had to be re-laid. [illustration: the den] particularly noticeable is the den which is at the left of the hallway. here the color scheme is green, the walls being covered with textile; the wainscot is painted white, and the hangings at the window brighten the plain effect of the wall treatment. there is no crowding of furniture, but a dignified atmosphere pervades the entire room. it is an apartment such as one loves to find--quiet and restful. these two rooms occupy the entire front of the house. opening from the hall is a long reception-room which was originally a part of the old house and which shows two rooms thrown into one, with an addition at the end nearest the avenue. this is done in old blue velour and is furnished in mahogany. the plain tint of the wall gives an admirable background to the fine old pictures which hang here and there. every piece of furniture in this room is colonial. ionic columns outline the wide double windows. light and air have been carefully considered in the remodeling of the entire house and have particularly been sought in designing this room, as is shown by the many windows on either side. at the farther end, to one side, a french window leads to a glassed-in veranda which is used for a breakfast-room. this room is a feature of the house, for it has been set in the middle of the terraced grounds that lie at the side of the house, so that one can get the full benefit of the picture garden with the slope of the hill beyond rising to meet the blue of the horizon. in the reception-room, as in every room in the house, wooden doors have been removed and replaced by glass ones which act as windows to reveal the room beyond. it is a most unusual treatment,--this picture idea carried out inside as well as outside of the house,--for there is no spot in the whole interior where you do not get a vista of some kind. [illustration: the dining room] beyond the reception-room is the dining-room. this, too, is a long, narrow room and has been added, since the house was purchased, but so fitted in that it is seemingly a part of the old house. this room is divided into a dining and a breakfast-room and is used during inclement weather. heavy draperies make it possible to shut the rooms off from each other if desired. the entire end of the breakfast-room has been given up to groups of long french windows which are repeated on either side, making a wide bay window. here again has the picture effect been carried out, for the windows act as a frame to the mass of harmonious blossoms beyond, with their setting of green. the dining-room proper has a paneled colonial landscape paper; the furniture is of the empire period, while at the farther end of the room have been let in on either side of the long windows an attractive china closet. here, as in every room in the house, we find wainscot and the same use of white paint. at the rear of this dining-room are the service quarters which consist of a large, sanitary, and well-equipped kitchen, butlers' pantries, servants' dining-room and sitting-room. the chambers in the second story are entirely separate from the rest of the house. the second floor shows at the right of the staircase a most delightful morning-room which is large and square with an open fireplace. this is a particularly attractive room, for it commands magnificent views. the rest of the house is given over to chambers which are laid out in suites and furnished with old-time furniture. there is an atmosphere about this remodeled farmhouse that is refreshing and most unusual. it has taken years to satisfactorily develop the owner's idea of combining house and garden in one harmonious color scheme. in the exterior this is changed each year, the favorite combination being lavender and white. this is attained by the use of heliotrope and sweet alyssum which outline the terraced wall and which show a carpet of green for central effect. the veranda is a harmony of green and white which is carried out in the awnings, the foliage, the willow furniture, and the white of the exterior and the balustrade. in the interior there is not a jumble of different colorings, and the rooms have been so arranged that they present a series of pictures brought about by the use of plain colors that perfectly blend. this has not been the work of a day or a year, but of ten years of careful study and is one of the most instructive lessons for those who are planning to remodel an old farmhouse and to introduce into its interior finish harmonious, restful, color schemes. chapter xvi the w. p. adden house many of the old houses still contain some fine specimens of old hardware that were used when they were built, more especially the h and l hinges and the old latches which have not been removed. the knockers have often disappeared, being more conspicuous and therefore eagerly sought, not only by collectors but by builders of new houses into which colonial ideas have been introduced. if you are looking for this particular feature in the farmhouse, you will probably find it widely varied, as the different owners of the house each had his own special ideas and changed the hardware to suit his tastes. many did not realize the importance of these fixtures in retaining the sixteenth and seventeenth-century interiors. it is absolutely necessary that the hardware should correspond in material to period. too little thought has been given to this subject and has led to an incongruous use of hardware, leaving an impression of lack of information concerning the correct architectural details of the house. there is a decided difference between the hardware that was used in the latter part of the sixteenth century and the early seventeenth and that we employ to-day. the twentieth-century "builders' hardware" covers a great variety of objects included in every part of the house. in colonial times the term was applied to few, such as latches, locks, knockers, and hinges, some of which were very ornamental in design, for they ranged from small pieces to large ones. the evolution of this special feature of the house is of interest to the house builder; it originated in the dark ages, at which period we find used romanesque, renaissance, and gothic types in so many different forms that it is little wonder the architect turns to them for copy. the best examples are seen in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth-century houses, when the decoration of the entrance door was a very serious subject and received great attention, especially during the colonial period. then the knockers were of the most importance and were either of cast-iron or brass. the former were often very beautiful in design and were used on the earlier houses, for brass did not come into favor until later. unfortunately the waning vogue of this piece of hardware led to many rare pieces being destroyed or thrown into the melting pot. it is fortunate that some house owners realized their worth and that collectors felt they would become a fad later on and so stored them away, which accounts for many old knockers found on the market to-day. the latch, lock, knob, and hinge are also interesting. the former is made from either iron or brass but rarely of any other metal. before the appearance of the latch, the door-ring was used, but this it would be most difficult to locate. the thumb-latch is occasionally fanciful in design but is generally very plain and is rarely seen even in old-time houses, having been replaced by the door-knob. the most common feature, and one which we are quite apt to discover, is the long strap-hinge which was designed for a special purpose, for we must remember that in the early days wooden pins were used to fasten the door; and while they kept it compact, yet it demanded the strap-hinge also for protection. this hinge will be found in many different patterns and makes, sometimes running almost the entire width of the door, and often constructed in three sections,--the upper, lower, and central, although frequently only two were used. the ornamental ones are rarely if ever seen in farmhouses, being confined to the wealthier class. the plain iron ones were more often found, and these are of two types,--the one known as the h hinge and the other as the h and l. closet doors often are equipped with the h hinge which takes its name from its formation. because of the fact that the home builders of to-day are turning their attention more and more to the use of decorative hardware, one should be very careful to retain this feature as an effective detail in the interior finish of a remodeled farmhouse. in the town of reading, massachusetts, is a most attractive remodeled farmhouse that has been carefully worked out by w. p. adden with such a regard for the preservation of old-time atmosphere that it can be considered as a fine type to copy. not only has the exterior been carefully planned, but the owner has gone farther and made a special study of the hardware, so that the house to-day contains many wonderful examples that are correct in their treatment and add much to the atmosphere of the home. [illustration: the w. p. adden house] this old farmhouse was originally a gambrel-roofed cottage built about and was probably a four-roomed house, as is indicated by the partitions filled with brick that were found in the center of the present house, and also by an old brick oven and fireplace which were buried up and covered over by the portion of an old brick chimney evidently added later. the additions to this dwelling, even when purchased by the present owner, had been carefully planned, so that there were no awkward joinings or incongruous jogs discernible in the outline. there is no doubt that here, as in other old farmhouses, the early builders had displayed an inherent sense of proper proportion, and the additions which were made from time to time might be said to be after-expressions of first thoughts. when this house was first purchased, it was in an excellent state of preservation, with the exception of the ell which was past repairing. it faced directly south and had evidently been set by a compass regardless of street boundary, though the location was only a short distance from the main road. the design of the house contained all the characteristics of early construction,--the small-paned windows, closely cropped eaves, and long, unrelieved, roof line. at the time of the purchase of the estate, which had originally included hundreds of acres, it was surrounded by a low wall of field stone which had evidently been taken from the grounds to make tillage possible. the house stood on a slope and was surrounded by grass land; the same idea is carried out to-day, in that little attempt has been made at garden culture, the owner preferring to keep the estate as near as possible to the farm lands of centuries ago. after the remodeling was commenced, many interesting facts of construction were brought to light. the north side of the house, which was originally the rear, was changed by the present owner into the main front, with entrance and staircase hall. the hall was necessarily small, and in order to make it practical, five feet of the large central chimney had to be removed, including three fireplaces and two brick ovens. it was then found that this portion had evidently been added to the house after the original chimney had been built, as an old fireplace and brick oven were found on the line of a partition on the south side of the hall. it was also discovered that in all probability the original house had a lean-to at the north which was used for a kitchen, and that this fireplace and brick oven were a part of the old room. the original chimney was found by actual measurement to be sixteen feet by seven and a half feet, and the stone foundation was the largest ever seen, being ample enough to accommodate the wide hearths as well as the chimney. in fact, to-day it takes all the central portion of the basement, leaving two small spaces on either side. in the remodeling, it was found that the original work was laid up with clay, meadow clay being taken as a binder. the exterior required little alteration, save on the north side, where it was necessary to remove a portion of the wall in order to run the hall out under the roof of the house so that it might be two stories in height. the front of the house, which faced directly south, was left unaltered, with the exception that on the opposite side from the ell a glass-enclosed piazza was built of like width, length, and height. this afforded a ballast, as it were, to the main building and made a comfortable playroom for the children. a new porch, arched with colonial pillars, was built at the front of the house in keeping with the type. in the ell a second one of less formal proportions was designed which was reached by a flagging of rough stones. a third porch of entirely different character was a finish to the rear of the house and shows lattice work, being quite ornamental in design. the angle formed by the main building and the new ell gave space for a flower plot, and here is located a small rose garden. this is outlined by broad paths of stone; surrounding the whole are wide borders of old-fashioned flowers which lend a touch of color that is very attractive. [illustration: the stairway] entering through the front porch, one comes to a new hall, and with the exception of this, there has been little change in interior. this hall is most interesting; here are found the h and l hinges, a yellow and white colonial wall-paper, and a staircase that divides at the landing and by easy treads leads on either side to chambers above. an old grandfather's clock is an appropriate furnishing for this part of the house. all through the lower story the old woodwork has been carefully preserved, and where it was destroyed it has been replaced. the living-room is practically as it was when purchased. here we find the h hinges and the old-time latches, while through the center of the room runs a beam which had to be cased in and which has been painted white to match the trim. at one side a built-in bookcase has followed the architectural lines so perfectly that it seems as if it had been there ever since the house was built. the simple colonial fireplace shows more ornamentation than is generally found in old farmhouses, which indicates that it was of a better type dwelling. with its new wall hangings and white trim, this room is most attractive. it connects with the sun-parlor at one end and is well-lighted and most homelike in atmosphere. the dining-room, facing east, has had a new group of windows added and contains the largest fireplace in the house. the china closet above the fireplace was discovered when the plaster was removed for the purpose of building in a similar one. this room is fitted with h and l hinges and the old-time iron latch. it was originally a portion of the old kitchen, the remainder of it being taken for a lavatory and passageway. all through the house we find that careful attention has been paid not only to hardware but to furnishings. no new-fashioned pieces have been used in any room in the house, and this careful attention to details has been carried out even in the lighting fixtures, which are all of the colonial type. the second-story floor has undergone changes to meet the requirements of the present owner. one half of this story is devoted to the nursery; it is equipped with a large fireplace, deep closets, bath, and nurse's room, while the remainder provides a large bedroom, bath, and dressing-room. it has been so arranged that each part is distinct by itself, and convenience has been looked after in every particular. the original attic was entirely unfinished, and when new stairs were erected in the second-story hall, there was great difficulty in finding room enough to enter the attic by the side of the large chimney. in the remodeling of this house, comfort, a careful following of colonial details, and an especial attention to the hardware are the salient features. chapter xvii the kate douglas wiggin house there is one thing that should be carefully considered in buying an old farmhouse,--that is, character. in order to obtain this, distinct points should be sought after and brought out. these can be accentuated not only in the house but also in its surroundings,--the garden, the trees, and the shrubbery; even the defining wall or fence does its part in making a good or bad impression on the casual passer-by. one must remember, in dealing with subjects of this sort, that the term "farmhouses" is a varying one. these range from small, insignificant little dwellings to the more elaborate houses that were built primarily for comfort as well as shelter. there are many large, substantial dwellings, not of the earlier type, for they were erected much later, but which illustrate the progression of the farmhouse design. one looks in houses such as these for larger rooms, higher stud, and more up-to-date ideas. the fireplaces are smaller and more ornate, for it must be remembered that as time passed on, money circulated more freely through the colonies, allowing for more extensive work and better finished details. while it is not necessary to copy the colonial wall hangings, yet in the older houses it is much more satisfactory; still one can depart from this custom in a more elaborate house and use his own taste in selecting an attractive modern paper. many people consider that houses restored, no matter of what period, should invariably have carefully consistent interior finish, without realization that it is sometimes better to look for character than type. the old-time wall-papers, more especially the picturesque ones, were generally used in more expensive houses, although we find them here and there in the more simple ones. often this feature of the interior decoration is not well carried out, the wall hangings being chosen for cheapness rather than merit. to-day there is on the market such a great variety of papers that it is a very easy matter to get one suitable for any certain room and suggesting good taste. many of them are reproductions of old motives, while others are plain and simple in character, giving to the room a quiet effect and providing a good background for pictures and hangings. there is nothing more restful in character than the soft grays; they are effective as a setting for stronger colors that can be used in the curtains, for this part of a room finish is as important as the wall hangings themselves. there is an indescribable charm to a room that has been carefully planned and shows good taste and restful surroundings. in many houses, some decorative scheme has been introduced which necessitates a particular kind of wall hanging, and even though it may be most unusual in type, it illustrates a motive that has been in the mind of the owner. houses would lack character if the same line of interior decoration were carried out in all of them. with a high wainscot and cornice painted ivory white, comparatively little paper is needed, which reduces the cost and permits a better paper than if the room had a simple mopboard and a tiny molding. papers that are garish and discordant in themselves, if skilfully handled, can produce harmonious effects, for it is often the unusual wall hangings that attract most. in curtaining these rooms let the same main tone be reproduced; this need not apply to every detail but to the general tone. many people are timid in the use of odd wall-papers or curtains; they are afraid that they may look bizarre, but they should remember that color is in reality a very powerful agent in making an artistic home. it is sometimes effective to treat a house as a whole, and then again it is better that each room should have its own individuality. very few houses but have at least one corner that offers interesting opportunities, and it is the artistic treatment of this that helps out the harmony of the room. there is a charming atmosphere surrounding "quillcote," the home of kate douglas wiggin, at hollis, maine, where mrs. riggs spends three months of the year. it may be that the quietness of the place lends to it additional charm, and then again it may possibly be the result of its environment. [illustration: mrs. kate douglas wiggin's summer house] the house itself is typical of the better class of new england farmhouses, and since it has come into mrs. riggs' possession, many alterations have been made, until to-day it is one of the most attractive farmhouses to be found anywhere. two stories and a half in height, with a slant to the roof, it stands back from the road on a slight elevation, with a surrounding of lawns and overshadowed by century-old elms. to-day its weather-beaten sides have been renovated by a coat of white paint, while the blinds have been painted green. a touch of picturesqueness has been secured through the introduction of a window-box over the porch, bright all through the season with blossoming flowers. there is no attempt at floriculture, the owner preferring to maintain the rural simplicity of a farmhouse devoid of flowers and only relieved by the shrubbery planted around the building. when the house was first purchased, it was not in a dilapidated condition, having been lived in by townspeople and kept in good repair. the work of remodeling has been done by the people of the village, and it has been superintended by the owner of the house, in order that her own ideas, not only in remodeling, but in decorating, should be exactly carried out. the old shed is now used as the service department, a wide veranda having been built at one side for a servants' outdoor sitting-room. at the rear of the house is the old barn, which to-day is used for a study and for entertainment purposes. [illustration: the hall] entrance to the house is through a colonial door with a fanlight on either side. the owner has preferred to keep this in its original state, rather than add a porch of the colonial type. the only porch that has been added to the house is a latticed, circular one at the side door. the entrance hall is long and narrow, the staircase also being narrow and built at one side in order to save space. the colonial idea has been carried out here in the wainscot, and the ornamentation of hand-carving on the stairs shows it was done by a stair-builder and not by an ordinary mechanic. the lighting is from a lantern which carries out the general effect. the wall-hanging is in colonial colors,--yellow and white,--while the rugs are the old, woven rag carpets which are repeated for stair covering. the balusters are very simple in design, while the balustrade has been painted white, thus showing it is not of mahogany. [illustration: the dining room] at the right is the dining-room, a bright, sunny room that has been uniquely planned to occupy the front of the house instead of the rear, as is more usual. it is a large, square room, in which little or no alteration has been made and which has been treated so as to make an effective setting to the rare old colonial furniture. the size of the dining-room has been considered in reference to the furniture, this being one reason why mrs. riggs has chosen this large, square room--in order to correctly place her old mahogany pieces. the decorations are very simple and follow out the idea of colonial days, there being no pieces that are not in actual use. the walls are hung in shades of yellow and brown, and she has been most successful in carrying out her color scheme. [illustration: the den] the home study, or den, leads from the dining-room and has been carefully planned with an idea of restfulness. a chamber at one end has been converted into an alcove, and additional light is obtained by cutting a group of casement windows over the writing-table. the room is very simply furnished and shows marked originality. the walls are papered with woodland scenes, for it was a fad of the occupant to bring into the house by wall hangings suggestions of the outside world. while it is unique, it has a distinctly restful influence and is in tone with the fireplace, which has been decorated with unusual features and which bears the name "quillcote." the draperies in this room are original in treatment, being decorated to order by a noted artist who has introduced his signature in some part of the work. they are ornamented with original designs suggestive of farm life, with such subjects as wheat, apples, or corn and are covered with delicate traceries of rushes or climbing vines. the fireplace has for andirons black owls, and on either side stand altar candles. in the furnishing of the room everything has been chosen with an eye to restful effects; the owner has done away with the pure colonial idea, using the mission type and considering comfort more than conventionality. [illustration] [illustration: two views of the living room] opposite the dining-room at the front of the house is the living-room, where further originality is found in furnishings and in scenes from nature introduced in the unique wall hangings. this room is in blue and white, the wall-paper being delft blue with a rush design over which hover gulls. singularly enough, the idea is very pleasing. the hangings are of white muslin with blue over-curtains, while the furniture is a mixture of colonial and modern pieces. an inglenook has been obtained through the introduction of a built-in window-seat which is covered with blue to match the tone of the paper. the furniture is all painted white, and the white fur rugs laid upon the blue floor covering give a charming effect. the decoration and furnishing of this room is quiet and restful, for those two ideas form the basis of the owner's scheme which she had in mind long before she took this house and while she lived in the old family mansion that stands just across the way. it is a comfortable, livable room and not used for state occasions alone, but for everyday needs. just beyond is the sitting-room in which an entirely different idea is presented. here the china fad is evidenced in the ornamentation of priceless old plates that have been collected by the owner's sister, miss nora smith, and arranged according to her taste. this room is a typical colonial room, and the furniture shown is all of that period, even to a spinning-wheel which gives an old-time effect. from this room one passes through a door on to the rear porch, from which fine views are obtained of the little, old-fashioned garden, the pine grove opposite the house, and the winding road. [illustration] [illustration: two of the chambers] the second story shows large, square chambers which have been carefully planned, each following out a distinct color scheme. in one of these rooms there is a combination of lavender, white, and green, shown in wall hangings, curtains, and furnishings. the canopied field bed, with its lavender and white spread, has been painted white. over it has been draped a white muslin canopy. the walls are in light green and show no pictures save that of a madonna and child, suggestive of the author's love of children. on the mantel are several very rare pieces of staffordshire, many of which can not be duplicated. the furniture has been painted white, with the exception of two chairs which have been treated to a coat of green. another room, showing wainscot and a quiet yellow and white colonial paper, has a field bed with white spread and white muslin canopy. here the colonial idea in furnishing has been strictly carried out. an original and yet artistic room has its walls entirely covered with a dainty cretonne, the bed-covering and hangings being of the same material. the most interesting idea in remodeling is presented by the old barn, which has been converted into a large music-room or hall, with a rustic platform at one end. here a new floor has been laid, many windows inserted, and a few old-time settles placed, constructed of weathered wood toned by time to an almost silvery hue. nothing else has been changed; the ancient rafters and walls remain as they were a century ago. the hall is lighted by many lanterns hanging from ceiling and harness pegs, also by curious japanese lanterns painted especially for mrs. wiggin and bearing the name of the artist. the lanterns, hung from overhead, greatly relieve the somber effect of the heavy beams. at the rear of the hall a broad door space makes a frame for a pretty picture,--a field of buttercups and daisies, a distant house, and two arching elms. a large closet, once the harness-room, is fitted up with shelves and contains all the necessary china for a "spread" such as is given to the village folk several times a year, when dances are held in the old barn. chapter xviii the franklin brett house floors are an important detail in the remodeled house. sometimes the original building has many that are in fairly good condition so that they can be saved. there is a great advantage in keeping these old floors if possible, for they were made with plain edge, of strong timber and laid close together. the earliest floors were not double in treatment, therefore the edges had to be either lapped or rabbited. these wide boards that were used in the early construction stand the test of furnaces and modern heating a great deal better than do modern ones of the same width. the latter are much more apt to shrink and open joints. it will be found that the better floors are in the second story in almost every house. it is probable, however, that if you are remodeling your house, you will have to lay at least one or more floors, and in such cases, matched hemlock is the most advisable for the under floor; but the boards should be laid diagonally and close together. the usual method is to lay them matching the upper floor. it is a great mistake, even if advised to do so by an architect, to lay only one floor, for with shrinkage come cracks through which cold air and dust can rise; even a carpet does not remedy the trouble. hardwood boards make the most popular floors and come in varying thicknesses, the oak being generally three eighths of an inch thick and the north carolina pine averaging seven eighths of an inch. both are employed for new floors and for re-covering old, soft-wood ones. the narrow width of oak is more satisfactory, as the narrower the stock the smaller the space between the strips and the less danger of unsightly appearance. they may be a little more expensive than the wider ones, but they make a much better showing. then, too, the shading and figure blend more harmoniously than when the broader strips are employed. narrow widths also obviate any danger of the flooring strips cupping, as they are laid and stay absolutely flat. one should be careful not to lay oak flooring while the walls and plaster are damp; in fact, if you have to do much remodeling, the floor should be the last thing attended to, as it is a better plan to get everything else done and thoroughly dried--even to painting, wall hangings, and decorating. hard pine is best for the kitchen, as it does not splinter, is more reasonable in price, and has fine wearing qualities. it must be taken into consideration that oak flooring is cheaper in the end than carpet. a yard of carpet is twenty-seven inches wide by three feet in length and contains six and three quarters square feet. clear quartered-oak flooring can be bought, laid, and polished for one dollar per carpet yard, and when you consider the lasting qualities of the wood and the beauty of a polished floor, you will make no mistake to put in one of the better quality, more sanitary, and the best background for rugs, instead of laying a floor of cheap wood. carpets, with the exception of straw matting, are inadvisable for a home like this. they are unsanitary, hold the dust, and are not nearly as attractive as rugs. these may vary in price with the purse of the owner, and can range from oriental rugs, costing hundreds of dollars, to the simple rag rug which is always appropriate and in good taste. the absolute carrying out of the colonial idea is not necessary, for it would not be appropriate to have old-fashioned rag mats in every room of the house. they can be used, however, in the dining-room or in the chambers, and to-day the woven rag carpets and mats are so attractive in their weave and so lasting that they are satisfactory adjuncts to the house furnishings. in the parlor and living-room, while they can be used if desired, there are so many attractive low-priced rugs, both oriental and domestic, that it is an easy matter to get something both suitable and in good taste. [illustration: the franklin brett house--front view] this attention to floors and their covering is nowhere better shown than in the franklin brett house at north duxbury, massachusetts. this house, which is over two hundred and fifty years old, was put up at auction several years ago, at just the time when the present owner was looking for an old farmhouse to remodel. it was a double house that had been occupied by two families. the frame, excepting certain parts of the first floor joints and also portions of the sills, was in very good condition, but the first-floor boarding was badly worn and was not fit to be retained for use. it was replaced by a new one of narrow boards. the second story, however, was in much better condition, and the floors, with the exception of the one in the bathroom, could all be used. the house was particularly ugly, displaying a combination of bright yellow paint and dark red trim, and the exterior was wholly devoid of any artistic design. [illustration: before remodeling] at the front of the house there was a wide porch;--just a simple flooring and two doors that stood side by side. the old place was so forlorn that it was bid in during the excitement of the auction partly out of sympathy. it showed so little possibilities that at first the owner was doubtful whether it had been a good purchase, for the building did not in any way fit his ideal of what was desired in order to make a suitable summer home. [illustration: as remodeled] after careful examination, however, various possibilities were discovered indicating that there was a very good chance to make it attractive. originally the house was built for one family only; in architecture it was square-framed, containing two stories and an attic, with ells at the rear and one side and a deep, sloping roof broken by two chimneys. in the old house there were nine rooms on the first floor and five rooms and a hallway on the second. some of these on the first floor have been combined by removing partitions to make a living-room and dining-room, together with a hallway. [illustration: the pergola-porch] in the living-room were found some hand-hewn, second-floor joists, and it was decided to leave these exposed and plaster in between them, instead of bringing the ceiling down to its original level. in practically every room the plaster was in good condition and needed only to be treated in places. the chimneys were touched up wherever needed, but on the whole very few repairs were necessary. in the lower story to-day there are four rooms and a good-sized hall, while the second story is divided into six rooms and a bathroom. five additional windows were added down-stairs and two in the second story, in order to secure proper light. very little new material was put into the house, the work consisting chiefly of tearing out old material and patching woodwork and plaster. at the rear of the house, on a line with the larger ell,--the smaller kitchen ell having been torn down,--a rustic pergola was constructed and a covered veranda, over which grape-vines were trained for shade. the roof was partially reshingled, and the house was painted light gray with white trim, with green for the blinds. at the front a colonial porch was added with latticed sides and a settle, which is in direct keeping with the architecture of the house. in its remodeled condition, with its setting of closely cropped lawn, it bears little resemblance to the ugly farmhouse of a few years ago. there was no plumbing in the old house, so a single bathroom was put in, a hot-water boiler was added in the kitchen, and a hot-air engine and pump were installed in the cellar which furnish water under pressure from a thousand-gallon supply tank. later on, a hot-water heater was installed, so that with the modern improvements the house was made very comfortable for habitation all the year round if desired. [illustration: a first-floor vista] the original parlor on the left has been utilized for a morning-room; the bedroom, dining-room, and pantry have been combined into a living-room. the partitions between the old hallways have been removed, converting them into one good-sized hall. the remaining portion of the old dining-room has been made into a large pantry. the kitchen in the main ell has been left practically unchanged as to size and shape, although the shed opening from it, as well as the kitchen itself, have been entirely renovated and equipped with up-to-date improvements. paint and paper and rugs have effected an interior transformation that is most attractive. there are no doors in the house, wide openings making it appear as though it were one large room. the hallway is entered from the colonial porch and is unique because of its spaciousness. the stairs are at the further end, opposite the door. the colonial atmosphere has been maintained in the wall hangings, the braided rag mats, and the old furniture. at the left of the hall is the morning-room with its wide, open fireplace, its colonial paper, and oriental rugs which are in color tones to correspond with the paper. [illustration: the living room] opening from this room is the living-room, where the same kind of rugs are laid on the hardwood floor. in this room, after the house was purchased, a fireplace was discovered hidden away behind the partition. it was opened up and restored to its original size. at one side a closet was glassed in, while in either corner cosy, built-in settles give an inglenook effect that is very interesting. the furnishings are wholly colonial and in keeping with the general character of the apartment. here the low stud, the beamed ceiling, the depth and lightness of the room, are most attractive. from the long french window one steps out on grass land which commands a most attractive vista of shrubbery and trees. in the planting around the house, great care has been taken to secure shade and picturesqueness, so that in its new life the remodeled farmhouse is surrounded by charming effects. on the opposite side of the hallway one enters the long dining-room. it is finished in red and white, with one-toned hangings; at the farther end is a quaint corner cupboard; a handsome fireplace has been introduced at one side. many of the pieces in this room are very rare, especially the hepplewhite sideboard, the chair-table that was once owned by governor bradford, and the rush-bottomed chairs. long glass windows open on the side veranda and combine with attractively grouped windows to make this room light and cheerful. opening out of this is the pantry, conveniently equipped with cupboards and shelves, and beyond is the kitchen and shed which have been made entirely modern in their appointments. the chambers up-stairs are large, square, and fitted up with furniture of the period. in taking a "secret" cupboard out of a closet, there was discovered some paneling that had been plastered and papered over. on removing the plaster, it was found that the whole side of the room was paneled. by the restoration of this old-time finish, the chamber became even more indicative of the period in which it was built. here the wall hangings are all colonial in design. few houses, even among the many that are being restored, have retained the old-time atmosphere throughout as completely as has this farmhouse. each room has been made comfortable and given an air of space, and consistency has been shown in the furnishing, thus securing a result that is perfectly harmonious and in the best of taste. by comparing the appearance of the old house at the time of its purchase with the results that have been obtained, one realizes how much thought and care have been put into its every part. the lines remain the same but have been extended by the introduction of the pergola at one side and a porch which are very attractive features in themselves. the combination of old and new, correctly treated, has done much to make a harmonious whole. chapter xix the george d. hall house fortunate is he who, on opening up the old fireplace in the house he intends to remodel, finds hidden away behind plaster and paper a pair of old andirons and possibly a shovel and tongs, indispensable furnishings for the fireplace. no old farmhouse but what has in almost every room some kind of an open hearth, and these are useless for the burning of wood without fire-dogs or andirons, as they are commonly known. to the inexperienced house owner who is looking for economy in his house furnishing, reproductions are tempting, and most attractive sets of fire-dogs are to be found in almost every store. in choosing a set, however, one must exercise judgment. many of the reproductions are low in cost but are really merely lengths of brass piping, showing brass balls that are lacquered and strung together on invisible wire frames. they are in reality the cheapest kind of spun-brass andirons. if one with a knowledge of the weight of brass handles them, he will realize their flimsiness, but thousands of people do not recognize the difference. poor fireplace accessories such as these detract greatly from the charm that surrounds a good hearth and mantel. it is no longer easy to pick up original, cut-brass andirons at the antique and junk shops,--that is, at a reasonable price. it is in the country places, old farmhouses, and from people who have not yet learned to gage their worth, that one can get a good bargain, bringing often only three or four dollars a pair, and being of the best material. in reproduction there are on the market to-day plenty of good, cast-brass andirons, but they are expensive and cannot be purchased at less than seven dollars, ranging from that to a hundred dollars a pair, while the spun-brass kind may be purchased for two dollars and a half a pair. andirons come in a great many heights, and in the olden times two sets were used, the one holding the forestick, and the other the backlog. in addition to that, in the earliest american houses, creepers were used; they were, in reality, of iron, small enough to be placed between the andirons, and they helped out in holding the sticks. the first material used for andirons was iron, and we find to-day occasional specimens of this kind, many of them not particularly graceful, while others are very ornamental in design. there are the hessian andirons which are found either in plain iron or decorated with bright paint; these came into use about and were used to caricature the british soldiers who were very unpopular in our country. the most interesting of these old andirons show unusual shapes, a great many of them having artistic ornamentation; occasionally we find them with brass tops. it was fitting to use this metal, on account of the fire frame, which was of cast-iron as well, and while many of these were of foreign manufacture, yet not a few were fashioned by the village blacksmith. in the choice of andirons, the size of the fireplace should be considered; the small ones should not have the steeple tops but small, ball pattern or some other design that is low enough not to crowd the fireplace and thus give the impression of bad taste. the large fireplaces need the high andirons, of which there are so many different kinds. the modern adaptation of the colonial has brought these furnishings into vogue, so that to-day it would be almost impossible to tell the old from the new. shovel and tongs were much used during the early period, but a poker never accompanied the set. these appeared after the introduction of coal and are found among the reproductions on the market to-day. another bit of the furnishings is the fender, of which there are many designs, some being of simple wire painted black with brass top and balls, while others are entirely of brass. the warming-pan is an appropriate accessory for this part of the room; it should be hung on a peg at one side of the hearth. in addition to that, we find the bellows, some of which are most decorative in their design. the proper selection of this furniture gives an air of refinement to the room. there is a most attractive farmhouse situated in dover, massachusetts. it is owned by mr. george d. hall, and shows a series of remodelings, rather than a complete work, for each year an addition has been made which has bettered the initial scheme. the original farmhouse, for instance, which was built in , was a small, unpretentious building that was very dilapidated in condition, but whose situation appealed to its present owner. it was his desire to obtain an old house that could be used if need be for an all-the-year-round home; plenty of land, picturesque views, good landscape effects, and ample elbow room were what he especially desired. [illustration: lone tree farm] the house stands back from a winding country road in one of the most picturesque situations it would be possible to find. an old stone wall, built over a century ago by the original owner, still forms a boundary line to protect the grounds. few estates show so many beautiful trees; they add greatly to the pictorial effect of the place. graceful elms with swaying branches are on every side, while on the opposite side of the road pine trees are in evidence, and on either side of the stone wall wild shrubs have been planted. there has been no attempt at formal arrangement of the grounds, not even with the garden which is at the side of the house. there has been built simply a picturesque lattice that separates house from barn and over which have been trained attractive vines. [illustration: as finally remodeled] in a wing was thrown out to the south, with an enclosed, tiled porch and a sitting-room above. a small eyebrow window was placed in the roof to light the stairway, while the original porch on the west and south was carefully retained. two years later this porch was removed, and a smaller entrance one was substituted. this showed a brick walk extending from carriage block to covered loggia at the south. again in the eyebrow window was removed, and dormers inserted in the roof. an open, tiled platform was built outside the enclosed loggia, and a sleeping-porch was added to the east sitting-room. a garden and pond were laid out to the south of the loggia, with a vista framed by two huge elms that were some thirty feet south of the house. these improvements have converted the old farmhouse into one of the most interesting and beautiful houses that can be found. within the last few years the planting and garden effects have been more carefully considered; the grounds have been enlarged, and at the left of the house an old-fashioned garden has been laid out with a gazing-globe for the central feature. the name "lone tree farm" was given at the time of purchase from the fact that a single tree guarded the house at the front. this tree still stands but has been enhanced by the careful planting of shrubbery on either side the driveway, which has now grown until it has become a partial screen for the lower floor of the farmhouse. other trees have been added, and in order to obtain the seclusion desired, extensive grounds have been purchased on the opposite side of the road, so that no neighbors may come near enough to detract from the quiet. in remodeling this house, an ell has been added at the rear for the service department, and a sun-parlor has been thrown out at one side. this makes a most attractive living-room in winter and, with windows removed, a cool sleeping-porch in the summer. the colonial porch which has been added at the front is much more attractive than the former long veranda which is replaced by the sun-parlor. in painting the house, white has been used with green blinds, so that it is in reality a symphony of green and white, and as it stands in the center of the lot, surrounded on three sides by pasture land, gardens, and meadows, and on the front by hundreds of acres of woodland, it is one of the most interesting studies in house remodeling to be found. the small hallway is simply an entrance with narrow, winding staircase that leads by easy treads to the second-story floor. in , in ripping out these front stairs to secure the space above them for a small room, it was discovered that the old smoke-house, where in olden days hams were cured, and the back of the bake oven behind it had not been torn out. the former consisted of two gothic arches, the taller of which was twenty feet in height; the shape was dependent on the two fireplaces in adjoining rooms. the smoke-house is about five feet deep and when discovered was enclosed with an inch of greasy soot. an oak cross-beam with hand-wrought nails indicated where the hogs were hung. it had been left in its natural state after being cleaned out, and as it looked crude to one entering the front door, it was shut off with an old, paneled door, so that the hall, with stairs removed, is now shaped like six sides of a hexagon, the front door remaining where it originally was placed. [illustration: the living room] the living-room, which is at the right of the hallway, has been made from two rooms. in this the old woodwork has been carefully retained, and the walls have been hung with a soft green that is a fine background for the many pictures and which brings out the beauty of the white woodwork. the furniture here does not follow the colonial lines, for comfort has been the first consideration. it is shown in the large, roomy davenport piled with sofa pillows and the comfortable armchair at one side of the open fireplace. here the owner has supplied the correct fireplace accessories, the andirons being low with brass ball tops, and the shovel and tongs having the same finish. the mantel, while not elaborate, shows hand-carving and paneling. bookcases are a feature of this room and are found everywhere. [illustration: the sun parlor] opening from the living-room is the glass-enclosed sun-parlor which has been tiled, and in which is a modern fireplace of bricks laid in white mortar. over it is a bas-relief. the andirons are high, of modern type, showing fleur-de-lis design, and are in keeping with the fireplace. willow furniture is used in order to give the sun-parlor a light touch which could not have been done if the colonial idea had been carried out. it is an ideal summer living-room, being sunny most of the day. then, too, its location is well chosen, as it overlooks the old-fashioned garden and commands vistas cut in trees and shrubbery. [illustration: the den] the den, used extensively by the owner, is a typical man's room. built-in bookcases and window-seats give it a most livable look, while pictures of the hunt line the wall, and a hunting scene is used as a frieze. it is placed in a sunny part of the house so as to catch as much light as possible. [illustration: a corner in the dining room] the dining-room was made from a part of the old kitchen and strangely enough shows fine paneling of white pine, which has been carefully preserved and makes a background for the mantel ornaments. the mantel shelf is narrow and extends around the whole fireplace; the old chimney has been partly built in for modern use, while the andirons are very unique reproductions. the old crane has been retained, as have the pothooks and iron kettle, while the old brick oven, now never used, is a memento of the days when our grandmothers cooked with great logs of wood, heating the oven once a week in order to do the family baking. the furniture is of the colonial type, while the rugs are modern but blend with the scheme color of the room. it is large, well-lighted by many windows, and divided by an alcove only from the living-room which adjoins it. every room in this house has been carefully considered with regard to view, and one can stand at any window and look out upon a different phase of country life, for trees and shrubbery are so arranged that the grounds lend themselves admirably to pictorial effects upon which no neighboring house intrudes. [illustration: the sewing room] up-stairs in the ell of the house, over the sun-parlor, is a large sitting-room. it has been so designed that it faces three different directions and is lighted by a group of long windows at one side. in this room the sunlight lays practically all day, making it a bright, livable room, where colonial features have not been considered. to be sure there are several pieces, such as the old-time work-table, but modern ideas mainly have been introduced. on either side of the cluster of windows are built-in bookcases which have been painted white to match the trim and are filled with well-read books. between these bookcases is a long window-seat, beneath which drawers have been built which are very convenient for holding unfinished work. the hangings are of muslin with blue over-drapery, harmonizing with the color scheme of the room. a large, open fireplace on the opposite side provides for a cheery wood fire, more especially on stormy days, for this house is one that is lived in all the year round, so that heating and lighting had to be taken into consideration. in addition to this room there are three chambers, two bathrooms, and a closet on the floor. each one of these chambers has been given a different treatment. one of the most interesting shows fine woodwork in the paneled doors and also in the small closet that is over the fireplace, a favorite place for a closet to be introduced in the early days. the fireplace is not a large one, and the andirons are small-sized steeple tops. the bed is an old slat bed, while every piece of furniture is in keeping with the period. take it all in all, one rarely finds a farmhouse that shows more attractive features than this one, where comfort, light, and view have all been carefully considered. it is perfectly available for an all-the-year-round home, as it is not too far from the station to allow its occupants to go back and forth to business every day. chapter xx the walter scott hopkins house when you plan to remodel your house, there is nothing that should receive much more careful attention than the closets. it is doubtful, that is, if the house is of the earliest period, if you will find many. our emigrant ancestors did not have as many clothes or table appointments as we require to-day. the few of the former they possessed were hung on pegs or disposed of in chests; the dishes were placed on racks, thus eliminating the necessity for closet room in houses where every available bit of space was utilized for living purposes. in all probability you will find corner cupboards which will be more or less elaborate in design. the best examples show a shell treatment. the earliest corner cupboards were clumsy affairs, being movable; later on they were built into the house and employed to hold family china and glassware. there was a great variety in these closets, some being fitted up with shelves only, while others were divided in two, the underneath part being used for books and odds and ends. fortunate is the house owner who finds in his old house one or more of these old corner cupboards. to be sure they can be reproduced; but how much better are the originals. dig out the old plaster, rip open the sides of the partitions, if you think there is any chance of odd closets being hidden away between, and remember that in many old houses there are secret closets, and it will pay you to tap the wall space to discover their whereabouts. sometimes they are hidden under the flooring, and again the space between the windows is used for this purpose. it is always well to open them, for who knows what valuable heirlooms may be hidden inside. there are plenty of spaces where new closets can be introduced as, for instance, the end of the dining-room, where a glassed-in china closet with an arched top and half-domed interior makes an excellent place to display the old china and glass. panels in the wainscot can be utilized, more especially when they are under the first step of the staircase. these are most convenient for filing newspapers or any magazines that are kept for reference. if the hallway is paneled, it is a very easy matter to put an invisible door into one of the panels. this can be used for the coat closet, with a low shelf underneath to hold hats; and on the floor partitions can be made to hold rubbers. on each side of the chimney a great deal of waste space can be converted into bookcases, with little, leaded, glass doors. above the mantel, set in the chimney-breast, will be found spaces which even in the early days were devoted to closets. they are cut in a panel and were used to protect china or old pewter from the dust. sometimes three of these closets have been found built into the fireplaces, all of which were used to hold the household china. in the upper part of the house, under the attic stairs, can generally be found places that can be made into linen closets, but it must be remembered that if no ventilation is allowed, cloth will become yellowed, so by all means have brass ventilators in the doors. whatever the purpose of the closet, its location should be carefully considered,--the shape, the place, and the cost,--so that as many as possible can be introduced. there is no doubt that the majority of old-time farmhouses readily adapt themselves to modern requirements and show possibilities that allow of most attractive development. the result of working out certain possibilities is shown in the walter scott hopkins house at reading, massachusetts. it is a long, rambling house that seemed when first purchased wholly lacking in artistic qualities, and it was not until after careful deliberation that the owner realized that the old farmhouse, beneath its coating of accumulated dust, possessed a wealth of fine features that were well worth developing. [illustration: before remodeling] the house had been used for two families, and each section was separate and distinct, although under the same roof. it was built in the latter part of the eighteenth century and contains fine woodwork,--better than that found in most houses of that day. all the distinctive features of the colonial architecture were evident in this old farmhouse, where unbroken roof-line, close-cropped eaves, and small-paned windows were placed with mathematical precision, and the severely simple exterior was in strict conformity with the period. in remodeling the house, the original outlines were carefully preserved, and the additions were made to conform. the small, ugly entrances which had marred the exterior of the house were torn down and replaced by windows, so that only a single entrance was left. a very attractive porch with sloping roof-line was supported by solid but unornamented columns. in the roof dormer windows were cut, both at the front and rear. this was to make the attic practical for living purposes by affording sufficient light and air. at one side of the house, in place of the woodshed, an out-of-door living-room was added, broad and low of build, with a sloping roof that harmonized in outline with the main roof. at the rear a small addition of the deep, bay-window type was added; this was to secure extra space for the newly arranged dining-room and the remodeled kitchen. two small porches were built in addition to the new trellised entrance, giving a simple dignity to the old house, which has been painted white with green blinds. [illustration: as remodeled] the grounds, rough and unkempt, with a stone wall defining a part of them, were beautified to afford a fitting environment for the new home, and to-day smooth sweeps of lawn and judicious groupings of shrubbery add in no small degree to the exterior attractiveness of the old homestead. a path of rough, irregular flagstones leads to the main entrance, and a similar path winds from the street to a gateway in the outlying wall and opens into a charming garden plot that has been laid out just beyond the outdoor living-room. planting has been judiciously carried out, and the estate has been brought to a fine state of cultivation, with the result that it has become an attractive setting for the remodeled house, which stands on the slope of a hill. the interior required a great deal of altering, including much tearing down of partitions to suit present-day needs and to make broad, spacious rooms out of the tiny spaces which sufficed a century or more ago. there was installation of plumbing, lighting and heating devices, in order to meet the demands of modern life, and the new england attic was made over into servants' quarters that were sufficiently ample for a large country house. a leaded glass door that shows fanlight above opens into a broad, low-ceilinged hall. at one side is a large fireplace, and a heavy beam crosses the ceiling. to the right is the new dining-room, to the left the living-room, and from the end of the hall opens the den, a passageway connecting this with the servants' department. in all the rooms every detail of the old-fashioned construction has been retained. the fine woodwork shows the original paneling; the great fireplaces with their chimney closets have been preserved intact, and even the old, hand-made hardware has been retained for present-day use. cupboards were discovered, when the coating of plaster and paper were removed, and are serving the same purpose in the twentieth-century home that they did years ago in the colonial one; and the new cupboards that have been added seem to fit in as if they had always been there. the house in its entirety shows many points that are of unusual interest. the arrangement of the windows is particularly good, as are the chimneys, while the sweeping roof-line at the rear carries out the old contour and yet has been slightly changed to afford light and air to chambers inside. the semblance of the original farmhouse has been left unaltered, while the really radical changes have been tempered with a regard for the preservation of the old-time atmosphere. [illustration: the living room] the living-room shows a typical old farmhouse room. the woodwork here is particularly good; there is a wainscot three feet high that comes above the lower sill of the window frame, and which is paneled in doors and over the mantel. the fireplace has remained unchanged, being a colonial one of huge size. the early period is evidenced in the absence of a mantel, which brings out the lines of the wonderful old woodwork to the greatest advantage. the andirons, instead of following the sixteenth or seventeenth-century type, represent griffins. a nightcap closet, introduced in the middle panel over the fireplace, shows the original h hinges of iron. when the house was first purchased, these were hidden away, and only when the original woodwork was reached were they discovered, restored, treated to a coat of white paint, and adapted to present use. this is a feature that is rarely found in the remodeled farmhouse of to-day. the walls are hung with a one-toned paper of soft coloring, while plain muslin curtains shade the windows. the old floor was re-laid with narrow boards over which are laid daghestan rugs; mission furniture is used. the lighting fixtures are of the colonial type and placed at the sides only. the room contains many well-placed windows which give to it light and air. [illustration] [illustration: two views of the dining room] the dining-room is at the rear of the living-room and opens into it, being connected with a wide opening so that, if need be, the rooms can be used as one, giving plenty of space for large dinner parties. here the woodwork has been restored to its original charming simplicity and painted white to match that of the living-room. the walls have been covered with a dark-toned paper, and at one end, opposite the living-room, an alcoved recess has been added in order that its group of windows may give better lighting to the dining-room which is exposed to the outside on two sides only. the floors of this room, too, have been re-laid and handsomely polished, and are an effective foil to the domestic rug which is used. here, also, the furniture follows the mission style, in order to be in keeping with that of the living-room. the lighting fixtures are of the same type found in the adjoining room and are also side lights, considered more effective because softer than a ceiling light. in order to let the light in from the hallway, windows were inserted which follow the early window casing in their plain style and contain small panes, there being no elaboration. they are placed on either side of the entrance door, which is glassed in the upper portion. here, as all through the house, the early style of small-paned windows has been retained. there are many reasons why these are advantageous: not only do they follow the period in which the house was built, carrying out details correctly, but when broken they are more easily replaced, though much harder to keep clean. these windows are usually placed near the ceiling, being designed for light and ornamentation, rather than as outlooks. the ornamental design which has been carried out in the arrangement of windows and door is unusual even in colonial houses, where the low stud and the beamed ceiling helped much towards effectiveness. this room was originally the kitchen and bedroom combined. the old fireplace has been preserved, as has the brick oven, and over it is a series of small closets such as are rarely found. there is a central closet and a smaller one on either side. here the h hinges have been retained and also the old-time latches. on the opposite side of the hall is the parlor, which corresponds in size to the living-room and shows equally fine woodwork. this was originally the parlor in the farther side of the double house and has been left practically its original shape and size, for in this part of the house very little remodeling has been done. the old fireplace has been retained at the farther end of the room. at the rear of this, what was once the sitting-room has been converted into an office. beyond this room, the original kitchen on that side of the house and the shed have been thrown into a most attractive summer room. in the story above there were formerly two large bedrooms on either side. these remain practically as they were and are furnished with colonial pieces. the old attic, which originally was used for clutter, is now remodeled into servants' quarters and by the addition of the dormer windows has been made into comfortable rooms which can be kept cool during the warm weather by the cross draughts. the architects were very wise in remodeling this house so as to show its extremely simple lines, for they give it individuality and character and accentuate certain features that were necessary to create of it a home for one family. there is no doubt that the alterations have been planned and executed with rare taste and discrimination. chapter xxi henry w. wright's house people who possess old pieces of furniture often have very erroneous ideas as to their real age and call everything "colonial" for want of a better name. they assume, that is, if they have not made a careful study of the subject, that anything belonging to their great grandmother must be at least two hundred years old. but, for instance, sideboards were not made two hundred years ago, and chippendale never designed one; the nearest he came to it was a serving-table. people get an impression that he included this piece of furniture in his productions, but they are wrong in their assumption. the revival of interest in "antiques" has caused many an heirloom that has been relegated to attic or storehouse to be brought out, renovated, and given a prominent place. can we assign to each ancient article an approximate date or maker, it becomes much more valuable than the daintiest piece of up-to-date furniture. worm-holes are a sign of age and a proof of guarantee, that is, if the pieces are family possessions. there is so much cunning workmanship in remodeled furniture that this does not apply to every bit, though apparently original. it must be remembered that very few furnishings were brought over by the colonists, and the early houses were very scantily supplied. the oldest furniture was made of oak; it was very heavy and showed more or less elaboration in carving. chests made at this early period are often found in families where they have been carefully treasured since they were brought over the sea packed with clothing. the three leading cabinetmakers were chippendale, hepplewhite, and sheraton. chippendale was the earliest but was not appreciated until after his death. his masterpieces, which combined the chinese, french, and dutch models with ideas originated in his own brain, were so perfectly constructed that we find them in a fine state of preservation even to-day. lighter and more dainty in character were the designs of hepplewhite, who cultivated a freedom of line such as was adopted by his predecessor, but who banished the chippendale heaviness. the prince of wales feather was a favorite design of his. carved drapery, the belle-flower, and wheat were often used by him. a distinguishing mark was usually given to the backs of his chairs, which are either oval, heart, or shield-shaped. they were finished in japanned work and often inlaid in light and dark wood. the legs were generally much more slender than the chippendale and often ended in what is known as a spade-foot. sheraton, who succeeded him, took advantage of the ideas of his forerunners and revealed a still more delicate touch, although he retained many of hepplewhite's ideas which he strengthened and improved. the shield is rarely if ever found in a chair of his make, which can be distinguished by its rectangular back and its slender uprights, ranging in number from four to seven. the legs show a great many different styles, the best being straight, while carved, fluted, and twisted ones are also found. the general trend of fancy in those days was towards light, elegant designs and showy decorations. sheraton indulged his fancy for brilliant coloring in the most gorgeously painted decorations, combining them with inlay and carving. next he introduced white and gold, following the french style, and still later the brass inlay so fashionable in napoleon's day. caned work was used for seats and was varied by coverings of needlework, morocco, striped and variegated horsehair, damasks, and fine printed silks. the curved piece which sheraton introduced about remained the favorite chair pattern for a century, although it lost the brass mounts which he at first used. there is not much danger of confounding the three great masters, for each produced an entirely different style of furniture. after the french revolution, the furniture became markedly different in style; greek models were once more popular, and the tripod became a favorite support. coarse woods and mahogany were freely used and were carved and profusely gilded. the empire furniture which is so popular to-day was heavy and stiff in its early period, particularly so when of english make, but under american manipulation the beauty of the wood showed to the best advantage. yet there is a certain appeal in its solidity and massiveness. when the darkened mahogany came into fashion an opportunity arose for the revival of brass and wood that lent charm to the court of the empress josephine. few good examples of the empire style are found in remodeled farmhouses. old furniture is most interesting, and if you intend to furnish your remodeled farmhouse with it, do not fail to make a careful study of the subject before attempting it. it covers a wide field of makers, styles, and decorations, but the modern home affords ample scope for the employment of these old pieces, many of which have been brought down from the attic. when salem was in her highest and proudest days of mercantile prosperity, when her wharves were bustling scenes of unlading and shipping, when her harbor was a gathering place of quaintly rigged vessels, and great east-indiamen labored under clouds of canvas, then from the holds of these cumbersome ships were discharged cargoes of rich furniture, teakwood, and sandalwood brought from every land. the wealth of these incoming treasures has made the quiet city prominent even until to-day. here may be found many old heirlooms, and in the homes of the descendants of old shipmasters we frequently find rare pieces. these show to advantage in various remodeled farmhouses that have been adopted as all-the-year-round homes by the last generation. [illustration: the henry w. wright house] many fine old pieces are found in the home of mr. henry w. wright at danvers, massachusetts. some of them are of exceptional value and rare examples such as are seldom seen even in the homes of collectors. the farmhouse itself stands close to the road, a simple, plain, unostentatious building, yet showing good lines and careful treatment. the soft gray of the exterior and the white trim blend harmoniously with the green of the grass and the bright-colored flowers of the little garden. at the front of the house at each side stand tall elms that cast a grateful shade over the old farmhouse. the entrance porch has been made square, its lattice, designed for the support of vines, taking away the plain look of the exterior. the windows are well spaced, and the small panes have been retained. at the side of the house a porch has been thrown out which can be glassed in as a living-room or sun-parlor during the winter and used as an out-of-door veranda during the summer months. it is so situated that it commands a picturesque view of the rolling country which is on every side. the big chimney, that was formerly the central feature of the house, has given way to two smaller ones, one on either end. the sloping roof has been treated to new shingles, while the exterior has been left practically as it was when built. the addition of green blinds has done much to soften what would otherwise be a rather bare exterior. the house is of the type that shows four rooms in each story. the hallway has a castellated paper in gray and white and a winding staircase with box stairs and simple balusters and posts painted white and a mahogany rail. it is a simple little hall, small, compact, and truly colonial in its type, with its dutch armchair showing pierced slats of chippendale influence. this chair was probably made about the time the house was built which was in the early part of the eighteenth century, the date not being definitely known. [illustration: the living room] at the left of the hallway is the living-room, which is of the simple farmhouse type, lacking a wainscot but containing a simple mopboard and paneled door. the wide boards in the flooring have been retained here as well as in the dining-room,--plain-edged boards that, while laid close together, still show a crack between. this living-room was in the early days used as living-room and bedroom; the space at the farther end, which was used as a closet into which the bed folded during the daytime, is now utilized as a bookcase and makes an interesting feature. the slat-back chair beside the bookcase is the most valuable type of its period, being made about . it shows a turned knob. in chairs of this kind, which were more commonly used during the first part of the eighteenth century, the number of slats varied, the most common having three, while the rarest have five. the gate-legged table is a good example, while the chippendale chair is unusual, showing very graceful effect, with wonderfully delicate carving, and being of the best design. an equally rare example of a hepplewhite chair, which is beautifully carved, is contained in the same room. in addition to these are banister and sheraton chairs, as well as a fine example of girandole, uncommon from the fact that there is a pair exactly alike, and they are seen one on either side of the room. [illustration: the dining room] opposite the living-room is the dining-room, and here the same correct furnishing has been used. the plain wainscot is of the early type, the lighting has colonial fixtures, while the chairs are painted sheraton, being most unusual in that there is a whole set of the same pattern which are all originals. a wonderfully fine example of a mahogany dining-table has been utilized as a serving-table, and the silver is all of the colonial pattern. here one finds the low stud, but none of the exposed beams often found in old houses. at the rear of the dining-room is the kitchen which is equipped with modern appliances. leading from the dining-room at the left is a small room which has been fitted up as a music-room and den combined. it is a most livable room, there being no stiffness or formality in the arrangement of the furniture, and each piece of furniture proves a fitting foil for its mate. the wall hangings are not of the colonial type; they are plain gray and bring out to advantage the setting of furniture, pictures, and ornaments in the room. in the upper hall is found a fine old carved chest of the jacobean period. this is considered one of the best examples of chests in existence, being wonderfully carved, of solid oak, and probably used originally as a dower chest. leading off from the hallway are four large, square chambers, each one correctly furnished with colonial pieces, many of which are family heirlooms. here, where modern lighting has been introduced, the colonial type of fixtures has been carefully maintained. in all the house there is no central light, all the lights being at the side. in the upper story as well as the lower, the wide flooring has been retained, as it was found in such excellent condition it could easily be used. [illustration] [illustration: two noteworthy chambers] the steeple-topped andirons in the simple fireplace, the painted mirror, and the old brass candlesticks of one chamber are most appropriately chosen. the field bed has a canopy of white with ball fringe which is an exact replica of the old-time draping. rag mats have been used for the floor; they are not the common braided ones but woven rugs which are more suitable. alcoved recesses are shown on either side of the fireplace; in one of them a six-legged, high chest of drawers with china steps, designed about , shows drop handles, and is ornamented with rare old family china. on the opposite side is a wing or martha washington chair of the sheraton type. the bureau, , is a fine example of the period, while the swell-front, hepplewhite bureau with the oval, pressed-brass handles and the painted mirror above are in conformity with the general scheme. a banister-backed chair with a rush bottom stands at one side of the bed. very unusual is the colonial wall-paper which is found in a second chamber, while eighteenth-century andirons are used in the fireplace which is still of the original size and which shows a plain colonial mantel. in this chamber, as in the other, there is a very plain wainscot of boards placed horizontally. an empire bed which has wonderfully beautiful carving is shown in this room, and also a very unusual chair known as a comb-back rocker and dating about . the rugs here are of the arts and crafts style, while the bureau and writing-table have cabriole legs and secret drawers, the central one with rising sun or fan carving. every piece in this house is genuine, for they all are heirlooms or pieces that have been carefully chosen, since the owner is an expert in determining period and correct types. it is a well-known fact that to-day one has to be a careful student of furniture not to be deceived. the popularity of the colonial period, more especially since the vogue of the modified colonial house, has led many a fakir to reproduce the lines of the genuine antique. skilful workmen are employed to manufacture these pieces, and they are able, by imitating worm-holes, dentation, and other distinguishing marks, to put on the market pieces whose genuineness even the antique dealer is puzzled to decide. all through the country the value of antiques is becoming better and better known, so that it is far more difficult to obtain bargains than it was even five years ago. to-day, so great has grown the demand, people who before were unaware of the worth of their heirlooms have been led to overestimate their value and they now ask fabulous sums for pieces hitherto neglected and ignored. chapter xxii the howland s. chandler house when your house is remodeled, be careful what kind of paint you use for both outside and inside finish. a variation from the right tone will mar the whole effect. so much depends on this that one should not copy from houses of to-day but turn back to the style of a century ago, so that in this particular, at least, the house shall correspond with the old colonial idea. few, if any, care to use a weathered exterior, that is, unless the scientifically treated shingles that will soon turn a silver gray are employed. there are two reasons why your house should be painted: one is that it preserves the wood and if rightly treated is fireproof; the second is that it gives the finish a far better appearance than it would have without paint. every house needs paint of some kind to improve its appearance, whether it be oil paint or stain. there are many different brands found to-day, and they are of every conceivable color, so that you have a wide range of choice. it is always safe to use one made by a reliable concern or one hand-mixed, if both white lead and linseed oil are absolutely pure. there is nothing more variable in quality than paint, and even experts are puzzled at times and it is necessary to have a chemical analysis in order to determine between good and bad. for exterior use the proper kind should be a mixture of pure white lead and linseed oil or pure zinc white and linseed oil. manufacturers, more especially those of white lead paints, will insist that theirs is the only kind to use, and the zinc paint producers will do likewise, but a reliable dealer or architect will inform you correctly. one of the first colors to be used on any house is white,--in all probability there is nothing as durable as this. the reason for it is that the ingredients used have greater wearing qualities than any of the other pigments. there is a complaint that it is apt to yellow with age and become discolored, but in reality it remains unchanged longer than almost any other color. green blinds secure the best effect, or trellises that relieve the monotony of the white. this the old farmers realized, and it is one of the reasons why it was so much used. if your house is shingled, there are a great many shades of gray that need a white trim, and there is no color that harmonizes with every other as well as this. there are a great many reliable stains for shingles; do not let the painter mix the stain himself, because that carefully prepared by a manufacturer is generally superior both in color and durability. in mixing these stains, both creosote and oil are used, there being on the market to-day excellent brands of both kinds. the repainting of the country house is a necessary evil that recurs periodically. we tire of one color as we weary of an old dress, and this leads to a different tone of coloring each time. for instance, the white house is changed possibly to a colonial yellow or a gray, and with its new coat it seems to take on a new lease of life. the fall of the year is the best time for the painting, as the dry october weather is especially suited for good results. during the summer months there are insects flying about and too much dust. by october the outside has had time to cool after the heat and is in good condition for treatment. the time to paint is before the house gets shabby, when the paint is powdery or porous. it can be tested with either a knife or the finger, and if the old paint chips off, soaks up water, or can be rubbed off like a powder with the finger, it no longer protects the wood and needs another coat. with this covering of paint, wood will last practically forever, and as lumber is expensive, it is greater economy to keep your house properly painted. the cost of painting is a serious problem to many house owners and is never alluded to by an agent when selling a house; to the novice it does not occur, so eager is he to secure for himself a new home. at the end of the second year, its freshness is dimmed through exposure to wind and storm, and at the end of the third season, it is shabby and needs a new covering. in attempting to figure the cost, it is necessary to ascertain the square feet on the outside. any painter has a rule for this, making allowances for errors. windows and doors are considered as plain surfaces that are to be treated to paint even though only the sills and sides are in need of it. good exterior paint costs from three to five dollars a gallon, and a painter can put on one hundred square yards in a day for the first coat and seventy-five for the second. this gives the house owner a little idea of what it will cost, although it is best to make a regular bargain with the architect to cover this expense. for interior finish, white is always preferable. it seems to be the proper treatment for any colonial home. to be sure, if you are planning for a den, a dark color can be used and also a stain for the kitchen part of the house. in searching for a farmhouse to be converted into a country home, mr. howland s. chandler of boston chanced upon an old house at needham, massachusetts, that seemed to meet his requirements. it was a square-framed house, two stories and a half in height, with a kitchen ell at the rear. it was not handsome but quite ordinary in appearance and without any unusual exterior features. it was not even a seventeenth-century house but was built in , and it was in such good condition and the frame was so sound that it hardly deserved the term "old." [illustration: the howland s. chandler house] the farmhouse fronted the southwest, so that its main rooms were dark, with little sunlight, while the rear was flooded with light and very cheerful. there were delightful views from this part of the house which overlooked a merry, gurgling brook, the mill-pond, and the distant hills. but this idea had not entered the minds of the former owners, who had given little consideration to the subject and with no forethought had inserted only two small windows, one in the kitchen and the other in a bedroom. evidently their idea was to sacrifice view to arrangement, for to their minds, houses should be built parallel to the street and with the "best room" at the front. [illustration: the howland s. chandler house--end view] the grounds showed little care, but in remodeling a brick-paved terrace was arranged at the left just outside the original parlor. an old-fashioned garden was planted near the kitchen end, and a trellis enclosed the clothes-yard. the grounds in front of the house have been laid out in well-trimmed lawns, while a brick walk now leads from the sidewalk to the house. a feature of the house is a large, overhanging elm which affords shade and picturesqueness; fresh shrubbery has been attractively planted, and vines trained to clamber over latticed work and the trellised porch which is at the front of the house. dormer windows have been added to the roof, and the simple little farmhouse has been converted into a most attractive all-the-year-round home. in the process of remodeling, the original house was left unchanged, and additions were depended upon for development. a good-sized porch with brick floor and high-backed settles at the side replaced the unattractive, old-time entrance, while the dormers relieved the long, monotonous roof-line and afforded light to the apartment constructed from the formerly unfinished attic space. just outside the original parlor, beside the shed space, an addition has been built that runs midway of the shed to the line of the chimney in the parlor, and without a large covered veranda is added. to the kitchen ell an addition of about four feet was made to provide space for a vestibule within the new back door and also to secure extra space at one side of the room so that a window might be inserted. due attention was paid to the rear, in the matter of windows, and here were laid out the rooms which would be most frequently used. in consequence of the rearrangement, the interior is practically wholly changed. the shed was remodeled into a charming sewing-room that opens at one side on to a veranda, and the new addition was combined with the little bedroom and a small portion from the parlor to secure space for a library. this made possible a doorway to the dining-room and sewing-room, and a broad open space to the living-room. [illustration: the sun-parlor] the old-time parlor showed two deep closets beside the fireplace. one of these was torn out, a window was inserted in the outer wall, and a seat was built beneath it. the other was made into an opening into the library. this arrangement secured additional light and at the same time permitted a glimpse of the picturesque rear view. in the dining-room several alterations were made, resulting in a complete change in shape and size. oblique walls replace the two rear corners, one containing the doorway leading to the library, and the other affording entrance and furnishing some space for the china closet which was inserted between the dining-room and the kitchen. the single window on the southeast was replaced by a semi-octagonal bow recess. this was fitted with small lights of glass and affords space for the grouping of many plants and incidentally adds a touch of distinct picturesqueness. the kitchen received its share of consideration during the process of remodeling, resulting in the substitution of a pleasant, convenient apartment in place of the conspicuous, ill-lighted, original one. there was added at the right of the vestibule a built-in refrigerator, and about the side walls of the room newly built-in cupboards were grouped. two important changes in the body of the house consisted in the enlargement of the cellar, made necessary by the greater space required for the modern heating apparatus, and in the substitution of the original, small-paned type of window for the two panes which had been inserted to take the place of the old ones. [illustration: the hall] the entrance hall at the front of the house is a small apartment hung with landscape paper of the colonial period; a staircase with one landing and a half turn in its flight, showing white balusters and mahogany top, leads to the second story. in the lighting, the colonial idea is attained by the use of a lantern, while under the stairs is a closet opened by a brass door-pull. [illustration: the living room] at the left is the living-room, with dull red hangings and a white wainscot that provides a fitting background for the wonderful old mahogany found in this room. there are some rare dutch chairs sometimes known as queen anne from the opening that is found on either side of the central slat, designed about , and the earliest of that design. there is a refreshing simplicity and a dignified air to this room, brought about in part by the simple colonial fireplace with its steeple-topped andirons, and the well-spaced windows that let plenty of sunlight into the apartment. on the opposite side of the room is the dining-room which is finished with tapestry hanging in dark green, brown, and yellow, with a design of pine cones and needles that contrasts prettily with the white wainscot. a slight reduction in the height of the window casing affords an opportunity to carry the wall-paper and moldings across the windows and doors, thus avoiding the cramped effect of too high window arrangement. the original floor has been replaced by a new one, and a cheerful atmosphere has been given to the room by opening a semicircular bay up for a small conservatory which can be closed or opened at pleasure by the use of glass doors. [illustration: the den] the library has been finished in dark brown with low bookcases extending around part of the room, corresponding in color with the woodwork. the hangings are tan color, and the furniture is partly colonial and partly modern, to meet the demands of a den. this is one of the pleasantest rooms in the house, having a delightful outlook; combined with the sewing-room and living-room opening from it, it makes a charming and conveniently arranged interior. [illustration: the kitchen] the kitchen at the rear of the house has been altered with the idea of saving steps. this is shown in the numberless closets at the right, for flour barrel and other supplies. at the left is the kitchen cupboard, while the china is in the built-in closet above and the groceries in the drawers below. the sink has a shelf underneath to hold the dishpan and drainer. the whole color tone, including the beamed ceiling, is a dark stain with lighter wall finish. this house is an interesting example of successful and artistic remodeling, the interior and exterior being in harmony and giving the result of a comfortable and attractive home which was secured at much less cost than if an entirely new house had been built. * * * * * the houses described in this book cover but the merest fraction of the homes and summer places evolved from old-fashioned farmhouses. they are scattered broadcast through new england, sometimes isolated on roads which still retain their country atmosphere, sometimes surrounded by the town which has outgrown its early limits, and sometimes the center of a large estate. each has its individual charm, its special beauties, but wherever found these remodeled farmhouses testify to the stanchness of early american workmanship and to the appreciation of modern americans for their forefathers' handiwork. certainly many a one of the latter "builded better than he knew." index adams family, . hannah, . adden, w. p., . adden house, w. p., - . age, . chimney, - . hardware, , . location, . porches, - . remodeling, - . type, . andirons, , , , , , - , , , , , , , . hessian, . arches, , . attics, , , , , , . balusters, - . barns, , , - , , , - . barnard house, george e., - . breakfast-room, . color scheme, . den, . dining-room, . location, . picture effect, , . remodeling, - . bathrooms, , , , , , , , . beams, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . bedrooms, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . billiard-room, . blinds, , . inside, . paneled, . slat, , . solid, , . venetian, . boston, massachusetts, , , , , . boulder farm, - . arch, . history, - . improvements, - . location, , . parlor, . bradford, governor, . breakfast-rooms, , , , - . brett house, franklin, - . age, . dining-room, . floors, . heating, . living-room, . location, . paneling, . repairs, . type, . bricks, , . brown, doctor, . brown, davenport, . brown house, davenport, - . age, . bedroom, . dining-room, . furnishings, , , , . grounds, - . living-room, . location, . nursery, . porches, , , . remodeling, - . type, . brown, deacon philip, , . burroughs, george, . cape cod, , . cataumet, massachusetts, . ceilings, beamed, , , , , , , , , , - , , . vaulted, . cellars, , , , . chambers, see bedrooms. chandler house, howard s., - . age, . dining-room, , . grounds, . kitchen, . library, . living-room, . location, . remodeling, - . type, . views, , , . charles river, massachusetts, . chimneys, , , , , , , , , - , , , , , - , , , , . clapboards, , - , . closets, , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , . chimney, , , , . china, , , , , , , , , , , , . corner, , , , , - . linen, . nightcap, , . secret, , , . wainscot, , . concord, new hampshire, . cottages, fishermen's, . "flecked," , . cupboards, see closets. curtis, frederick h., . curtis house, frederick h., - . age, . furnishings, . hardware, . heating, . lighting, . lines of, - . location, - . new wing, . remodeling, - . stairway, . veranda, . danvers, massachusetts, . dens, , , , , , , , , , . dining-rooms, , , , , , - , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . doors, , , , , - , . batten, , . french, , , . front, , , , , , , , , , . glass, , , , , , , . panel, . secret, . door-frames, , , , . door lights, bull's-eye, , . fanlight, , , . side, , . top, . transom, . dover, massachusetts, , , . drainage, . drawing-room, . dudley, harry, . duxbury, massachusetts, , . ells, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . brick, . everett, edward, . farmhouses, architectural treatment, , , , . axis, - , . colonial, , . construction, - , , , . cottages, , . examination, - . frame, , . georgian, , , , , . heating, , , - , , . individuality, - , , . lighting, , , , , , , . lines, , , , , , , , . location, , , , , , - , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . painting, - . remodeling, , - , - , - , - , , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - . fireback, . fireplace fittings, , , , , , , , - , , . fireplaces, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . fences, , , , , , , . flagstones, , , . fletcher, grace, . floors, , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , . brick, , . tiled, , , . flower-boxes, , , . french and indian war, . frieze, , , , . fuller, mrs. genevieve, . furnaces, . furniture, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , . adams, . chippendale, , , , . empire, , , , , , , . field, , , . hepplewhite, , , , , , . home-made, . jacobean, . mission, , . old-fashioned, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . queen anne, , . sheraton, , , , , , , , , , , . white enamel, . willow, , , , , . gables, , , , . gage, doctor homer, . gardens, , , , - , . old-fashioned, , , , , , , , , , . water, , , . georgetown, massachusetts, . girandoles, , . gloucester, massachusetts, . green meadows, - . age, . alterations, - . dining-room, . door, . heating, . living-room, . location, . reception-room, . type, . wing, . grills, , . grounds, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , . hall, george d., . house, see lone tree farm. hallways, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . hangings, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . hardware, , , , - . harvey, governor matthew, . heating, by fireplaces, . hot-air, , , . hot-water, , , . steam, , . stoves, . hinges, h, , , . h and l, , , , , , . strap, . hollis, maine, . hopkins house, walter scott, - . age, . attic, . closets, , , . dining-room, , . grounds, , . hardware, , . lighting, . living-rooms, , , . location, parlor, . remodeling, - . type, . hopkinton, new hampshire, . howard, philip b., . hunt, william h., . ingraham, george hunt, . inches, doctor charles e., . inches house, charles e., - . age, . den, . dining-room, . furnishings, , , , , . gardens, . grounds, , , . living-room, . location, . remodeling, - . swimming-pool, . value, . whipping-tree, . ipswich, massachusetts, . iristhorpe, - . age, . architectural treatment, . guest house, . iris motive, . lines, , . location, . remodeling, - . jewett house, see limovody. josephine, empress, . kelly, william, . killam and hopkins (architects), . kimball, mrs. william otis, . kitchens, , , , , , , , , , , , , . kittredge, mabel l., . kittredge house, - . chimney, , . furnishings, . lines, . location, . remodeling, - . size, . knockers, . lafayette, general, . latches, , , , , , , . lavatories, , . lean-to, dutch, . libraries, , , , , , . lighting, . candles, , . electric, . lamps, , . lanterns, , , . limovady, - . age, . bedrooms, , . lines, . location, . lounge room, . missionary room, . "priest hole," . remodeling, - . studio, . lincoln, roland c., . mrs. roland c., . little orchard, - . age, . china, . fireplace, . furnishings, , . location, . name, . remodeling, - . staircase, . living-rooms, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . outdoor, , , , , , , , , , , , , , . loeffler, charles martin, , , , . loeffler house, - . atmosphere, , . grounds, , . location, , , . music room, . remodeling, - . loggia, . londonderry, new hampshire, , . lone tree farm, - . age, . dining-room, . furnishings, - . grounds, . living-room, . location, . sitting-room, . smoke-house, , . remodeling, - . vistas, , . wing, . magnolia, massachusetts, . manchester-by-the-sea, massachusetts, . mantels, , , , . medfield, massachusetts, , . morning-rooms, , , , , , . music-rooms, , , . nawn farm, - . alterations, - . chimney, . dining-room, . living-room, . location, , . windows, , . needham, massachusetts, . newburyport, massachusetts, . new york city, . north duxbury, massachusetts, . nurseries, , . office, . out-buildings, , , , . ovens, brick, , , , , , , , . dutch, . overmantel, . paint, , , , , , , , , , , , , - . paneling, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . japanese, . parlors, , , , , , . sun, , . partitions, . removal of, , , , , , , , , , . pergolas, , , , . pewter, , , . piazza, see porches. plate-rail, . porch columns, , , , , , , , , , . porches, , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . colonial, , , , , . georgian, , , , . sleeping, , , , , , , , , , , , . types of, . porch railings, . portico, . putnam, john pickering, . quillcote, - . barn, , . china, , . furnishings, , , . location, . type, . wall-papers, , . quincy, massachusetts, . radiators, . reading, massachusetts, , . reception-rooms, , , , , . registers, . revolution, american, , , , . french, . roofs, , , , , - , , , , , , , , , . flat, . gambrel, , , . hipped, . overhang, , . pitched (gable), , , , , , , , . rugs, arts and crafts, . fur, . modern, . oriental, , , , , . rag, , , , , , , , , , , . salem, massachusetts, , . saugus, massachusetts, . screen, japanese, . servants' rooms, , , , , , , . service departments, , , , , , , , , , , , , . serving-room, . shaw, mrs. josephine hartwell, , . shingles, , , , , , . shrewsbury, massachusetts, , , . shrubbery, , , , , . shutters, see blinds. sill, . sitting-room, . sleeping-porches, see porches. smith, nora, . south dennis, massachusetts, . south yarmouth, massachusetts, , . spencer, robert, . spencer house, - . fence, . furniture, , . lighting, . location, . new wing, , . windows, . staircases, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . stoves, . stud, , , , . low, , , , , , , , , . three acres, - . living-room, . location, , . restoration, - . studio, . type, . vistas, . windows, , . tiles, . "tired of work" (picture), . trees, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . verandas, see porches. wainscot, , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , . wakefield, f. m., . walls, , , , , , , , , , , , - , , . burlap, , . exterior, , . grass-cloth, , , . painted, , , , , . papered, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . plastered, , , . sheathed, , . stone, , , , , , . tapestry, . wall-papers, , , , , , , , - . castellated, . colonial, , , , , , , . foliage, . georgian, . japanese, . landscape, , , , , , , , , . morris, , . wall-papers, mother goose, . walpole, massachusetts, . water supply, , . webster, daniel, . white house (salem), . wiggin, kate douglas, , . willowdale, - . additions, . age, . dining-room, . garden, . lines, . location, . parlor, . tree, . woodwork, . window casings, . muntins, , . windows, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . bay, , , , . casement, , , , , . dormer, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . eyebrow, . french, , , , , , , . gable, . oval, , . small-paned, , , , , , , . triple, , , , . window-seats, , , , , , , , , . wings, see ells. wood, cypress, . gum, . hemlock, . oak, , , . fumed, . swamp, , . pine, hard, . north carolina, , . pumpkin, , . swamp, . white, , , , . woodwork, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , . worcester, massachusetts, . wren, sir christopher, . wright, henry w., . wright house, - . furniture, - . lighting, , . location, . remodeling, - . type, , .